[BRARY 


THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 


GIFT  OF  MRS.  WILBUR  JACOBS 
COLLECTION  OF  HER  MOTHER, 
MRS.  AUGUSTA  G.  STANLEY. 


THIS      BOOK 

BELONGS  TO 


THE  NEW 


STUDENT'S  REFERENCE  WORK 


FOR 


TEACHERS,  STUDENTS  AND  FAMILIES 


EDITED  BY 

CHANDLER  B.  BEACH,  A.M.,  LL.D. 
•/ 

.     ASSOCIATE  EDITOR 

FRANK  MORTON  MCMURRY,  PH.D. 


VOLUME  I 


CHICAGO 
.  E.   COMPTON  AND   COMPANY 


THE  STUDENT'S  CYCLOPAEDIA 

Copyright,  1893,  by  C.  B.  Beach 


THE  STUDENT'S  REFERENCE  WORK 

Copyright,  1901,  by  C.  B.  Beach 


THE  NEW  STUDENT'S  REFERENCE  WORK 


Copyright,  1909,  by  C.  B.  Beach 
Copyright,  1911,  by  C.  B.  Beach 
Copyright,  1912,  by  C.  B.  Beach 


Copyright,  1912,  by  F.  E.  Compton  and  Company 
Copyright,  1913,  by  F.  E.  Compton  and  Company 
Copyright,  1914,  by  F.  E.  Compton  and  Company 
Copyright,  1915,  by  F.  E.  Compton  and  Company 
Copyright,  191 7,. by  F.  E.  Compton  and  Company 
Copyright,  1918,  by  F.  E.  Compton  and  Company 


v,\ 


EDITORS  OF  DEPARTMENTS 

/    \ 

BOTANY 

JOHN  MERLE  COULTER,  Ph.D.,  LL.D;, 
Head  Professor  of  Botany,  University  of  Chicago 

\^_^  PHYSICS  AND  ASTRONOMY 
HENRY  CREW,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  Physics,  Northwestern  University. 

GEOLOGY 

ROLLIN  D.  SALISBURY,  A.M., 
Professor  of  Geology,  University  of  Chicago 

ZOOLOGY 

WILLIAM  ALBERT  LOCY,  Ph.D.,  Sc.D., 
Professor  of  Zoology,  Northwestern  University. 

CHEMISTRY 

HORACE  LEMUEL  WELLS,  A.M., 
Professor  Analytical  Chemistry  and  Metallurgy  Sheffield  Scientific  School, 

Yale  University. 

ELECTRICAL  ENGINEERING 

ALBERT  PRUDEN  CARMAN,  Sc.D., 

Professor  of  Electrical  Engineering,  University  of  Illinois. 

CANADIAN  DEPARTME 
HON.  RICHARD  HARCOURT,  M.A.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D., 

Ex-Minister  of  Education,  Ontario. 

BRITISH  COLONIES  IN  AFRICA  AND  AUSTRALIA 

GRAEME  MERCER  ADAM, 
Founder  of  the  Canadian  Educational  Monthly. 


\ 


PARTIAL  LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS 


HON.  F.  D.  COBURN, 
Per  twenty  years  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Kan. 

E.  N.  HENDERSON,  Ph.D., 

Professor  in  Philosophy  of  Education, 

Adelphi  College,  Brooklyn. 

HENRY  SUZALLO,  Ph.D., 

President,  University  of  Washington. 

Formerly  Professor  of  Education,  Columbia. 

B.  R.  SIMPSON,  Ph.D., 

Teacher  of  Psychology  and  Principles  of  Edu- 
cation, Training  School  for  Teachers, 
Brooklyn. 

PERCIVAL  R.  COLE,  Ph.D., 

Vice-principal  Sidney  Teachers  College 

New  South  Wales,  Australia. 

A.  R.  TAYLOR,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 
President  James  Milliken  University. 


C.  A.  McMuRRY,  Ph.D., 

Professor  Elementary  Education,  Peabody 

College,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

EDWARD  C.  ELLIOTT,  Ph.D., 

Chancellor,  University  of  Montana. 

Formerly  Professor  of  Education,  Wisconsin. 

T.  D.  WOOD,  A.M.,  M.D., 

Professor  of  Physical  Education, 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 

C.  H.  ROBISON,  A.M., 

Professor  of  Science,  State  Normal  School 
Montclair,  N.  J. 

PERCY  HUGHES,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Philosophy, 

Lehigh  University. 

GEORGE  WILLIAM  EGGERS, 

Director  of  The  Art  Institute 

of  Chicago 


'  .'  •  • 


Miss  EMMA  M.  CHURCH, 

Director  School  of  Applied  and  Normal  Art, 

Chicago. 

MRS.  A.  S.  HALL, 

Museum  Instructor,  the  Art  Institute  of 
Chicago. 

CHARLES  H.  FARNSWORTH, 

Professor  in  Music, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

CALVIN  BRAINARD  CADY, 

Lecturer  in  Music,  Teachers'  College, 

Columbia  University. 

H.  E.  BARD,  A.M., 

El  Ministerio  de  Justicia,  Instruccion  y  Culto 
Lima,  Peru. 

MRS.  ELEANOR  ATKINSON, 

Author  of  The  Boyhood  of  Lincoln, 

Greyfriar's  Bobby,  etc. 

E.   E.   GlLTNER, 

Head  of  Department  of  History, 

New  York  Training  School  for  Teachers, 

New  York  City. 

Miss  ALICE  WESSA,  B.  S., 
Head  Department  of  Geography,  State  Normal 

School,  Buffalo;  formerly 

Instructor  Hebrew  Training  School  for 

Girls,  New  York  City. 

CLYDE  FURST,  A.M., 

Secretary  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the 

Advancement  of  Teaching,  New  York  City. 

B.  B.  BURRITT,  A.M., 

Director  Department  of  Social  Welfare,  New 
York  Association  for  Improving  the  Con- 
dition of  the  Poor;  formerly  of  the 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

CHARLES  D.  HINE, 

Secretary  State  Board  of  Education, 

Connecticut. 

EDWARD  HYATT, 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
California. 

JAMES  H.  FUQUA,  SR.,  A.M.,  LL.D., 

Formerly  State  Superintendent  of  Public 

Instruction,  Kentucky. 


FRANK  EVANS, 

Superintendent  City  Schools, 
Spartanburg,  S.  C. 

KATHERINE  L.  CRAIG, 
Author  of  Craig's  Primary  Geography, 
and  Ex-State  Superintendent  Public  Instruc- 
tion, Colorado. 

CHARLES  H.  ALBERT,  A.B., 
State  Normal  School,  Bloomsburg,  Pa. 

THOMAS  C.  MILLER, 
Principal    Shepherd    College,  State    Normal 

School ,  and 

Ex-State  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
West  Virginia. 

KATHERINE  POPE, 
Research  Specialist. 

W.   H.   AlTKEN, 

Manager  Monotype  Department, 
The  Franklin  Company,  Chicago. 

HON.  W.  W.  STETSON, 

Former  State  Superintendent  of  Schools, 

Maine. 

CHARLES  G.  WETHERBEE, 

Prince  School, 

Boston. 

J.  J.  DOYNE, 

President  State  Normal  School, 

Conway,  Ark.,  and 

Ex-State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
Arkansas. 

WARREN  UPHAM, 
Archaeologist  Minnesota  Historical  Society. 

MALCOLM  MCDOWELL, 

Director  of  Publicity,  Southern  Settlement  and 
Development  Company, 

Baltimore. 

Formerly  Secretary  Central  Trust  Company 
of  Illinois, 
Chicago. 

FREDERIC  PERRY  NOBLE,  Ph.D., 
Author  The  Redemption  of  Africa. 

ROBERT  W.  WOOD,  A.B., 

Professor  of  Experimental  Physics 
Johns  Hopkins  University. 


WILLIAM  PAXTON  BURRIS,  A.  M., 
Dean  of  Teachers  College,  University  of 

Cincinnati. 
SIR  HARRY  HAMILTON  JOHNSTON,  G.  C.  M.  G.; 

K.  C.  B., 
British  Administrator,  Explorer  and  Author. 


REVISIONS  BY  EMINENT  MEN  AND  WOMEN 

Absolut  accuracy,  as  well  as  simplicity  and  charm  of  style,  have  been  kept  in  mind  in  the 
preparation  of  this  work,  as  illustrated  by  the  following  examples  of  revisions  of  our  articles  by 
eminent  men  and  women  in  this  country  and  in  Europe  on  vital  topics,  current  movements  and 
great  achievements  with  which  their  names  are  identified. 

THE  INCOME  TAX   LAW  AND   HOW  TO  APPLY  IT. 
Revised  by  THOMAS  B.  PATON,  General  Counsel  of  the  American  Bankers  Association. 

An  analysis  of  the  law  which  will  enable  the  layman  to  answer  for  himself  the  great  majority  of  questions  arising 
out  of  its  application  to  his  income. 

THE  FLYING  MACHINE  AND  ITS   "MECHANICAL  BRAIN." 

Revised  by  ORVILLE  WRIGHT,  joint  inventor  with  his  brother  of  the  first  practical  air  ship 
and  of  the  wonderful  "mechanical  brain"  called  the  Stabilizer,  patented  in  1913. 

It  is  believed  by  experts  that  the  Stabilizer  may  prove  fully  as  important  as  the  aeroplane 
itself. 

THE  TRUTH  ABOUT  RADIUM. 

An  'article  specially  prepared  for  The  Student's  by  DR.  WORTHINGTON  SEATON  RUSSELL, 
Research  Fellow  and  Chief  X-Ray  Department,  New  York  Skin  and  Cancer  Hospital. 

Great  harm  is  done  by  misunderstanding  as  to  its  virtues  in  the  treatment  of  cancer  and  kindred  diseases;  so 
that  Dr.  Russell's  article  is  one  which,  for  the  public  good,  should  be  given  the  widest  possible  publicity. 

THE  TARIFF  OF  1913. 

Revised  under  the  direction  of  HON.  OSCAR  W.  UNDERWOOD,  Chairman  of  the  Committee 
on  Ways  and  Means  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

Under  its  proper  heading  will  be  found  a  character  sketch  of  the  man  under  whose  leadership  this  vital  measure 
was  enacted,  revised  by  Mr.  Underwood, 

MEXICO,   CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA  —  PAST,   PRESENT   AND   FUTURE. 
Revised  under  the  direction  of  JOHN  BARRETT,  Director  General  of  the  Pan  American  Union. 

"Our  Southern  neighbors  in  this  Hemisphere,"  says  Mr.  Barrett,  "will  enjoy,  because  of  the  opening  of  the 
Panama  Canal,  the  greatest  material,  commercial  and  economic  development  which  any  group  of  nations  has  ever 
experienced  in  the  history  of  the  world." 

THE   DOMINION   OF  CANADA  AND  ITS  RESOURCES. 

Revised  under  the  direction  of  HON.  GEORGE  E.  FOSTER,  Minister  of  Trade  and  Commerce 
of  the  Dominion. 

Our  articles  on  the  various  Provinces  have  been  revised  by  or  under  the  direction  of  the  Lieutenant  Governor 
of  each  Province. 

STORY   OF  NELSON,  ENGLAND'S  GREATEST  SEAMAN. 

Revised  by  ADMIRAL  SIR  CYPRIAN  BRIDGE,  G.C.B.,  K.C.B.,  retired;  formerly  member  of 
the  Committee  on  Heavy  Guns,  Explosives,  Armor  Plate  and  Projectiles,  Commander-in-Chief  of 
the  Chinese  Station,  etc. 

THE  NEW  FEDERATED   BANKING  SYSTEM. 
Revised  by  THOMAS  B.  PATON,  General  Counsel  of  the  American   Bankers  Association. 

A  clear  and  concise  description  of  the  Currency  Law  and  its  operation ;  the  most  important  change  in  the  Banking 
System  of  the  United  States  since  Alexander  Hamilton,  and  a  subject  of  vital  interest  to  every  business  man  and  every 
student  of  American  Institutions. 

THE  ENGLISH  WORKINGMEN'S   INSURANCE   LAW. 

Revised  by  the  Rx.  HON.  DAVID  LLOYD-GEORGE,  Prime  Minister  of  England,  formerly 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  Minister  of  War  and  Munitions,  etc. 

ARBITRATION  AND  INDUSTRIAL  PEACE. 

Revised  by  FRANK  P.  WALSH,  Chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Industrial  Relations. 
THE  POST  OFFICE,  POSTAL  SAVINGS  BANKS  AND  THE  PARCEL  POST. 
Revised  under  the  direction  of  HON.  ALBERT  S.  BURLESON,  Postmaster  General. 

THE  CULTURE  AND  MARKETING  OF  COTTON 

Contributed  by  G.  S.  MELOY,  Office  of  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

WORK  OF  THE  WOMEN'S  CLUBS. 

Revised  by  MRS.  MARY  I.  WOOD,  Manager  Information  Bureau,  General  Federation  of 
Women's  Clubs,  Vice-President  New  Hampshire  Woman's  Suffrage  Association  and  Member 
Executive  Committee  State  Conference  of  Charities  and  Corrections. 


THE  PROGRESS  OP  WOMAN'S  SUFFRAGE. 

Revised  by  FRANCES  MAULE  BJORKMAN,  Secretary  National  American  Woman's  Suffrage 
Association. 

WORK  OF  FRANCES  WILLARD  AND  THE  WOMAN'S  CHRISTIAN 

TEMPERANCE  UNION. 

Revised  by  MRS.  LILLIAN  M.  N.  STEVENS,  President  of  the  Women's  Christian  Temperance 
Union. 

THE  PARENT-TEACHER  ASSOCIATIONS  AND  THEIR  WORK. 

Revised  by  MRS.  FREDERICK  K.  SCHOFF,  President  of  the  National  Congress  of  Mothers 
and  Parent-Teacher  Associations. 

THE  PANAMA  CANAL. 

Revised  by  MAJOR-GENERAL  G.  W.  GOETHALS,  Chief  Engineer  Panama  Canal,  Chairman 
Isthmian  Commission  and  First  Civil  Governor  of  the  Canal  Zone. 

THE  CHILDREN  OF  TOPSY  TURVY  LAND.     (Child  Life  in  Japan) 
Revised  by  His  Excellency  VISCOUNT  CHINDA,  Formerly  Japanese  Ambassador  to  the  U.  S. 

THE  BOY  SCOUTS  OF  AMERICA. 

With  Illustrations  by  the  Chief  Scout,  Ernest  Thompson-Seton,  showing  how  to  build  a 
fire  without  matches,  etc. 

Revised  by  GEORGE  H.  MERRITT,  Secretary  to  the  Editorial  Board,  Boy  Scouts  of  America. 

STORY  OF  THOMAS  EDISON,   THE  WIZARD   INVENTOR. 

Revised  by  WILLIAM  H.  MEADOWCROFT,  of  the  Edison  Laboratories,  Author  of  "The  Boy- 
hood of  Edison." 

STORY  OF  LUTHER  BURBANK  AND  HIS  WORK. 

Revised  by  MR.  BURBANK,  the  Plant  Wizard  who  has  given  us  the  "White  Blackberry," 
the  "Thornless  Cactus"  and  other  wonders  of  the  plant  world. 

STORY  OF  THE  LIFE  OF  GRANT. 
Revised  by  U.  S.  GRANT,  JR. 

NEW  YORK  CITY,   THE  METROPOLIS   OF  THE  NATION. 
Revised  by  FREDERICK  B.  DE  BERARD,  Statistician  of  the  Merchants  Association  of  New 
York  City. 

CHICAGO,   THE  METROPOLIS   OF  THE  WEST.' 

Revised  under  the  direction  of  HUBERT  F.  MILLER,  Business  Manager,  Chicago  Association 
of  Commerce. 

THE  STORY   OF  FRANCE. 
Revised  by  His  Excellency  J.  J.  JUSSERAND,  French  Ambassador  to  the  United  States. 

STORY  OF  ROBERT  PEARY,   DISCOVERER  OF  THE  NORTH  POLE. 
Revised  by  ADMIRAL  PEARY.    A  thrilling  "true  story"  of  daring,  persistence  and  scientific 
skill. 

STORY  OF  ROALD  AMUNDSEN,  DISCOVERER  OF  THE  SOUTH  POLE. 
Revised  by  CAPTAIN  AMUNDSEN,  the  (intrepid,  modern  Norseman  with  "sea-blue  eyes"  who 
finished  the  work  begun  by  Sebastian  Cabot  four  centuries  ago. 

CHINA  — AN  ANCIENT  PEOPLE  AND  THEIR   NEW  REPUBLIC. 
Revised  by  HON.  W.  J.  CALHOUN,  Ex-Minister  to  China. 

STORY  OF  HILL,   "COLOSSUS  OF  ROADS." 

Revised  by  PRESIDENT  HILL,  the  Scotch-Irish  Lad  from  Canada,  who  dreamed  a  great  dream 
and  made  it  come  true. 

THE  COMMERCE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Revised  by  A.  H.  BALDWIN,  Ex-Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce, 
United  States  Department  of  Commerce.    Now  U.  S.  Commercial  Attache,  London. 

TRADE  UNIONS  AND  TRADE  UNIONISM  THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD. 
Revised  by  SAMUEL  GOMPERS,  President  American  Federation  of  Labor. 

THE  RISE  OF  MODERN  JAPAN. 
Revised  by  His  Excellency  VISCOUNT  CHINDA,  Formerly  Japanese  Ambassador  to  the  U.  S. 


A.  R.  TAYLOR,  PH.D.,  LL.D.      HON.  R.  HARCOURT,  M.A.,  K.C.,  LL.D.  JOHN  M.  COULTER,  PH.D.,  LL.D. 

H.  E.  BARD,  A.M.  CHANDLER  B.  BEACH,  A.M.  E.  N.  HENDERSON,  PH.D. 

ROLLIN  D.  SALISBURY,  A.M.  B.  R.  SIMPSON,  PH.D.  HON.  F.  D.  COBURN 

EDITORS  A:;D  CONTRIBUTORS,  THE  NEW  STUDENTS  REFERENCE  WORK 


GRAEME  MERCER  ADAM 

C.  H.  ROBISON,  A.M. 
JAMES  E.  CLARK,  M.PD. 


WM.  B.  MERRITT 

FRANK  MORTON  MCMURRY,  PH.D. 
CHARLES  H.  ALBERT,  A.B. 


JAS.  H.  FUQUA,  S«.,  LL.D. 

HON.  W.  W.  STETSON 
FREDBRIC  P.  NOBLE.  Pa.D. 


EDITORS  AND    CONTRIBUTORS,    THE   NEW    STUDENT'S    REFERENCE    WORK 


J.  J.  BURNS 
J.  G.  BENNETT 
PERCIVAL  R.  COLE,  PH.D. 


CALVIN  BRAINARD  CAOY 

WILLIAM  A.  LOCY,  PH.D.,  Sc.D. 

FRANK  EVANS 


ALBERT  P.  CARMAN,  Sc.D. 

E.  E.  GILTNER.  A.M. 
T.  D.  WOOD,  A.M.,  M.D. 


EDI-TORS  AND    CONTRIBUTORS.    THE    NEW    STUDENT'S    REFERENCE    WORK 


GEORGE  WILLIAM  EGGERS 

KATHERINE  L.  CRAIG 
HORACE  LEMUEL  WELLS,  A.M. 


KATHERIXE  POPE 

HENRY  CREW,  PH.D. 

C.  A.  McMuRRY,  PH.D. 


CHARLES  H.  PARNSWORT 
ELEANOR  ATKINSON 
PERCY  HUGHES,  Pa.D. 


EDITORS  AND    CONTRIBUTORS.    THE    NEW    STUDENT'S    REFERENCE    WORK 


PREFACE 

THE  STUDENT'S  REFERENCE  WORK  has  long  been  known  and  valued 
as  supplying  just  that  reference  material  which  is  needed  by  teachers 
and  pupils  in  elementary  and  secondary  schools.     While  partial  revisions 
have  been  made  from  year  to  year,  yet  in  order  to  keep  fully  abreast  of  the 
times   a  radical   revision    and   the  introduction  of  much  new  material  have 
become  necessary. 

Accordingly  we  now  present  THE  NEW  STUDENT'S  REFERENCE  WORK, 
which  practically  is  a  new  work.  New  material  has  added  more  than  one 
third  to  its  volume,  while  the  articles  which  appeared  in  the  former  work  have 
been  largely  rewritten  and  entirely  reset.  In  its  preparation  we  were  able  to 
secure  the  cooperation  of  specialists  and  educators  whose  standing  will  be 
recognized  upon  inspection  of  our  list  of  editors  and  contributors.  Advantage 
has  been  taken  of  suggestions  which  have  come  to  us  from  many  teachers  during 
years  of  experience  in  the  use  of  the  former  work,  and  it  is  believed  that  the 
present  work  will  be  found  adequate  and  satisfactory. 

C.  B.  B. 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION 


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FOREIGN  CONSONANTS  are  represented  by  the  nearest  English  equivalents. 

THE  PRINCIPAL  ACCENT  is  indicated  by  a  heavy  mark  ',  the  secondary  accent  by  a  lighter 

mark  ',  at  the  end  of  the  syllable. 
SYLLABIC  DIVISION  is  indicated  by  a  light  hyphen. 
COMPOUND  WORDS  have  their  members  joined  by  a  heavy  hyphen. 
(Q.  V.)  is  Latin  for  quod  vide  or  qua  vide.      In  articles,  after  names,  it  means  see  this,  that 

is,  the  subject  named. 


THE    NEW 
STUDENT'S     REFERENCE    WORK 


A— ABBOTT 


AARDVARK 


A,  the  first  letter  in  trie  English  alphabet 
and  in  many  others.  In  English  the  letter 
has  several  different  sounds,  as  in  ah,  at, 
all,  ask,  ale,  fan,  private,  penal.  In  the 
French  and  other  languages  of  Continental 
Europe  it  has  but  one  sound;  the  broad  a 
as  in  ah.  This  is  the  simplest  vowel  sound, 
given  with  the  open  mouth  and  throat. 
Aachen  (a' then).  See  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 
Aardvark  (drd'vark :  earth  pig) ,  an  animal 
of  South  Africa,  called  also  ant-bear.  It  is 
a  strongly 
built  ani- 
mal, about 
five  feet 
long  to  tip 
of  tail; 
has  a  long 
snout  and 
s  t  r  o  n  g 
claws  with 
which  it 
roots  and 

tears  apart  the  ant  hills,  and  with  its  tongue 
licks  up  the  ants  and  other  insects  which 
are  its  chief  food.  It  lives  in  a  shallow 
burrow  and  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits. 

Aaron,  the  first  high  priest  of  the  Israel- 
ites. He  was  the  elder  brother  of  Moses, 
his  spokesman  at  the  court  of  Pharaoh  and 
his  assistant  in  leading  the  Jewish  nation 
out  from  Egypt.  During  the  absence  of 
Moses  on  Mount  Sinai  he  yielded  to  the 
cry  of  the  people  and  made  a  golden  calf 
for  them  to  worship.  Mount  Hor,  whereon 
he  died,  at  the  age  of  123  years,  is  still 
called  the  "Mount  of  Aaron." 

Abacus  (ab'a-ctis),  is  the  classic  name  for 

what    is     now 

often  called  in 
schools  the 
bead  frame,  a 
device  for 
counting  by 
means  of  beads 
or  discs  which 
have  been  strung  upon  parallel  wires.  Such 
a  machine  was  in  usa  among  tha  Greeks  and 


ABACUS 


Romans.  The  Chinese  and  the  Persians 
employ  it  to  this  day.  In  architecture,  an 
abacus  is  the  flat  tablet  above  the  capital 
of  a  column. 

Abalone  (ab'a-lo'ne),  a  shelled  sea  fish 
of  the  Haliotidae  species,  popularly  known 
as  ear-shells  or  sea-ears,  found  on  the  rocks 
of  the  California  coast  feeding  on  seaweed. 
The  shell  is  a  flattened  spiral,  with  a  lining 
of  bright  mother-of-pearl,  used  consider- 
ably in  the  arts;  while  the  animal  itself  is 
used  as  food  by  Orientals  on  the  coast,  and, 
gathered  and  dried,  is  exported  in  quanti- 
ties both  to  Japan  and  to  China. 

Abbey,  Edwin  Austin,  an  American  artist, 
was  born  April  3,  1852,  at  Philadelphia.  In 
1883  he  removed  to  England.  He  was  an 
illustrator  of  a  high  order  and  a  painter  of 
watercolors  that  reveal  ability  as  a  colorist. 
His  chief  characteristic  was  love  for  English 
country  life  and  scenery  and  for  old  poets 
and  dramatists.  His  most  famous  painting 
is  The  Quest  for  the  Holy  Grail,  in  the 
Boston  Library,  and  his  illustrations  of 
Shakspere  and  Goldsmith  are  notable.  King 
Edward  VII  commissioned  him  to  paint  the 
coronation  at  Westminster.  Died  Aug.  1,1911. 

Ab'bott,  Hon.  John  J.  J.  C.,  born  in 
1821  at  St.  Andrews  (Quebec),  educated 
at  McGill  University.  Called  to  the  Bar  in 
1847.  F°r  *en  years  Dean  of  the  Faculty 
of  Law  at  McGill.  At  one  time  a  Director 
of  the  Bank  of  Montreal.  Counsel  for  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway.  Elected  to  the 
House  of  Commons  1867.  Selected  by  th« 
Government  in  1888  for  a  mission  to  Aus- 
tralia to  further  trade  relations  and  cable 
communication.  Called  to  the  Senate  in 
1887.  Leader  for  the  Government  in  the 
Senate  from  1887  to  1891.  Became  Premier 
of  Canada  in  1891.  Author  of  the  Insolv- 
ency Act  which  he  carried  through  Parlia- 
ment, Was  Mayor  of  Montreal  in  1887  and 
again  in  1888.  An  authority  in  Parliament 
on  matters  of  banking  and  commerce.  He 
died  in  1893. 

Ab'bott,  Lyman,  American  preacher,  edi- 
tor and  author,  WAS  born  in  1835,  tha  son 


ABBOTSFORD 


ABBREVIATIONS 


of  Jacob  Abbott.  After  graduating  from 
the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York 
he  studied  law,  but  entered  the  ministry 
and  became  pastor  of  a  Congregational 
church  in  Terre  Haute,  Ind.  Later  he  be- 
came editor  of  The  Christian  Union,  New 
York,  now  The  Outlook,  and  succeeded  Henry 
Ward  Beecher  as  pastor  of  Plymouth  Church, 
Brooklyn.  Here  he  became  widely  known 
both  as  preacher  and  editor,  and  as  the 
author  of  several  commentaries  and  other 
books.  Among  his  works  are  The  Evolu- 
tion of  Christianity;  Christianity  and  Social 
Problems;  An  Evolutionist's  Theory;  The 
Rights  of  Man;  The  Life  and  Literature  of 
the  Hebrews. 

Ab'botsford,  celebrated  as  the  home  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  is  situated  on  the  Tweed 
river,  near  Melrose  Abbey,  Scotland.  It  was 
named  from  a  ford  where  the  abbots  of 
Melrose  Abbey  crossed  the  Tweed.  The 
house  is  an  irregular,  picturesque  mansion, 
built  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  1811,  in  the 
style  of  the  old  English  manor  houses. 
Carved  stones  taken  from  old  castles  and 
abbeys  are  placed  at  intervals  in  the  walls 
of  the  house  and  garden.  The  lavish  use 
of  money  in  adorning  Abbotsford  was  one 
of  the  chief  causes  of  Scott's  financial 
failure. 

Abattoir  (db'dftwdr'),  originally  merely 
a  slaughter-house,  but  now  inclusive  of  a 
number  of  industries  connected  with  the 
disposal  of  the  parts  of  animals  unfit  for 
food.  The  term  is  sometimes  made  to  in- 
clude also  the  market  at  which  the  products 
are  sold. 

What  to  do  with  the  waste  parts  of  slain 
animals  has  always  been  a  problem  where 
population  was  dense  enough  to  necessitate 
much  butchering.  In  the  time  of  the  Roman 
Empire  the  killing  was  restricted  to  one 
section  of  the  city,  and  here  there  was  a 
public  market,  and  sometimes,  as  in  Rome, 
a  splendid  market  building.  Previous  to 
1810  in  Paris  killing  of  animals  was  allowed 
even  along  the  principal  streets,  and^  con- 
ditions had  become  so  bad  that  a  commis- 
sion was  appointed  in  that  year  to  do  away 
with  the  nuisance.  Under  the  direction  of 
this  commission  five  great  abattoirs  were 
opened  in  September,  1818,  and  these  have 
to  a  great  extent  been  models  for  the 
world.  London  did  not  take  up  the  matter 
in  a  serious  way  until  1852,  and  then  in 
1855  opened  a  great  establishment  at  a 
suburb  called  Islington.  But  it  has  re- 
mained for  America,  in  very  recent  times, 
to  perfect  the  greatest  of  these  institutions. 
Machinery  has  been  so  much  brought  into 
use  that  an  almost  marvelous  speed  and 
economy  is  attained.  Perhaps  an  even 
more  wonderful  advance  has  been  made  in 
the  matter  of  using  the  various  parts  of  the 
animals  which  were  once  a  nuisance.  Such 
products  as  special  foods,  medicines,  build- 
ing materials,  chemicals,  manures,  etc.,  utilize 


practically  every  particle  of  an  animal  and 
so  solve  the  problem  of  their  disposal. 

Abbre'via'tions  are  used  to  save  time 
in  writing.  In  letter  writing  they  should 
on  the  whole  be  avoided.  Before  printing 
was  invented,  however,  the  labor  of  copy- 
ing and  the  cost  and  scarcity  of  parchment 
caused  abbreviations  to  be  used  so  freely 
that  they  are  apt  to  be  very  difficult  to 
follow.  Signs,  like  $  or  £  are  not,  prop- 
erly speaking,  abbreviations,  but  symbols. 
An  abbreviation  generally  consists  of  the  first 
part  of  a  word,  or  else  of  the  first  letters  of 
the  words  of  a  well-known  phrase.  Those 
which  follow  still  occur  frequently : 

A.  B Bachelor  of  Arts. 

A.  C Ante  Christum,  before  Christ. 

A.  D Anno  Domini,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord. 

A.  D.  C Aide-de-camp. 

A.  H. Anno  Hegirse.  in  the  year  of  the  Hegira. 

or  since  622  A.  D. 

Ad  lib Ad  libitum,  at  pleasure. 

set setatis,  aged. 

A.  M Ante  Meridiem,  before  noon. 

A.  M Master  of  Arts. 

Anon Anonymous. 

A.  U.  C Ab  urbe  condita,  from  the  founding  of 

the  city  of  Rome. 

A.  V Authorized  Version. 

b Born. 

B.  A. Bachelor  of  Arts.     Same  as  A.  B. 

Bart. Baronet. 

B.  C Before  Christ. 

B.  C.  L Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 

B.  D Bachelor  of  Divinity. 

Bp Bishop. 

B.  S.  or  B.Sc.  Bachelor  of  Science. 

C Centum,  one  hundred. 

C Centigrade. 

Cantab Cantabrigiensis,  of  Cambridge. 

C.  B Companion  of  the  Order  of  the  Bath. 

c.  c Cubic  centimeter. 

C.  E Civil  Engineer. 

C.  M.  Cy. . .  .Companion  of  the  Order  of  St.  Michael 
and  St.  George. 

Co Company. 

Co County. 

C/O Care  of. 

C.  O.  D Cash  on  Delivery. 

Cr Creditor. 

Cresc Crescendo,  growing  louder. 

Cwt Hundredweight. 

d Died. 

d penny. 

D.  C District  of  Columbia. 

D.  C Da  capo,  from  the  beginning. 

D.  C.  L Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 

D.  D Doctor  of  Divinity. 

D.  D.  S Doctor  of  Dental  Surgery. 

D.  G Dei  gratia,  by  the  grace  of  God. 

Dim Diminuendo,  less  loudly. 

D.  Lit Doctor  of  Literature. 

Do Ditto,  the  same. 

Dr Debtor. 

Dr Doctor. 

D.  Sc Doctor  of  Science. 

D.  S.  O Companion  of  the  Distinguished  Service 

Order. 

D.  V Deo  volente,  God  willing. 

dwt Pennyweight. 

e.  g Exempli  gratia,  for  example. 

etc Et  cetera,  and  so  on. 

et  seq Et  sequentia,  and  the  following. 

F Fahrenheit. 

f Porte,  loudly. 

f .  O.  b Free  on  board. 

ff Fortissimo,  very  loud. 

F.  R.  C.  P.    .  Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians. 
P.  R.  C.  S.    .Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons. 

F.  R.  G.  S.    .Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Soci- 

ety. 
P.  R.  S.  . .    .Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

G.  C.  B Grand  Cross  of  the  Order  of  St.  Micnaei 

and  St.  Georgo 


ABD-EL-KADER 


ABELARD 


H.  M.  S His  Majesty's  Ship,  or  Service. 

ibid ibidem,  in  the  same  place. 

i.  e Id  est,  that  is. 

I.  H.  S.. . . .  .Jesus    hominum     Salvator,     Jesus    the 

Saviour  of  men. 

Incog Incognito,  unknown. 

Inst Instante  mense,  in  the  current  month. 

J.  P Justice  of  the  Peace. 

Jr Junior. 

K.  C King's  counsel. 

K.  C.  B Knight  Commander  of  the  Bath. 

K.  C.  M.  G.. Knight  Commander  of  St.  Michael  and 

St.  George. 

£ Libra,  pound  (British  money). 

Ib Pound  weight. 

Litt.  D Doctor  of  Letters. 

LL.  B Bachelor  of  Laws. 

LL.  D Doctor  of  Laws. 

M Monsieur. 

MM Messieurs. 

M.  B Bachelor  of  Medicine. 

M.  C Member  of  Congress. 

M.  D Doctor  of  Medicine. 

M.  E Mining,  or  Mechanical,  Engineer. 

Mile Mademoiselle. 

Mme Madame. 

M.  P Member  of  Parliament. 

MS Manuscript;  plural,  MSS. 

N.  B Nota  bene,  mark  well. 

Nem.  con Nemine  contradicente,  no  one  opposing. 

Ob Obiit,  died. 

Oxon Oxoniensis,  of  Oxford. 

p. Piano,  softly. 

Ph.  B Bachelor  of  Philosophy. 

Ph.  D Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

P.  M Post  Meridiem,  afternoon. 

pp Pianissimo,  very  softly. 

P.  P.  C Pour  prendre  conge,  to  take  leave. 

p Page;  plural  pp. 

pro  tern Pro  tempore,  for  the  time. 

prox Proximo  mense,  in  the  next  month. 

P.  S Post  scriptum,  postscript. 

0-  E.  D Quod  erat  demonstrandum,  which  was 

to  be  proved. 

Q.  E.  P Quod  erat  factendum,  which  was  to  be 

done. 

q.  V Quod  vide,  which  see. 

R.  A Royal  Academician. 

R.  I.  P Requiescat  in  Pace,  may  he  rest  in  peace. 

R.  M Royal  Marines. 

R.  N Royal  Navy. 

R.  S.  V.  P. . .  R6pondez  s'il  vous  plait,  please  reply. 

R.  V Revised  Version. 

S South,  shilling,  or  saint. 

S.  P.  Q.  R. . .  Senatus      populusque      Romanus,      the 

Senate  and  Roman  People. 

sq Sequens,  the  following;  plural  sqq. 

Sr Senior. 

S.  S Steamship. 

ult Ultimo  mense.  last  month. 

U.  S United  States;  U.  S.  A. 

U.  S.  N United  States  Navy. 

V.  C Victoria  Cross. 

v.  or  vs Versus,  against. 

Abd-el-Kader  (abd'el-kd'dir)  (born  1806, 
died  1883),  was  emir  or  prince  of  the  Arab 
tribes  in  Algeria.  He  is  famous  for  his 
stubborn  resistance  to  the  French,  who,  in 
1830,  had  driven  out  the  Turks,  the  former 
rulers  of  the  country.  For  eighteen  years 
he  fought  with  bravery  and  high  general- 
ship against  the  larger  forces  of  the  French. 
Five  successive  generals  were  sent  against 
him,  some  of  the  tribes  were  bribed  to 
desert,  and  the  Moors  were  made  to  attack 
him.  Yet  he  utterly  defeated  the  French 
twice,  and  kept  up  a  successful  resistance 
till  1848,  when  he  was  defeated,  and  soon 
after  captured  and  imprisoned  for  four 
years  at  Paris.  In  1860  Abd-el-Kader  was 
in  Damascus,  and,  at  great  risk  to  himself, 
aided  the  Christians  during  the  Moham- 


medan riots.  In  the  later  years  of  his  life 
he  was  a  pensioner  of  the  French  govern- 
ment. 

Abdul-Hamid  II  (ab'dZSl-ha'mid),  Sultan 
of  Turkey  and  tributary  states,  from  1876 
to  1909,  was  the  second  son  of  Sultan  Abdul- 
Medjid,  of  the  House  of  Othman.  He  was 
born  Sept.  22,  1842,  and  succeeded  to  the 
throne  on  the  deposition  of  his  elder  brother, 
Murad  V,  on  Aug.  31,  1876.  He  was  a 
Turk  and  Mussulman  of  the  old  school 
and  consequently  showed  little  inclina- 
tion towards  reform  within  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  which  was  stipulated  by  the  Treaty 
of  Berlin,  in  1878,  following  on  the  war 
with  Russia  of  the  previous  year,  which 
proved  disastrous  to  the  Porte.  In  later 
years  he  lived  under  the  dread  of  assas- 
sination and  showed  distrust  even  of  his 
own  ministers.  He  looked  askant  at  Eng- 
land's operations  in  Egypt,  and  was  believed 
to  have  secretly  stimulated  the  rebellion  of 
Arabi  Pasha  in  1882. 

The  same  malign  influence  was  also  known 
to  be  at  work  in  Armenia,  where  the  Christian 
world  was  horrified  at  the  atrocities  com- 
mitted there  by  the  Turkish  soldiery. 
Resistance  to  the  outrage  and  rapine  there 
has  been  greatly  handicapped  by  jealousies 
among  the  European  Powers. 

In  1908,  following  a  revolt  led  by  the 
Young  Turks'  party  and  involving  the  army, 
Abdul  was  forced  to  grant  a  Constitution, 
and  an  assembly,  but  in  April  1909,  a  revolt 
against  the  new  order  was  instigated  by  the 
Sultan.  This  was  quickly  put  down.  Abdul 
Hamid  was  dethroned  and  his  brother 
Reshed  Effendi  was  placed  on  the  throne 
as  Mehmed  V.  Abdul  Hamid  died  "in  dig- 
nified captivity"  at  Salonica,  Feb.  10,  1918. 

A  Becket.     See  BECKET. 

A'bel,  the  second  son  of  Adam,  was  a 
shepherd  and  offered  a  sacrifice  of  the  "first- 
lings of  his  flock."  His  offering  was  pre- 
ferred to  that  of  his  brother  Cain,  who  in 
anger  killed  him.  This  violent  death  gave 
him  the  title  of  the  "first  martyr." 

Ab'elard  (tib'e-lard),  Pierre,  a  brilliant 
French  scholar,  was  born  in  Brittany  in 
1079.  Moved  by  a  thirst  for  knowledge  he 
gave  his  family  inheritance  up  to  his  brothers 
and  went  to  Paris,  where  he  devoted  him- 
self to  study.  His  fearless  independence 
intellectually,  and  his  success  in  public 
debates,  led  him  to  establish  a  school  of 
his  own,  which  became  so  famous  that  other 
teachers  were  almost  deserted.  He  fell  in 
love  with  HeloTse,  a  beautiful  and  accom- 
plished girl,  one  of  his  pupils.  As  marriage 
would  interfere  with  his  rising  in  the  church, 
Abelard  and  Helolse  were  secretly  united. 
Their  union  soon  became  known,  and  they 
separated,  Abelard  becoming  a  monk  and 
Helcflse  a  nun.  Devoting  himself  to  theol- 
ogy he  was  tried  and  convicted  of  heresy, 
and  driven  to  found  a  hermitage,  which  he 
called  the  Paraclete.  He  gave  up  this 


ABERCROMBIE 


ABRAHAM 


r»tr«et  to  Heloise,  and  when  he  died,  in 
1142,  she  had  him  buried  there.  At  her 
death  she  was  interred  by  his  side.  In 
1800  their  remains  were  removed  to  Paris, 
where  they  now  rest  in  the  cemetery  of 
Pere-la-Chaise,  A  figure  of  Abelard  reclines 
on  the  tomb,  and  by  its  side  stands  a  statue 
of  He"lolse. 

Abercrombie  (ab'er-krtim-b?),  James 
(born  1706,  died  1781),  a  British  general 
who  took  part  in  the  French  and  Indian 
war.  In  1758  he  was  appointed  comrnander- 
in-chief  of  the  forces  m  America.  He  at- 
tacked Ticonderoga  at  the  head  of  15,000 
men,  but  was  defeated  by  Montcalm  (July 
8,  1758).  He  returned  to  England,  where 
he  became  a  member  of  parliament  and 
governor  of  Stirling  Castle. 

Aberdeen  (Sb-er-den1) ,  the  principal  city 
of  northern  Scotland,  receives  its  name  from 
two  Gaelic  words  meaning  "at  the  mouth 
of  the  Dee,"  where  it  is  situated,  about  100 
miles  northeast  of  Edinburgh.  Its  charter 
dates  from  1179.  It  was  burned  by  the 
English  in  1336,  and  after  its  restoration 
called  New  Aberdeen.  It  has  large  factories 
of  cotton,  woolen  and  linen  fabrics,  exports 
granite  extensively,  and  is  engaged  in  whale 
fisheries  and  in  shipbuilding.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  University  of  Aberdeen.  Popula- 
tion (1911)  163,084. 

Aberdeen,  Earl  of  (Rt.  Hon.  J.  C. 
Hamilton-Gordon,  P.C.,  G.C.M.G.),  a  Scot- 
tish Liberal  peer,  was  born  Aug.  3,  1847, 
and  educated  at  St.  Andrews  and  at  Oxford. 
He  succeeded  to  the  title  in  1870.  In  1886 
he  was  appointed  by  Mr.  Gladstone  Lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland,  with  the  mission  of 
carrying  out  the  Home  Rule  policy  of  the 
then  Liberal  government.  This  office  he 
held  but  a  few  months,  though  he  was  very 
acceptable  to  the  Irish  people;  but  with  the 
fall  of  the  Gladstone  administration  he 
resigned  the  post,  and  subsequently  made 
a  tour  of  the  world,  visiting  the  chief  British 
colonies.  From  1893  to  1898  he  acted  as 
Governor-General  of  Canada,  and  later  he 
was  Viceroy  of  Ireland. 

Abitibi  (a'bt-tib'e).  Two  important  lakes 
and  a  river  of  the  same  name  in  north- 
eastern Ontario  (Canada).  The  upper 
Abitibi  Lake  (connected  with  the  lower  by 
a  "Narrows"  about  two  miles  in  length) 
covers  an  area  of  about  190  square  miles, 
one-third  of  this  area  being  in  the  Province 
of  Quebec.  One-half  of  the  shore  line  is 
rocky.  Innumerable  islands  of  all  shapes 
and  sizes  dot  the  lake,  giving  it  a  natural 
beauty  equal  to  that  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
River.  The  lower  lake  has  an  area  of  145 
square  miles.  The  Abitibi  River  discharges 
the  waters  of  these  two  lakes,  emptying  with 
other  streams  into  the  Moose  River,  which 
a  short  distance  further  on  empties  into 
James'  Bay. 

Abolition    of    Slavery.      See    SLAVERY. 

Aborigines.     See  INDIANS. 


Aboukir,     See  NILS,  BATTLE  OP. 

Abraham,  the  head  of  the  Hebrew  nation, 
was  born  at  Ur,  in  Chaldaea,  about  2000 
B.  C.  He  left  his  people,  who  were  idol- 
aters, to  worship  the  one  God,  and  dwelt 
in  Palestine,  leading  the  life  of  an  Arab 
chief.  His  original  name,  Abram,  was 
changed  to  Abraham,  meaning  "father  of 
a  great  nation."  He  died  near  Hebron, 
aged  175  years,  and  is  noted  for  his  faith 
in  God,  being  called  the  "Father  of  the 
Faithful." 

Abraham,  Plains  of.  A  level  tract  of 
land  about  one  mile  in  width  immediately 
west  of  the  city  of  Quebec,  named  after 
Abraham  Martin,  who  at  one  time  owned  it. 
The  scene  of  the  memorable  battle,  which 
wrested  from  the  French  their  supremacy 
in  North  America. 

The  British  troops  had  been  besieging  the 
city  for  some  time  without  success.  Autumn 
was  approaching  and  the  admiral  in  com- 
mand of  the  fleet  refused  to  remain  longer. 
Wolfe,  the  young  general  in  command  of 
the  army,  resolved  on  one  last  desperate 
venture.  Embarking  all  his  available 
troops  on  the  vessels  of  the  fleet  he  moved 
up  the  St.  Lawrence  some  miles  beyond  the 
city.  The  French  were  bewildered  by  the 
ever-changing  tactics  of  their  opponents, 
and  when,  on  the  night  of  the  i2th  of  Sep- 
tember (1759),  the  British  army  dropped 
down  the  river  in  boats  and  scaled  its 
precipitous  bank,  there  was  only  a  small 
guard  at  the  top  to  offer  ineffectual  opposi- 
tion. Daybreak  found  Wolfe's  army  drawn 
up  in  battle  array  on  the  plains.  The 
gallant  French  general,  Montcalm,  imme- 
diately marched  from  the  city  with  all  his 
available  troops  and  impetuously  attacked 
the  British  forces.  The  thin  red  line  of 
British  troops  held  their  fire  until  the 
French  were  within  40  paces  and  then 
shattered  their  ranks  with  two  accurately 
delivered  volleys.  The  French  ranks  broke 
and  fled,  and  Wolfe  lived  long  enough  to 
know  that  his  desperate  attempt  had  been 
entirely  successful.  Montcalm  died  a  few 
hours  later.  The  British  loss  was  some 
fifty  killed  and  five  hundred  and  ninety- 
seven  wounded,  while  that  of  the  French 
was  about  one  thousand  five  hundred,  in- 
cluding two  hundred  and  fifty  prisoners. 

On  the  1 7th  of  the  same  month  the  city 
surrendered  and  (save  Montreal)  Canada 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  British.  The 
following  spring  the  French  force  marched 
from  Montreal  over  well-nigh  impassable 
roads,  and  a  second  and  bloodier  battle  was 
fought  on  the  plains,  resulting  in  the  British 
force  being  repulsed  and  driven  within  the 
walls.  The  timely  arrival  of  some  British 
frigates,  however,  caused  the  siege  to  be 
raised,  and  Quebec  and  all  Canada  then 
became  part  of  the  British  possessions. 

The  celebration  of  the  coming  of  th« 
great  voyager  Champlain  to  Quebec  was 


ABRUZZI 


ABYDOS 


held  in  1908,  amd  in  this  connection  there  i 
was    consummated    a   movement    to    make 
the   Plains   of   Abraham  a   National   Park, 
and    erect    in    its    center   a    monument    to 
Peace. 

The  federal  government  of  Canada  and 
the  governments  of  the  various  provinces  as 
well  joined  in  aid  of  this  celebration  which 
proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  imposing 
ever  held  in  Canada.  The  presence  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  who  came  to  Canada 
specially  to  take  part  in  it,  added  to  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  occasion. 

Abruzzi  (d-broot'se),  Duke  of,  known 
also  as  Prince  Amadeo  of  Savoy,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  royal  house  of  Italy  and  a  dis- 
tinguished explorer,  aeronaut,  sportsman 
and  scientist,  son  of  ex-King  Amadeus  of 
Spain,  was  born  in  1873  in  Madrid  and 
educated  in  part  at  the  Naval  College  in 
Leghorn.  As  a  youth  he  travelled  round 
the  world,  and  in  1896  successfully  ascended 
Mount  St.  Elias,  in  Alaska,  whose  ice- 
covered  peak  is  over  18,000  feet  in  height. 
In  1899  the  Duke  set  out  from  Christiania 
on  an  Arctic  voyage  in  the  Stella  Polare, 
and  wintered  in  Teplitz  Bay,  81°  47'  N. 
There  he  organized  a  sledge  party,  to 
proceed  toward  the  North  Pole,  but  an 
accident  to  his  ship  prevented  the  Duke 
from  accompanying  it.  It  was,  however, 
manned  under  the  command  of  his  chief 
officer,  Captain  Cagni,  the  expedition  reach- 
ing the  most  northerly  point  attained  up 
to  that  date,  viz. :  86°  34'  N.,  or  within 
236  statute  miles  of  the  Pole.  The  nar- 
rative of  the  expedition  is  told  in  the  Duke 
of  Abruzzi's  book,  On  the  Polar  Star  in  the 
Arctic  Sea,  published  in  1903.  The  Duke's 
achievement  beat  that  of  Nansen  in  The 
Fram,  in  years  1893-94,  the  Norwegian 
explorer  having  in  his  sledge  journey  only 
reached  86°  4'  N.,  96°  E. 

Ab'salom,  the  third  son  of  King  David, 
was  noted  for  his  personal  beauty  and  win- 
ning manners.  By  these  qualities  he  seduced 
the  people  into  rebellion  against  his  father. 
He  was  defeated  in  battle,  caught  by  his 
beautiful  hair  in  the  branches  of  an  oak  as 
he  fled,  and  slain  by  Joab  against  the  orders 
of  his  father,  who  mourned  his  death  in  a 
most  touching  lament. 

Absinthe  (ab-sinth'),  a  popular  French 
liquor,  agreeable  to  the  taste,  but  one  of 
the  most  dangerous  stimulants  ever  manu- 
factured. It  is  made  from  oil  of  worm- 
wood and  alcohol,  with  the  addition  of 
several  volatile  oils. 

Absorp'tion  (in  plants),  the  method  by 
which  almost  all  plants  take  materials  from 
the  outside  into  their  bodies.  Plants  absorb 
water  and  a  great  variety  of  substances 
soluble  in  water.  Because  the  protoplasm 
of  plant  cells  forms  about  each  a  con- 
tinuous covering,  the  cell  wall  having  no 
visible  openings,  and  because  both  cell  wall 
and  protoplasm  hold  among  their  particles 


large  amounts  (50-98  per  cent)  of  water,  all 
substances,  whether  solid  or  gaseous,  must 
be  dissolved  in  water  before  they  can  enter 
the  plant.  When  so  dissolved  the  particles 
are  free  to  move  through  the  water,  and 
tend  to  distribute  themselves  uniformly. 
As  the  water  outside  is  continuous  with 
that  forming  part  of  the  body,  the  particles 
may  migrate  into  the  plant  almost  as 
readily  as  in  other  directions.  They  will 
enter  it  if  of  suitable  size,  and  if  the  water 
inside  contains  less  of  that  substance  than 
the  water  outside.  The  movement  of  each 
sort  of  material  is  independent,  and  a  sub 
stance  will  continue  to  enter  until  it  be- 
comes equally  distributed.  If  it  is  being 
used  or  stored,  it  may  be  absorbed  in  large 
amounts.  Similarly  water  moves  from  the 
places  where  there  are  fewest  particles  of 
all  the  dissolved  substances,  ».*.,  where  there 
is  most  water,  toward  the  places  where 
there  is  relatively  less  water.  As  water  is 
constantly  evaporating  from  land  plants 
large  quantities  of  water  must  be  absorbed 
to  balance  this  loss.  The  absorption  of  all 
substances  is  subject  to  regulation  by  the 
living  protoplasm.  Not  all  substances 
soluble  in  water  are  permitted  to  enter,  nor 
at  all  times. 

Abstinence.     See  TOTAL  ABSTINENCE. 

Abt  (apt),  Franz,  born  at  Eilenburg, in 
Saxony,  Dec.  22,  1819.  As  his  father,  who 
was  a  clergyman,  designed  to  educate  him 
for  his  own  profession  he  was  placed  in  the 
St.  Thomas  school  and  in  the  University 
of  Leipsic,  where  he  had  the  advantage  of 
good  training  in  music  as  well  as  in  the 
usual  academic  branches.  He  finally  relin- 
quished his  theological  studies  for  the  more 
congenial  musical  studies.  In  1841  ha 
obtained  the  position  of  capellmeister  at 
Zurich,  and  eleven  years  later  obtained 
the  same  position  at  Brunswick.  His  death 
occurred  at  Wiesbaden,  March  31,  1885. 

Abt  is  best  known  as  a  composer  of 
part-songs  for  men's  voices.  His  early 
residence  at  Zurich,  where  he  conducted 
male  singing  societies,  developed  a  facility 
in  this  class  of  composition  that  resulted 
in  his  great  popularity.  His  songs  for  a 
single  voice  have  had  wide  acceptance, 
notably  the  one  entitled  "When  the  Swal- 
lows Homeward  Fly."  Besides  songs  he 
has  written  pieces  for  the  pianoforte,  which 
are  regarded  as  inferior  to  his  vocal  compo- 
sitions. In  all,  his  works  embrace  more 
than  four  hundred  numbers,  none  of  which, 
however,  entitles  him  to  rank  with  the  great 
German  composers. 

Aby'do*  (a-bi'dos),  an  ancient  cttv  A. 
Asia  Minor,  celebrated  as  the  place  where 
Xerxes  crossed  the  Hellespont  in  his  in- 
vasion of  Greece,  in  480  B.  C.  When  bis 
bridge  of  boats,  nearly  a  mile  in  length,  wa? 
swept  away  by  a  storm  he  punished  th* 
sea  by  inflicting  three  hundred  lashes  ac4 
casting  chains  into  its  waves.  When  tbe 


ABYSSINIA 


ACHAEAN  LEAGUE 


second  double  bridge  was  built,  Xerxes 
poured  an  offering  of  wine  on  the  waters 
and  prayed  to  the  sun;  then  throwing  a 
cup  and  a  Persian  sword  into  the  Helles- 
pont he  ascended  his  throne  on  the  heights 
of  Abydos.  Here  he  watched  for  a  whole 
week  the  ceaseless  march  of  his  army,  per- 
haps a  million  in  number,  made  up  of  forty- 
six  different  nations,  each  dressed  in  its 
national  costume.  Abydos  is  famous  also 
as  the  scene  of  the  story  of  Hero  and 
Leander,  which  see. 

Abyssinia  (<5&'*-s*Vif-d),  a  country  of 
eastern  Africa,  southwest  of  the  Red  Sea. 
It  is  a  tableland,  from  which  rise  flat- 
topped  mountains,  intersected  by  deep 
valleys  and  gorges.  The  royal  house,  which 
reigned  for  centuries,  traced  its  lineage  back 
to  the  Queen  of  Sheba.  In  1850  Theod- 
orus,  a  military  adventurer,  revolted  and 
was  crowned  emperor.  He  first  sent  em- 
bassies to  England  and  France  and  received 
a  British  consul  at  his  court.  It  was  his 
imprisonment  of  the  consul  and  of  an  em- 
bassy sent  to  inquire  into  the  matter  that 
caused  the  English  government  to  send  Sir 
Robert  Napier  from  Bombay  with  a  relief 
expedition.  The  capital,  Magdala,  was 
stormed  and  captured,  Theodorus  shooting 
himself  when  told  that  the  city  gates  had 
given  way.  This  occurred  in  1868,  and  for 
some  time  after  the  English  forces  with- 
drew lawlessness  prevailed.  In  1872  John 
II  was  crowned  emperor.  He  was  killed 
in  battle  in  1889  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
adversary,  Menelek,  the  present  king,  who 
reigns  under  the  title  of  Menelek  II.  In 
1885  Italy  occupied  the  port  of  Massowah, 
and  sought  to  acquire  territory  inland, 
claiming,  by  treaty  in  1889,  a  protectorate 
over  Abyssinia.  This  led  to  a  protracted 
war,  and  in  1896  the  Italian  army  of  in- 
vasion was  beaten  with  great  loss.  As  a 
result,  Italy  withdrew  her  claim  to  a  pro- 
tectorate over  Abyssinia.  In  1902  the 
boundary  between  Abyssinia  and  the  Brit- 
ish Sudan  was  adjusted  by  treaty.  The 
area  of  Abyssinia  is  over  400,000  square 
miles,  with  an  estimated  population  of  five 
and  a  half  millions.  There  are  many  small 
towns,  few  with  a  population  exceeding 
5,000.  But  little  land  is  cultivated,  the 
chief  pursuit  of  the  people  being  the  herd- 
ing of  cattle,  sheep  and  goats.  A  railway 
line  connects  Dire  Daw  a  in  southeastern 
Abyssinia  with  the  port  of  Jibuti,  186 
miles  distant.  Telegraph  and  telephone 
systems  are  in  use.  Barley,  wheat,  millet, 
hops  and  tobacco  are  produced  in  consider- 
able quantities.  The  annual  product  of 
coffee  is  about  50,000  bags. 

Academy,  The  French,  founded  in  1635 
by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  was  the  great  author- 
ity in  France  in  all  matters  of  scholarship 
until  it  was  disbanded  during  the  French 
Revolution  in  1793.  Its  members  were 
forty  of  the  first  scholars  of  the  country, 


who  met  three  times  a  week.  Its  greatest 
work  was  the  publication  of  its  dictionary 
of  the  French  language  after  fifty  years  of 
labor.  The  Academy  was  reconstructed  in 
1795,  and  in  its  original  form  it  was  restored 
by  Louis  XVIII  in  1816. 

Aca'dia  (a-ka'di-a)  or  Acadie.  It  was 
in  _I497,  or  thereabouts,  that  the  Cabots 
visited,  if  they  were  not  the  discoverers  of, 
Nova  Scotia.  French  Colonists  came  here 
in  1604.  They  were  driven  put  by  settlers 
from  Virginia  who  rested  their  claim  on  the 
right  of  discovery.  The  French  gave  the 
land  the  name  of  Acadie.  In  1621  it  was 
changed  to  Nova  Scotia.  In  1621  James  I 
granted  the  peninsula  to  Sir  William  Alex- 
ander. In  1654  the  French  again  estab- 
lished themselves  in  the  colony.  The 
country  was  ceded  to  them  in  1667,  but  the 
English  regained  it  in  1713. 

The  French  Acadians  now  make  one- 
tenth  of  the  population  of  Nova  Scotia. 
In  only  one  county  (Richmond)  have  they 
a  majority.  They  are  as  one  to  four  of  the 
population  of  New  Brunswick.  Their  settle- 
ments in  New  Brunswick  are  compact.  One- 
seventh  of  the  population  of  Prince  Edward 
Island  is  Acadian.  Their  chief  center  in 
Prince  Edward  is  at  Tignish,  on  the  west 
coast.  There  are  140,000  Acadians  in  the 
maritime  provinces. 

Accordion  (&k-kor'cK-iiri),  a  musical  in- 
strument invented  by  Damian,  at  Vie&na, 
about  1829.  It  is  made  on  the  principle  of 
a  bellows,  the  sound  being  produced  by  the 
action  of  wind  on  metallic  reeds.  Keys  are 
ranged  on  each  side,  which  are  touched  by 
the  fingers  as  the  instrument  moves  back- 
ward and  forward.  It  is  manufactured 
chiefly  in  Paris. 

Acetylene  (a-sert-Uri)  (C8  H2),  a  gas, 
slightly  lighter  than  air,  which  is  extensively 
used  for  illumination.  It  burns  with  a 
brilliant,  white  flame,  which  is  smoky,  ex- 
cept when  specially  constructed  burners  are 
used.  It  is  usually  prepared  by  the  action 
of  water  upon  a  calcium  carbide,  a  material 
made  by  exposing  a  mixture  of  limestone 
and  coke  to  a  very  high  heat  in  the  electric 
furnace.  With  air,  acetylene  gives  ex- 
plosive mixtures,  and  when  under  pressures 
of  two  or  three  atmospheres,  or  more,  it  is 
powerfully  explosive  by  itself.  The  pure 
gas  is  said  to  be  odorless  and  non-poisonous, 
but,  as  usually  made,  it  contains  small 
quantities  of  strong-smelling  and  somewhat 
poisonous  gases.  Acetylene  gas  is  widely 
used  in  villages  and  country  houses  not 
served  by  ordinary  gas  systems,  consumers 
installing  necessary  apparatus  and  gen- 
erating their  own  gas. 

Achaean  League  (d-kef  an  leg),  originally 
a  confederacy  of  ten  cities  of  Achaia,  which 
grew  into  power  after  the  fall  of  the  greater 
Greek  powers.  Later  it  included  nearly  all 
the  Greek  cities,  and  for  fifty  years  resisted 
the  attacks  of  Rome. 


ACHAIA 


ACOUSTICS 


Achata  (d-kd'-yd),  one  of  the  ancient 
divisions  of  the  Peloponnesus,  extending 
along  the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  Its  inhabitants 
were  the  most  powerful  of  the-Greeks  at  the 
time  of  the  Trojan  war.  Under  the  Romans 
Achaia  included  the  whole  Peloponnesus  as 
well  as  the  country  across  the  gulf  as  far 
as  Thessaly.  In  modern  Greece  it  is  a  small 
province. 

Acheron  (ak'er-on),  in  ancient  mythol- 
ogy, a  river  of  the  lower  world  around  which 
hovered  the  shades  of  the  departed,  and 
across  whose  waters  the  ferryman,  Charon 
(ka'ron),  piloted  those  who  were  permitted 
to  enter  the  realm  of  the  dead.  Acheron 
was  also  a  general  name  for  Hades. 

Achilles  (a-kil'lez)  was  the  bravest  of 
the  Greeks  in  the  Trojan  war,  and  the  hero 
of  the  Iliad.  His  father,  Peleus,  was  a 
descendant  of  Zeus,  the  king  of  the  gods, 
and  the  ruler  of  the  Myrmidons,  the  war- 
like people  of  Phthia,  in  Thessaly.  His 
mother,  Thetis,  a  sea  goddess,  is  said  to 
have  dipped  him  by  the  heel  into  the  river 
Styx  to  make  him  invulnerable,  as  she 
had  been  forewarned  that  he  was  doomed 
to  an  early  death.  For  the  same  reason, 
after  he  had  been  trained  in  the  arts  of  war 
and  eloquence  by  Phcenix,  and  in  the  heal- 
ing art  by  the  centaur,  Chiron  (ki'ron), 
his  mother  had  him  brought  up  secretly  as 
one  of  the  daughters  of  the  King  of  Scyros 
(si'ros).  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Trojan 
war  an  oracle  declared  that  Troy  could  not 
be  taken  unless  Achilles  were  present.  So 
Ulysses,  the  wisest  of  the  Greeks,  came  to 
Scyros  disguised  as  a  peddler,  and  spread 
out  his  wares  before  the  daughters  of  the 
king.  Ulysses  sounded  an  alarm,  and  while 
the  girls  ran  away  the  disguised  Achilles 
betrayed  himself  by  seizing  a  sword  and 
spear  from  the  peddler's  stock.  Achilles 
went  to  war  with  fifty-seven  ships,  and 
during  the  first  nine  years  he  sacked  twenty- 
three  cities  around  Troy.  He  quarreled 
with  Agamemnon  over  a  maid,  Briseis, 
whom  he  loved.  When  she  was  taken  from 
him  he  sulked  in  his  tent,  while  his  country- 
men were  hard  pressed  because  their 
bravest  warrior,  whom  the  Trojans  dreaded, 
was  not  there.  At  last  his  friend  Patro- 
clus,  wearing  the  armor  of  Achilles,  drove 
the  enemy  before  him,  but  was  slain  by 
Hector,  the  leader  of  the  Trojans.  Achilles, 
enraged  at  the  death  of  his  friend,  went 
against  the  Trojans  and  drove  them  within 
their  walls.  In  single  combat  he  killed 
Hector,  whom  he  dragged  three  times 
around  the  city  at  his  chariot  wheels.  Here 
the  Iliad  ends,  but  the  story  is  taken  up 
by  the  dEthiopis,  a  poem  by  Arctinus,  which 
tells  of  the  combat  of  Achilles,  first  with 
the  Amazon  Penthesilea,  and  next  with 
Memnon.  When  Memnon  fell,  Achilles 
drove  back  the  Trojans  to  the  Scaean  gate, 
where  he  was  killed  by  an  arrow  from  the  bow 
of  Paris,  which  pierced  his  vulnerable  heel. 


Ac' id,  a  term  used  in  chemistry  to  denote 
a  class  of  substances  whose  union  with  an 
alkali,  or  other  base,  forms  salts.  Strictly 
speaking,  all  acids  contain  hydrogen,  and 
are,  in  fact,  salts  of  hydrogen.  Most  of 
them  have  the  following  properties:  they 
can  be  dissolved  in  water;  they  have  a  sour 
taste;  they  turn  vegetable  blues  to  red. 
The  most  common  and  useful  inorganic  or 
"mineral"  acids  are  sulphuric,  nitric  and 
hydrochloric  acids,  which  are  manufactured 
on  a  very  large  scale.  Among  the  organic 
acids  are  acetic  acid,  which  gives  vinegar 
its  sour  taste;  citric  acid,  which  produces 
the  sourness  in  lemons;  oxalic  acid,  which 
is  found  in  sorrel  and  some  other  plants, 
and  which  in  large  quantities  acts  as  a 
poison;  malic  acid,  found  in  apples  and 
also  currants  and  gooseberries;  tartaric  acid, 
found  in  grapes  and  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  baking  powder;  prussic  or  hydro- 
cyanic acid,  a  deadly  poison,  a  small 
quantity  of  which  is  found  in  bitter  al- 
monds and  in  the  leaves  and  stones  of 
peaches.  Many  hundred  acids  are  known 
to  chemists,  the  greater  part  of  which  are 
artificial. 

Aconcagua  (d-kon-kd'gwa),  a  central 
province  of  the  Republic  of  Chile,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  province  of  Coquimbo, 
on  the  south  by  Santiago  and  on  the  south- 
west by  Valparaiso,  flanked  on  the  east  by 
the  Andes  and  the  Argentine  Republic, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  South  Pacific 
Ocean.  Its  area  is  5,485  square  miles, 
with  a  population  (1910)  of  131,331.  Its 
capital  is  Felipe.  On  the  range  of  the 
Andes,  within  the  Argentine  boundary, 
is  the  extinct  volcano  of  Aconcagua, 
deemed  the  loftiest  elevation  in  the 
New  World,  with  an  estimated  height  of 
23,000  feet.  The  Aconcagua  River  flows 
seaward  through  the  province  and  gives 
the  latter  its  chief  fertility  in  grain,  hemp 
and  a  variety  of  fruits.  Copper  deposits  are 
found  in  the  province. 

A'corn,  fruit  of  the  oak,  a  nut  once 
considered  an  important  article  of  food. 
The  ancients  thought  eating  "oaken  mast" 
gave  length  of  years  and  strength  to  man. 
The  Indians  of  New  England  and  farther 
south  ate  the  acorns  of  white  oaks  of 
several  species.  The  sweet  acorn  of  the 
California  white  oak,  Indians  of  the  Pacific 
Coast  bake,  shell  and  grind  into  a  coarse 
meal  from  which  they  make  bread.  Chinese 
and  Japanese  use  certain  acorns  for  food. 
Today  in  some  English  villages  the  people 
hold  to  the  old  "right  of  pannage,  and 
in  autumn  turn  their  hogs  into  the  royal 
forests  to  fatten  on  the  fallen  acorns. 

Acoustics  (a-kffis'tiks').  Those  phe- 
nomena which  one  detects  by  the  ear  are 
generally  studied  together  under  the  head 
of  acoustics.  But  whenever  any  sound  is 
heard  we  find  that  somewhere  in  the 
neighborhood  there  is  what  we  call  a  sound- 


ACOUSTICS 


8 


ACOUSTICS 


ing  body,  and  this  is  always  found  to  be  a 
body  in  rapid  vibration.  Besides  this  we 
find  that  if  the  sounding  body  be  supported 
on  a  bit  of  cotton  wool,  placed  under  the 
receiver  of  an  air  pump,  and  the  air  ex- 
hausted, the  sound  is  almost  entirely  ex- 
tinguished. We  are  thus  led  to  believe 
that  two  things  are  always  essential  to  the 
production  of  sound,  viz.,  a  rapidly  vi- 
brating body  and  an  elastic  medium,  gen- 
erally air,  between  that  body  and  the  ear. 

Accordingly  the  subject  of  acoustics  is 
made  to  include  a  study  of  vibrating  bodies, 
such  as  a  piano  wire,  a  violin  string,  an 
organ  pipe,  etc.,  and  also  of  the  bodies 
which  transmit  vibrations  to  the  ear,  such 
as  air,  wooden  rods  and  other  elastic  media. 

The  structure  of  the  ear  and  the  sensa- 
tion of  sound  are  generally  studied  under 
physiology,  and  are  seldom  included  under 
acoustics. 

A  VIBRATING    STRING 

One  of  the  most  typical  of  vibrating 
bodies  is  a  stretched  string,  such  as  is  em- 
ployed in  the  guitar  or  the  harp.  When  a 
string  of  this  kind  is  plucked  by  the  finger 
a  series  of  waves  is  started  in  the  string, 
and  these  waves  are  reflected  from  the  fixed 
ends  of  the  string  in  such  a  way  that  the 
string  -"ibrates  as  a  whole,  to  and  fro,  in 
a  manner  familiar  to  every  one.  It  has 
been  found  by  experiment  that  the  number 
of  vibrations  which  a  string  will  make  in 
one  second,  i.e.,  the  pitch  of  the  string, 
depends  upon  three  things  only,  namely, 
the  length  of  the  string,  the  force  with  which 
it  is  stretched,  and  the  mass  of  unit  length 
of  the  string.  This  may  be  described  more 
definitely  as  follows* 

If  we  denote  by  »  the  pitch  of  the  string, 
whose  length  is  I,  by  T  the  stretching  force, 
and  by  m  the  mass  of  unit  length,  then 


OBSERVER. 

SPBED  OP  SOUND 
IN  METERS 

PER   SEC. 

TEMP.  =  o°c. 

METHOD. 

Moll  and  Van  Beck  . 
Regnault  

333-77 
330.  71 

Eye  and  ear 

Szathmari.  .  .  ..... 

331.57 

m 

Evidently,  therefore,  we  can  raise  the  pitch 
of  a  string  in  two  ways,  either  by  increasing 
the  stretching  force,  i.e.,  by  increasingT,  or  by 
shortening  its  length,  i.e.,  by  diminishing  I. 

SOUND  A   WAVE   MOTION 

The  evidence  for  thinking  that  the  dis- 
turbance which  we  call  sound  is  a  wave 
motion  in  the  air  is  as  follows: 

1.  Sound  is  reflected  from  buildings  or 
hillsides  just  as  water  waves  are  reflected 
from  a  wharf.     This  is  the  familiar  phe- 
nomenon of  the  echo. 

2.  Two  sounds  can  be  added  together  to 
produce  silenqe.     The  simplest  method  of 
doing  this  is  to  hold  a  tuning  fork  near  to 
one  ear,  front  of  you,  and  while  it  is  still 
vibrating   rotate   it   slowly   about   its   stem 
as  an  axis.     It  is  found  that  there  are  cer- 
tain   positions    in    which    the    disturbance 
from  one  prong  of  the  fork  will  just  annul 
the    disturbance   from    the   other   prong    of 


the  fork,  thus  adding  two  sounds  together 
to  produce  silence. 

3.  Sound  waves  can  actually  be  seen  by 
properly  illuminating  the  air  with  an  electric 
spark.  This  was  first  done  by  Toepler  of 
Dresden.  More  recently  Professor  R.  W. 
Wood  has  succeeded  by  this  method  in 
making  instantaneous  photographs  of  sound 
waves,  showing  just  what  portions  of  the 
air  are  condensed  and  what  portions  are 
rarefied  at  the  instant. 

SPEED   OF   SOUND   IN   AIR 

It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that 
sounoT  waves  of  all  lengths  travel  in  air 
with  the  same  speed.  This  is  evident, 
indeed,  from  the  fact  that  the  "time"  of 
an  orchestra  is  just  as  perfect  at  long  dis- 
tances as  at  short  distances. 

Among  the  best  measures  of  this  speed 
are  the  following: 


As  a  mean  we  may  take  332  meters  per 
second,  which  is  equivalent  to  1,089  fee* 
per  second,  at  a  temperature  of  o°  C.  New- 
ton and  Laplace  first  showed  how  the  speed 
of  sound  may  be  computed  in  any  gas  as 
soon  as  its  pressure  and  its  density  are 
known.  For  they  proved  that  if  V  denotes 
the  speed  of  sound  in  a  gas  in  which  the 
density  is  D  and  the  pressure  P,  then 


V  = 


where  k  is  a  constant,  which  for  most  gases 
has  the  approximate  value  of  1.4.  But 
it  has  been  found  that  the  value  of  this 
constant,  k,  depends  upon  the  number  of 
atoms  in  one  molecule  of  the  gas.  If  there 
is  but  one  atom  in  the  molecule  then 
k— 1.6.  Accordingly  when  chemists  wish 
to  determine  how  many  atoms  there  are 
in  a  molecule  of  any  given  gas  they  measure 
the  speed  of  sound  in  that  gas,  then  measure 
the  pressure  and  density,  and  afterward 
compute  k  by  the  use  of  the  expression 
given  above. 

MUSICAL  TONES 

The  sound  which  is  produced  by  a  regular 
and  rapid  vibration  is  called  a  "musical 
tone,"  while  the  sound  which  is  produced 
by  irregular  vibrations  is  called  a  "noise." 
Every  musical  tone  possesses  three  features 
by  which  it  may  be  distinguished  from  all 
other  musical  tones.  These  are  loudness, 
pitch  and  quality. 

i.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  loudness  or 
intensity  of  a  sound  depends  simply  upon 
the  amplitude  of  the  vibrating  air  particles 
at  the  ear.  The  loudness  of  a  sound  will. 


ACOUSTICS 


ADAM 


therefore,  vary  mot  only  with  the  distam«« 
of  the  sounding  body,  but  also  with  the 
amount  of  vibration  in  the  sounding  body. 

2.  The  pitch  of  a  note  depends  simply  upon 
the  number  of  vibrations  per  second,  that  is, 
the  frequency  of   the  body  which  produces  it. 

3.  But  even  when  notes  have  the  same 
loudness  and  the  same  pitch  they  may  be 
quite  different,  as,  for  instance,  the  differ- 
ence between  middle  C  on  the  guitar  and 
on  the  piano.     Two  notes  of  this  kind  are 
said  to  differ  in  quality.     And  quality  has 
been  shown  to  depend  upon  the  presence  of 
other  notes,  calkd  overtones,  along  with  the 
note  under  consideration. 

THE   MUSICAL   SCALE 

When  we  consider  one  tone  in  relation  to 
other  tones  we  are  led  to  a  study  of  the 
musical  scale.  Two  definitions  are  neces- 
sary to  any  understanding  of  the  musical 
scale,  viz.: 

1.  A  musical  interval  between   any  two 
notes  is  defined  as  the  ratio  of  their  fre- 
quencies.    Two  notes  which  have  the  same 
frequency  are  said  to  be  in  unison.     But 
if  the   ratio   be   2:1    then    the   interval   is 
said  to  be  an  octave.  , 

2.  The  Major  Triad. — It  is  a  very  remark- 
able fact  that  the  ears  of  all  western  nations 
consider  any  three  notes  whose  frequencies 
are  in  the  ratio  4:5:6  as  harmonious.     Such 
a    combination    is    called    the    major  triad, 
and  is  always  pleasing  to  the  ear. 

The  interval  between  any  note  and  its 
octave  is  divided  by  musicians  into  a  series 
of  seven  smaller  intervals,  called  tones  and 
semitones.  These  tones  are  called  by  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  and  together  form  what 
is  known  as  the  musical  scale. 


o 

• 

o 

•o 

«+o 
Hn 

PQ 

•a 

-  f. 

< 

A 

> 

O 

<a 

ajoo 

fc 

«+o 

w 

•a 

f 

H 

Q 

£ 

* 

0 

0 

•o 

0* 

Name  of  Note. 

Name  of  Note  in 
Vocal  Music 

Interval  

Prom  inspection  of  this  table  it  will  be 
readily  seen  that  the  entire  Major  Scale, 
as  it  is  called,  is  made  up  of  the  thiee 
following  major  triads: 

C  E  :  G  -  4  :  5  6 
F  A  :2C  -  4  ;  5  6 
G  B  :  2D  -  4  :  5  6 

For  an  excellent  experimental  discussion 
of  acoustics,  see  Tyndall's  Lectures  on 
Sound  (Appleton),  and  Blaserna's  Theory 
of  Sound  (Int.  Sci.  Series).  The  great 
masterpiece  in  the  literature  of  acoustics 
is,  however,  Helmholtz's  Sensations  of  Ton*, 
trans,  by  Ellis  (Longmans).  HENRY  CREW. 

Acre  (a-ker  or  d-ker),  a  seaport  of  Syria. 
Its  harbor  is  the  best  on  the  neighboring 
coast.  It  is  very  old,  and  famous  for  the 
attacks  and  sieges  it  has  sustained,  par- 
ticularly the  assault  of  Richard  Cceur  de 
Lion  in  1191,  and  the  sixty  days'  siege 
of  Napoleon  in  1799.  Population,  10,000. 

Acropolis.     See  ATHENS. 

Ac'tinism  (Gr.  aktin,  a  ray),  the  chemical 
property  of  light,  solar  or  other  radiant 
energy,  as  the  sun's  rays  in  photography, 
and  by  which  chemical  changes  are  pro- 
duced. The  sun-recording  instrument 
which  measures  and  records  the  quantity 
of  actinism  present  is  called  the  actinograph; 
while  the  actinometer  is  the  instrument  or 
apparatus  for  measuring  the  chemical  effects 
of  radiation  from  any  source,  as  in  measur- 
ing the  intensity  of  the  rays  on  a  photo- 
graphic plate,  or  piece  of  sensitized  paper, 
when  exposed  to  the  sunlight. 

Ac'tinomor'phic  (ak'tin-o-mor'ftk)  Flow- 
ers. Those  whose  parts  are  repeated  uni- 
formly about  a  center,  like  the  parts  of  a 
radiate  animal.  Such  flowers  are  often 
called  "regular."  Although  the  name 
applies  to  all  parts  of  the  flower  it  is  most 
commonly  used  in  connection  with  the 
petals.  When  the  petals  are  all  about  alike 
and  equally  spaced  about  the  center,  as 
in  the  buttercup  and  the  rose,  the  flower 
is  actinomorphic.  The  contrasting  phrase 
is  "zygomorphic  flowers."  The  noun  form 
of  the  word  is  "actinomorphy." 

Actium  (ak' 'shi-um) ,  in  Acarnania,  the 
scene  of  the  naval  battle  in  which  Octavius, 
afterward  called  Augustus  Caesar,  conquered 
Mark  Antony  and  Cleopatra  and  became, 
in  consequence,  emperor  of  Rome.  The 
number  of  ships  on  each  side  was  about 
the  same,  but  the  battle  was  lost  by  the 
cowardice  of  Cleopatra,  who  fled  with  her 
triremes  (ships  propelled  by  oars)  as  soon 
as  attacked,  followed  by  Antony,  who 
would  not  be  separated  from  her  even  to 
win  an  empire.  The  Actian  games,  occur- 
ring every  four  years,  "werjUestablished  here 
by  Augustus  in  honor  of  his  victory. 

Ad'am,  the  first  man,  the  father  of  the 
human  race.  His  sons  were  Cain,  Abel 
and  Seth.  He  lived  to  be  930  years  old, 
and  through  his  son  Seth  was  the  direct 
ancestor  of  th«  Hebr«w  nation. 


ADAM 


xo 


ADAMS 


Adam,  Graeme  Mercer.  Born  in  Midlo- 
thian, Scotland,  1839.  Educated  at  Edin- 
burgh. Came  to  Toronto  in  1858.  Engaged 
in  publishing  and  as  bookseller  (whole- 
sale). In  1 86 1  published  the  British  Amer- 
ican Magazine.  From  1869  to  1872,  edited 
the  Canada  Bookseller.  In  1872  with 
Professor  Goldwin  Smith  and  others,  he 
established  the  Canadian  Monthly.  Sole 
editor  of  it  frorr^  1879  to  1883.  Established 
the  Canadian  educational  Monthly  and  so 
ably  edited  it  for  five  years  that  it  was 
recognized  as  one  of  the  best  of  the  kind 
on  the  Continent.  For  some  time  editor 
and  manager  of  the  Bystander,  assisting 
Professor  Goldwin  Smith.  In  1883  edited 
the  Royal  Canadian  Readers.  Wrote  Illus- 
trated Quebec,  Illustrated  Toronto,  Canada 
from  Sea  to  Sea,  Scenic  America  and  several 
similar  volumes.  Contributor  to  Pictur- 
esque Canada,  which  was  edited  by  Principal 
Grant.  Revised  Collins'  Life  of  Sir  John  A. 
Macdonald.  Became  editor  in  1896  of  Self- 
Culture,  anew  magazine  published  in  Chicago. 
A  volunteer  officer.  Commanded  a  company 
at  Ridgeway,  and  was  on  that  occasion  pre- 
sented with  an  address  and  a  sword. 

Adami  (d-da'mee),  John  George,  M.A., 
M.D.,  F.R.S.S.,  LL.D.,  was  born  m  Man- 
chester, Eng.,  Jan.  12,  1862,  son  of  the 
late  John  George  Adami.  He  was  educated 
at  Owen  College,  Manchester,  and  at  Christ's 
College,  Cambridge,  studying  afterward  in 
Breslau  and  Paris.  He  took  distinguished 
honors  at  Cambridge  in  natural  science,  was 
Darwin  prizeman  in  1885,  M.R.C.S.,  and 
was  appointed  demonstrator  of  pathology 
in  Cambridge  University  in  1887.  Elected 
fellow  of  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  in  1 89 1 ,  he 
soon  after  became  head  of  the  pathological 
department  of  the  Royal  Victoria  Hospital. 
Since  1892  he  has  been  professor  of  pathology 
in  McGill  University,  Canada.  He  is  the  au- 
thor of  numerous  monographs  upon  subjects 
relating  to  pathology  in  French,  German, 
English  and  American  medical  journals,  and 
of  many  papers  read  before  medical  societies. 
Ad'ams,  Charles  Francis,  the  son  of 
John  Quincy  Adams,  was  born  in  Boston, 

Aug.  18,  1807. 
He  graduated  at 
Harvard  College 
in  1825,  and 
studied  law  with 
Daniel  Webster. 
He  was  for  five 
years  a  member 
of  the  Massachu- 
setts legislature; 
in  1848  he  was 
the  Free  Soil 
candidate  for 
Vice-president, 
and  was  elected 
congressman  in 
1858,  joining  the 
CHARLES  FRANCIS  ADAMS  Republican 


party.  He  came  into  great  prominence  as 
American  minister  to  England  (1861-1868), 
the  same  office  formerly  held  by  his  father 
and  grandfather.  He  found  the  great  body 
of  Englishmen  hostile  or  indifferent  to  the 
United  States.  His  position  was  one  of  the 
greatest  responsibility  and  delicacy.  In 
discharging  its  duties  he  showed  ability  and 
tact  of  the  first  order,  and  made  a  reputa- 
tion as  one  of  the  most  brilliant  diplomatists 
ever  sent  out  from  Washington.  He  died 
at  Boston,  Nov.  21,  1886. 

Ad'ams,  Charles  Kendall,  LL.D.,  presi- 
dent of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  was 
born  at  Derby,  Vermont,  Jan.  24,  1835,  and 
educated  at  the  University  of  Michigan. 
He  also  studied  in  Germany,  France  and 
Italy.  From  1867  to  1885  was  professor  of 
history  in  the  University  of  Michigan,  and 
from  the  latter  year  until  1892  was  president 
of  Cornell  University.  In  1892  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin. He  was  the  author,  among  other 
writings,  of  Democracy  and  Monarchy  in 
France;  of  a  Manual  of  Historical  Literature; 
and  of  a  monograph  on  Christopher  Colum- 
bus. From  1892  to  1895  ne  acted  as  editor- 
in-chief  of  Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopaedia. 
He  died  July  25,  1902. 

Adams,  Henry  (1838),  American  histor- 
ical writer,  third  son  of  the  late  Charles 
Francis  Adams,  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
and  educated  at  Harvard,  where  he  grad- 
uated in  1858.  Three  years  later  he  accom- 
panied his  father  as  private  secretary  when 
that  diplomat  was  appointed  American 
Minister  to  England,  and  on  his  return  to 
this  country  he  was  for  several  years  in- 
structor at  Harvard.  During  the  years 
1875-76  he  edited  The  North  American 
Review,  and  in  the  latter  year  he  published 
a  work  on  Anglo-Saxon  Courts  at  Law. 
Later  on  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Wash- 
ington, and  there  devoted  himself  to  his- 
torical research,  writing  Lives  of  Albert 
Gallatin  and  John  Randolph,  and  an  im- 
portant History  of  the  united  States,  in 
nine  volumes,  treating  of  the  period  1801-1 7, 
the  administrations  of  Jefferson  and  Madi- 
son. The  latter  work  was  published  in 
1889-91. 

Adams,  Herbert  Baxter  (1850-1901), 
American  historian  and  educator,  born  at 
Amherst,  Mass.,  and  educated  at  Amherst 
College  and  at  Heidelberg,  Germany,  obtain- 
ing at  the  latter  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  Re- 
turning to  the  United  States  about  the  era 
when  Johns  Hopkins  University  was  founded 
Dr.  Adams  became  associate  professor  in 
that  institute  and  subsequently  was  ap- 
pointed full  professor.  He  also  became 
historical  lecturer  at  Smith  College, 
Northampton,  Mass.,  and  for  a  time  lectured 
at  Chautauqua.  He  took  part  in  the 
inception  of  the  American  Historical  Asso- 
ciation and  acted  as  its  first  secretary, 
subsequently  becoming  first  vice-president. 


ADAMS 


zz 


ADAMS 


He  edited  an  important  series  of  educa- 
tional monographs  issued  by  the  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Education,  and  was  editor  also 
of  the  Johns  Hopkins  Studies  in  History 
and  Political  Science.  His  other  published 
work  embraces,  besides  his  two  volume 
Life  and  Writings  of  Jared  Sparks,  issued 
in  1893,  monographs  on  Maryland's  Influ- 
ence in  Founding  a  National  Common- 
wealth, on  The  College  of  William  and  Mary, 
on  The  Study  of  History  in  American  Col- 
leges and  Universities,  on  Thomas  Jefferson 
and  the  University  of  Virginia,  and  a  work 
on  the  History  of  the  United  States  Consti- 
tution. Dr.  Adams  died  in  1901. 

Ad'ams,  John,  second  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  at  Braintree, 
Mass.,  Oct.  19,  1735. 
The  father  of  John 
Adams  was  a  farmer  of 
small  means,  to  which 
he  added  the  occupa- 
tion of  shoemaking. 
He  gave  a  classical 
education  to  his  son 
'John,  who  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1755. 
In  1764  he  married 
Abigail  Smith,  a 
daughter  of  the  min- 
JOHN  ADAMS  ister  of  Weymouth. 
He  took  part  in  the  measures  against  the 
Stamp  Act,  and  was  prominent  in  all  the 
steps  which  brought  about  the  war  of  the 
Revolution.  He  was  one  of  the  five  dele- 
gates from  Massachusetts  to  the  congress 
which  met  in  Philadelphia  in  1774,  and 
also  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress 
of  1775.  Here,  with  Lee  and  Jefferson,  he 
boldly  advocated  separation  from  the 
mother  country.  Of  the  three  committees 
appointed,  on  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, on  a  confederation  and  on  foreign 
relations,  Adams  was  a  member  of  the  first 
and  third.  The  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence was  drawn  up  by  Jefferson,  but  on 
Adams  devolved  the  task  of  battling  it 
through  Congress  in  a  three-days'  debate. 
The  plan  of  a  treaty  reported  by  the  third 
committee  was  drawn  up  by  Adams.  The 
preparation  of  articles  of  war  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  army  was  given  to  Adams  and 
Jefferson,  but  Jefferson  left  the  task  to 
Adams,  who  drew  up  the  articles  and  argued 
them  through  Congress.  Thus  occupied  for 
nearly  two  years  he  gained  the  reputation 
"of  having  the  clearest  head  and  firmest 
heart  of  any  man  in  Congress."  In  1777 
he  was  appointed  a  commissioner  to  France ; 
in  1779  he  was  appointed  minister  to  treat 
with  Great  Britain  for  peace  and  commerce ; 
and  in  1782  he  helped  in  settling  the  condi- 
tions of  peace  with  England.  In  1789  he  was 
the  first  ambassador  of  the  United  States 
to  Great  Britain.  When  George  III  ex- 
pressed his  pleasure  in  receiving  an  am- 
bassador who  had  no  prejudices  in  favor  of 


France,  the  enemy  of  the  English  Crown, 
Adams  replied:  "I  have  no  prejudices  but 
in  favor  of  my  native  land."  On  his  return 
to  the  United  States  he  was  elected  Vice- 

S resident,  and  in  1797,  was  made  President, 
n  1 80 1  his  opponent,  Jefferson,  was  elected 
by  a  majority  of  one  in  the  electoral  college. 
Adams  died  July  4,  1826,  on  the  fiftieth 
anniversary  of  the  independence  of  the 
United  States.  See  Morse's  Life,  in  Ameri- 
can Statesmen  Series. 

Ad'ams,  John  Quincy,  sixth  President 
of  the  United  States  and  eldest  son  of  John 
Adams,  was  born  July 
it,  1767,  at  Braintree, 
Mass.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard 
College  in  1788.  Wash- 
ington appointed 
him  minister  to  The 
Hague  in  1794,  and 
later  on  minister  to 
Portugal,  but  his 
father,  becoming  Presi- 
dent, changed  his 
JOHN  Q.  ADAMS  destination  to  Berlin. 
In  this  promotion  of  his  own  son  John 
Adams  acted  on  the  written  advice  of  Wash- 
ington, who  said  that  young  Adams  was 
the  ablest  person  in  the  American  diplo- 
matic service,  and  merited  promotion  ought 
not  to  be  withheld  from  him  because  he 
was  the  son  of  the  President.  He  soon  be- 
came a  leader  of  the  Federal  party,  but 
separated  from  them  on  the  question  of 
the  embargo.  He  was  sent  as  minister  to 
Russia  and  to  England  by  Madison.  He 
was  secretary  of  state  under  Monroe.  In 
the  presidential  contest  of  1824  he  was  the 
cadidate  of  the  Whig  party.  As  no  one 
of  the  candidates  secured  a  majority  of  the 
electors  chosen  by  the  states  the  election 
went  to  the  House  of  Representatives, 
where  Adams  was  chosen.  His  administra- 
tion was  marked  by  few  events  of  impor- 
tance, though  it  was  a  period  of  general 
progress  and  prosperity.  In  1830  he  was 
elected  to  Congress,  where  he  continued  to 
represent  his  district  until  his  death.  Here 
he  rendered  perhaps  the  most  important 
service  in  his  political  life,  becoming  con- 
spicuous and  influential  in  shaping  tariff 
legislation,  in  arguing  for  the  right  of 
petition  to  Congress  and  in  organizing  and 
leading  the  opposition  to  slavery.  He  was 
stricken  with  paralysis  while  occupying  his 
seat  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  and 
died  Feb.  23,  1848.  See  Morse's  Life,  in 
American  Statesmen  Series. 

Adams,  Maude,  an  American  actress 
(real  name  Kiskadden),  was  born  Nov.  n, 
1872,  in  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah.  Her  mother 
was  the  leading  woman  in  a  stock  company 
and  while  going  to  school  Miss  Adams 
often  appeared  on  the  stage  in  child's  parts. 
At  sixteen  she  joined  E.  H.  Sothern's  Com- 
pany in  New  York  in  the"  Midnight  Bell."  She 


ADAMS 


ADDRESS 


lias  been  connected  with  Charles  Frobmaa's 
itock  company  and  has  supported  John 
Drew.  Her  most  pronounced  success  has 
been  in  J.  M.  Barrie's  plays,  and  especially 
in  "The  Little  Minister."  During  the 
winter  of  1906-07  she  made  a  great  success 
in  New  York  in  the  play  "Peter  Pan." 

Ad'ams,  Samuel,  was  born  at  Boston, 
Sept.  37,  1722.  He  was  prominent  in 
Massachusetts  in  the  revolutionary  period, 
and  helped  very  much  to  mould  public 
opinion  and  to  strengthen  his  fellow- 
citizens  in  their  determination  staunchly 
to  uphold  their  rights.  He  got  up  town 
meetings,  wrote  the  protest  which  Boston 
made  against  the  Stamp  Act,  was  a  leader 
in  debate,  and  so  formidable  an  opponent 
that  attempts  were  made  by  the  English 

Ktrty  to  buy  his  support.  He  was  a  mem- 
r  of  the  Continental  Congress,  a  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  and,  after 
the  war,  governor  of  Massachusetts.  He 
died  at  Boston,  Oct.  ?,  1803.  See  Hosmer's 
Life  in  American  Statesmen  Series. 

Adams,  Wm.  Taylor,  better  known  as 
"Oliver  Optic"  (1822-1897),  was  a  native 
of  Massachusetts,  a  school  teacher  in  Bos- 
ton, and  a  popular  writer  of  tales  for  the 
young.  Among  the  best  known  of  his 
works,  of  which  he  is  said  to  have  written 
over  100,  are  the  Starry  Flag  Series,  and 
Young  America  Abroad. 

Adams,  Mass.,  a  city  in  Berkshire, 
county,  on  Hoosac  River,  includes  the  villages 
of  Maple  Grove,  Zylonite,  Renfrew.  Greylock 
Park  (state  reserve)  contains  Greylock  Moun- 
tain, the  highest  point  in  the  state.  It  manu- 
factures paper,  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  does 
foundry  work,  etc.,  and  has  a  public  library. 
Population  13,026. 

Addams  (Miss)  Jane,  a  philanthropist 
and  social  settlement  worker,  born  in 
Cedarville,  111.,  Sept.  6,  1860.  She  grad- 
uated from  Rockford  College  in  1881, 
studied  two  years  in  Europe,  1883-85,  and 
later  studied  in  Philadelphia.  In  1889  she 
opened  Hull  House,  a  social  settlement 
institution  in  Chicago,  and  is  still  the  head 
of  that  institution.  She  has  written  and 
lectured  extensively  on  social  and  political 
reform.  She  is  the  author  of  Democracy 
and  Social  Ethics. 

Adder.  See   VIPER. 

Adder's  -  Tongue,  or  dog-tooth  violet, 
is  a  wild  flower  fond  of  brookside  and  moist 
wood.  It  belongs  to  the  lily  family,  is 
called  by  many  a  child  the  "yellow  lily." 
The  plant  has  two  lance-shaped  spotted 
leaves,  bears  but  a  single  blossom.  The 
flower  will  turn  on  its  stalk  to  follow  the 
sun.  Its  name  is  not  considered  appro- 
priate; change  to  fawn  lily  has  been  sug- 
gested, also  to  trout  lily.  It  is  one  of  the 
earliest  spring  flowers.  From  Nova  Scotia 
to  Florida  it  is  found,  and  west  to  the 
Mississippi.  The  white  adder 's-tongue  is 
more  common  in  the  west  than  in  the  east. 


Ad'dison,  Joseph,  a  great  English  essay- 
ist, was  born  in  1672,  graduated  at  Oxford, 
and  held  for  some  years  a  fellowship  at  the 
University.  Here  some  of  his  early  writings 
brought  him  into  notice  and  secured  him 
a  pension  of  $1,500  a  year.  Gaining  this, 
he  traveled  on  the  continent,  observing, 
studying  and  writing.  In  the  winter  of 
1701,  amid  the  stoppages  and  discomforts 
of  a  journey  across  Mt.  Cenis,  he  composed 
his  Letter  from  Italy,  which  contains  many 
fine  touches  of  description  and  is  by  far  the 
best  of  his  poems.  At  the  death  of  King 
William  his  pension  was  stopped,  and  hav- 
ing no  means  of  his  own  his  prospects  were 
gloomy  indeed,  till  a  lucky  chance  put  him 
on  his  feet  again.  The  ministry  desired  a 
poem  written  in  praise  of  Marlborough,  who 
had  just  won  the  battle  of  Blenheim.  Ad- 
dison  wrote  the  poem,  The  Campaign,  and 
was  rewarded  with  the  office  of  excise 
commissioner.  He  held  other  public  offices, 
which  kept  him  from  writing  much  for  the 
next  six  years.  In  1710  he  began  to  bring 
out  his  famous  essays.  These  he  con- 
tributed to  the  Tattler,  next  to  the  Spec- 
tator and  afterwards  to  the  Guardian, 
which  he  published  in  conjunction  with  his 
friend  Richard  Steele.  The  most  success- 
ful of  these  periodicals  was  the  Spectator. 
It  was  a  daily  paper,  but  without  any 
news.  It  took  the  fancy  of  Londoners  at 
the  time,  and  though  it  only  ran  a  few 
months  has  been  renowned  ever  since. 
Addision  died  in  1719.  See  Courthope's 
Addison.  in  English  Men  of  Letters  Series. 

Address,  Forms  of,  the  titles  or  cere- 
monious terms  to  be  used  in  addressing 
written  communications  to  people  of  high 
or  official  position.  Usage  in  this  country 
has  sanctioned  the  employment  of  the 
following  modes  of  address :  His  Excellency, 
The  President  of  the  United  States.  Custom 
has  also  made  proper  the  use  of  the  prefix 
His  Excellency  when  addressing  governors 
of  states  and  ambassadors  or  ministers  of 
the  United  States  abroad.  In  conversa- 
tion, or  in  formal  oral  address,  the  term 
Mr.  President  is  used  by  all  to  the  head  of 
the  nation,  save  by  the  President's  personal 
or  intimate  friends.  The  Vice-president  is 
addressed  by  letter  as  The  Honorable,  The 
Vice-president  of  the  United  States,  or  The 

Hon. ,  Vice-president  of  the  United 

States.  When  the  latter  is  acting  as  ex- 
officio  presiding  officer  of  the  Senate  he 
is  addressed  by  the  senators  as  Mr.  Presi- 
dent. Cabinet  officers,  senators  and  repre- 
sentatives of  the  United  States,  judges  of 
state  and  federal  courts  and  consuls  are 
all  entitled  to  the  prefix  Honorable,  as  The 
Hon.  Senator  A.  B.  Clark;  The  Hon.  Mr. 
Justice,  or  The  Hon.  Judge  Jones.  Custom 
also  permits  the  use  of  Honorable  to  mayors 
of  cities,  as  Th«  Hon.  Mayor  Smith,  or  The 
Hon.  Lionel  Smith,  Mayor  of  the  city  of 


ADE 


ADJECTIVE 


For  church  dignitaries  the  terms  of  ad- 
dress vary  somewhat  with  the  denomina- 
tion. In  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church 

the  bishop  is  addressed  The  Right  Rev. ; 

in  the  Methodist  Church  as  The  Rev.  Bishop 

.  Clergymen  take  the  title  The  Rev. 

or  simply  Rev.,  adding  any  collegiate  de- 
grees to  which  they  may  be  entitled,  such 
as  M.A.,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  etc.,  or  in  the  case 
of  a  clergyman  who  has  a  doctorate  degree 
he  may  be  addressed  simply :  The  Rev. 

Dr. .  It  is  bad  form,  it  may  be  added, 

to  speak  or  write  of  a  clergyman  as  Rev. 
Jones,  Rev.  Smith,  etc.  If  his  Christian 
name  is  not  known,  use  invariably  the 
prefix  Mr.  (Mister),  as  the  Rev.  Mr.  Jones, 
etc.  Archbishops  are  addressed :  The  Most 

Rev. ,  D.D.  (or  whatever  degree 

possessed  of) ;  while  cardinals  are  addressed 

His  Eminence .  Physicians  and 

surgeons  are  addressed :  Dr. ,  or 

Thomas  Jones,  Esq.,  M.D.  Lawyers  or 
private  gentlemen  may  be  addressed  either 
,  Esq.,  or  plain  Mr. . 

Where  husband  and  wife  are  both  ad- 
dressed, it  is  proper  to  give  the  title  of 
the  former,  followed  by  the  word  Mrs., 
using  the  given  name  or  initials  of  the 
husband;  thus:  His  Excellency,  the  Presi- 
dent, and  Mrs.  McKinley;  Governor  and 
Mrs.  Jonas  Smith;  or  The  Hon.  and  Mrs. 
J.  L.  Jones.  In  the  case  of  scholastic  titles 
or  those  conferred  by  universities  they 
usually  precede  the  name,  thus:  Pro}. 
Harry  Jones;  Dr.  Walker  Brown,  or  may 
follow  the  name,  thus:  Goldwin  Smith, 
Esq.,  D.C.L.  (Doctor  of  Civil  Law),  or 
,  Esq.,  LL.D.  (Doctor  of  Laws). 

Ade,  George,  humorous  writer  and  play- 
wright, was  born  at  Kentland,  Indiana,  in 
1866.  He  was  educated  at  Purdue  Uni- 
versity and  did  newspaper  work  in  Chicago, 
where  his  Stories  of  the  Streets  of  the  Town 
brought  him  into  notice.  His  Fables  in 
Slang,  two  volumes  appearing  in  1901-02, 
gave  him  wide  reputation  for  pungent  and 
satirical  wit.  His  musical  comedies,  The 
Sultan  of  Sulu  and  Peggy  from  Paris,  ap- 
peared in  1903.  Later  works  are  Tne 
County  Chairman,  The  College  Widow  and 
others. 

Adelaide  (ad'e-ldd),  situated  about  six 
miles  from  St.  Vincent's  Gulf,  is  the  capital 
of  South  Australia.  The  Torrens  River 
divides  it  into  North  and  South  Adelaide. 
It  is  surrounded  by  hills,  has  large  manu- 
factories, and  exports  especially  copper  and 
gold.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of 
Adelaide,  incorporated  in  1874,  and  author- 
ized to  grant  degrees  in  arts,  law,  music, 
medicine  and  science.  Port  Adelaide,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river,  is  the  principal  port 
of  South  Australia.  Population,  with 
suburbs,  184,393. 

A'den,  a  British  Protectorate  on  the 
Arabian  Coast,  about  100  miles  east  of  the 
Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  at  the  southern 


entrance  to  the  Red  Sea.  Besides  the  town 
and  port,  which  are  strongly  fortified  and 
are  used  as  an  important  coaling  station 
for  British  vessels  on  the  way  to  India 
via  the  Suez  Canal  and  the  Red  Sea,  the 
region  embraces  a  protectorate,  consisting 
of  a  large  slice  of  the  Arabian  hinterland 
(area,  about  9,000  square  miles),  ar- 
ranged in  1905  by  Commissioners  of  the 
Ottoman  and  British  Governments.  This  pro- 
tectorate, which  includes  Aden,  the  Island 
of  Perim  and  the  Aden  Hinterland,  is 
administered  by  a  political  resident  of  the 
British  Government  and  made  subject  to 
the  Government  of  Bombay,  India.  In 
1911  its  population  was  46,165.  Its  trade 
is  almost  purely  a  transhipment  one,  except 
that  from  the  interior  of  Arabia,  which 
consists  of  coffee,  gums,  hides  and  skins. 
The  peninsula  on  which  Aden  stands  is 
volcanic,  but  the  climate  is  healthful, 
though  there  is  little  rainfall,  which  is 
unfavorable  to  agriculture,  which,  it  may 
be  said,  hardly  exists.  In  early  days  Aden 
was  used  by  the  Romans  as  an  entrepot 
for  the  empire's  trade  with  the  east. 
Subsequently  it  came  under  Portuguese 
and  Ottoman  rule,  and  in  1839  it  was  taken 
from  the  Turks  by  Britain. 

Adirondacks  (ad-l-ron-daks) ,  a  group  of 
mountains  in  northern  New  York,  lying 
between  Lakes  Champlain  and  Ontario. 
They  rise  from  a  large  tableland  to  about 
2,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and 
are  chiefly  of  granite  formation.  Mt.  Marcy, 
the  highest  summit,  is  5,370  feet  high. 
The  forests,  especially  the  white  pine,  are 
very  valuable.  The  scenery  and  abundant 
game  of  these  mountains  have  made  the 
region  a  popular  resort  for  tourists  and 
'sportsmen.  The  state  of  New  York  has 
constituted  a  forest  reserve  or  park  in 
this  district,  comprising  2,807,760  acres, 
an  area  larger  than  the  state  of  Connecticut. 
A  large  force  of  men  is  employed  to  guard 
against  forest  fires,  enforce  the  law  against 
illegal  fishing  and  hunting,  and  to  act  as 
guides.  A  sanitarium  for  the  treatment  of 
consumptive  patients  is  located  at  Saranac 
Lake. 

Ad'Jectlve  (Latin  ad-\-jacere,  to  add  to; 
to  throw  out),  is  a  word  used  in  grammar 
to  describe,  qualify  or  limit  the  meaning 
of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun;  as  a  wise  man,  a 
good  book,  a  lovely  flower,  a  true  story, 
a  happy  child,  a  weariful  day.  These  are 
called  descriptive  adjectives,  since  they 
express  some  property  or  quality  possessed 
by  the  noun.  There  are  also  limiting  ad- 
jectives used  to  express  number  or  quality, 
such  as  the  indefinite  article  a  or  an,  and 
the  definite  article  the,  this,  one,  first, 
some,  much,  etc.  Not  a  few  of  these  are 
used  like  pronouns,  and  are  termed  ad- 
jective pronouns;  some  of  these  are:  all, 
any,  each,  few,  many,  such,  several,  etc. 
Descriptive  adjectives  are  sometimes,  by 


ADJUTANT 


ADOLESCENCE 


ellipsis,  used  as  nouns;  so  used,  the  ad- 
jective when  it  denotes  persons  is  taken  in 
the  plural  sense,  and  is  usually  preceded 
by  the,  as  "The  poor  deserve  sympathy." 
Adjectives  are  used  comparatively,  when 
we  desire  to  indicate  that  one  thing  pos- 
sesses a  given  quality  in  a  higher  degree 
than  another.  There  are  three  degrees  of 
comparison — the  positive,  the  comparative 
and  the  superlative,  as  exemplified  thus; 
sweet  (positive),  sweeter  (comparative), 
and  sweetest  (superlative).  Other  examples 
are,  tall,  short,  warm,  cold,  great,  small, 
rare,  fine,  etc. — the  comparative  being 
expressed  by  adding  er  and  the  superlative 
by  adding  est  to  the  positive.  Degrees  of 
quality  are  also  expressed  by  prefixing  to 
the  positive  the  adverbs  more  and  most, 
less  and  least — as  cheerful,  more  cheerful, 
most  cheerful;  amiable,  less  amiable,  least 
amiable.  When  two  qualities  in  the  same 
person  or  thing  are  compared,  or  when 
the  adjective  we  want  to  use  follows  its 
noun,  the  following  is  the  mode  of  usage: 
He  is  more  wise  than  honest.  In  the 
English  and  German  languages  the  usual 
place  of  the  adjective  when  it  is  not  in 
the  predicate  is  before  the  noun.  For 
examples  of  phrase-adjectives  and  other 
uses  of  the  adjective  see  any  good  text- 
book on  grammar. 

Ad'  jutant,  a  large  stork  found  in  tropical 
India,  by  the  English  given  the  soldier 
name  because  of  its  erect  attitude  and 
solemn  manner  of  stalking  about.  Argala 
is  the  native  name.  It  is  of  great  size, 
sometimes  six  feet  high  and  fourteen  feet 
in  expanse  of  wings.  Its  beak  is  very  large; 


ADJUTANT-BIRD 

it  sometimes  catches  crows  and  other  birds 
on  the  wing,  and  is  able  to  swallow  a  kitten, 
fowl  or  leg  of  mutton,  but  its  usual  food  is 
offal,  lizards,  etc.  It  frequents  the  neigh- 
borhood of  slaughter-houses  and  the  burn- 
ing-grounds of  the  Hindus.  It  is  so  useful 
as  a  scavenger  that  in  some  places  in  India 
it  is  protected  by  law.  It  is  greenish-black 


above  and  white  below.  The  head  and 
neck  are  bare  or  provided  with  a  few 
scattered  hairs,  the  legs  long  and  naked. 
At  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  is  a  peculiar 
air-pouch  which  is  also  bare;  it  is  inflated 
during  flight.  The  beautiful  marabou 
feathers  used  in  trimming  ladies'  hats  come 
from  the  tail  of  the  adjutant  and  also  from 
the  closely  related  marabou  stork  of  Africa. 
The  adjutant  is  said  to  utter  a  loud  grunt- 
ing croak  or  bellow. 

Ad'ler,  Felix,  writer  and  lecturer,  the 
son  of  a  Hebrew  rabbi,  was  born  at  Abzey, 
Germany,  in  1851.  His  education  has  been 
chiefly  American,  but  he  is  a  Ph.D.  of 
Berlin  University.  In  1874-6  he  was 
professor  of  oriental  languages  and  Hebrew 
at  Cornell  University.  This  post  he  resigned 
to  lecture  before  the  Ethical  Culture  Society. 
His  lectures  before  this  society  on  Sundays 
in  New  York  are  well  known  and  attended. 
Dr.  Adler  was  called  in  1902  to  be  professor 
of  social  and  political  ethics  in  Columbia 
University.  He  is  the  author  of  Creed  and 
Deed  (1878)  and  The  Moral  Instruction  of 
Children  (1892). 

Ad'oles'cence.  The  word  adolescence  is 
used  to  designate  the  period  of  transition 
from  childhood  to  adult  life.  It  is  the 
period  beginning  just  before  puberty,  and 
lasting  till  the  age  of  maturity.  It  may  be 
conveniently  divided  into  two  stages:  (i) 
that  of  early  adolescence  or  pubescence, 
beginning  at  the  age  of  eleven  or  twelve 
in  girls,  and  thirteen  or  fourteen  in  boys, 
and  lasting  till  about  the  age  of  sixteen  or 
eighteen  1(2)  that  of  late  adolescence,  from 
sixteen  to  twenty-one  in  girls  and  eighteen 
to  twenty-five  in  boys. 

There  is,  of  course,  continuity  through- 
out the  whole  development  of  an  indi- 
vidual, and  lines  of  demarkation  cannot  be 
too  rigidly  drawn,  or  characteristics  of 
special  periods  too  strongly  emphasized, 
particularly  as  the  nature  of  development 
varies  considerably  with  different  persons; 
but  there  are  certain  well  marked  features 
of  adolescence  with  which  teachers  and 
parents  as  well  as  adolescents  themselves 
should  be  familiar. 

After  the  somewhat  slow  period  of  growth 
of  later  childhood  there  is,  at  the  beginning 
of  pubescence,  a  sudden  shooting  up  in 
height,  closely  followed  by  a  rapid  increase 
in  weight.  In  both  boys  and  girls  the  body 
now  begins  to  assume  the  adult  form,  and 
the  pronounced  sex  differences  appear.  In 
boys  the  beard  begins  to  grow,  and  the 
voice  changes  and  deepens,  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  larynx  making  accurate  con- 
trol of  the  vocal  organs  for  a  time  impos- 
sible. Boys  often  exhibit,  and  are  sensitive 
to,  awkwardness  in  the  management  of 
their  overgrown  bodies.  Latent  capacities 
and  interests  develop,  the  features  change 
to  show  new  characters,  and  hereditary 
influences  become  more  pronounced. 


ADOLESCENCE 


ADOLPHUSTOWN' 


The  essential  characteristic  of  pubescence 
Is,  of  course,  the  unfoldment  of  the  func- 
tions pertaining  to  sex,  with  their  accom- 
panying instincts  and  impulses.  The  youth 
suddenly  finds  himself  strangely  sensitive 
to  the  charms  of  the  opposite  sex  and 
strongly  susceptible  to  its  influence.  A  new 
interest  in  dress  and  the  care  of  the  person 
usually  develops,  and  often  a  tendency  to 
show  off,  on  account  of  the  newly  awakened 
regard  for  the  good  opinion  of  persons  of  the 
opposite  sex.  These  sex  instincts,  like  all 
other  instincts,  should  be  properly  directed, 
strengthened  or  inhibited  in  view  of  their 
future  function  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
danger  of  perversion  on  the  other. 

The  more  distinctly  mental  and  emotional 
traits  of  this  period  are,  perhaps,  more 
variable  than  the  physical  ones,  but  scarcely 
less  pronounced.  In  thought  and  feeling, 
as  well  as  in  appearance,  the  boy  becomes 
specifically  masculine  and  the  girl  feminine. 
It  is  a  time  of  great  increase  in  mental  and 
emotional  vigor,  of  tremendous  enlarge- 
ment of  the  sphere  of  interests  and  broaden- 
ing of  the  mental  horizon.  The  beauties  of 
nature,  of  poetry  and  of  art  begin  to  appeal, 
and  the  soul  can  be  profoundly  stirred  by 
religious  and  ideal  sentiments.  The  youth 
comes  to  look  upon  himself  in  the  light  of  his 
larger  relations  to  the  race  and  to  society,  and 
to  attempt  a  personal  readjustment  to  the 
larger  view  of  life  thus  opened  up.  Intel- 
lectually he  becomes  capable  of  compre- 
hending broader  generalizations  and  larger 
thoughts.  In  many  it  is  an  epoch  marked 
by  great  emotional  instability.  Periods  of 
enthusiastic  energy  and  noble  attempt  at 
high  achievement  often  alternate  with 
periods  of  languor,  depression  and  doubt. 

The  stage  here  gradually  shades  off  into 
that  of  late  adolescence.  Late  adolescence 
is  essentially  a  time  of  fixing  the  frame- 
work of  the  personal  habits,  ideals  and 
relationships  of  life.  It  is  normally  a  time 
of  choosing  a  life  profession  and  of  taking 
the  initial  steps  toward  entering  upon  it. 
It  marks  the  transition  from  a  state  of 
dependence  upon  others  in  matters  material 
and  intellectual  to  one  of  independence, 
showing  itself  in  the  development  of  a 
characteristic  personality  capable  of  think- 
ing and  acting  as  such.  Outbreaks  against 
restraint  and  authority  often  seem  to  occur 
almost  instinctively  at  this  period  and  should 
be  dealt  with  sympathetically  by  parents 
and  teachers.  Much  needless  and  harmful 
friction  and  misunderstanding  are  caused 
by  the  failure  of  adults  to  comprehend  the 
real  nature  and  cause  of  these  outbreaks. 
In  many  this  emerging  personality  is  sub- 
ject in  turn  to  periods  of  emotional  exaltation 
of  self-consciousness  with  abundance  of  self- 
confidence,  and  periods  of  distressing  depres- 
sion and  doubt,  with  feelings  of  total  inability 
to  cope  with  the  complexity  of  the  problems 
opened  up  by  this  wondrous  new  birth. 


With  some,  this  ebb  and  flow  of  feelings 
connected  with  the  emergence  of  the  new 
sense  of  one's  distinctive  personality  give 
rise  to  a  great  deal  of  needless  anxiety. 
Largely  on  this  account  later  adolescence 
has  been  called  a  stress  and  strain  period. 
Those  who  do  not  manifest  this  extreme 
emotional  instability  are  fortunate.  Those 
who  do  should  be  led  to  see  that  these  fjel- 
ings  in  themselves  are  of  no  consequence, 
but  merely  accidental  accompaniments  of 
certain  physiological  changes,  and  that 
vague  fears  for  the  future  are  groundless 
and  harmful. 

Professor  James'  words  of  encouragement 
in  this  connection  have  been  so  inestimably 
helpful  to  many  adolescents  that  they  are 
here  quoted  at  length :  "  Let  no  youth  have 
any  anxiety  about  the  upshot  of  his  educa- 
tion, whatever  the  line  of  it  may  be.  If  he 
keeps  faithfully  busy  each  hour  of  the  work- 
ing day  he  may  safely  leave  the  final 
result  to  itself.  He  can,  with  perfect  cer- 
tainty count  on  waking  up  some  fine  morn- 
ing to  find  himself  one  of  the  competent 
ones  of  his  generation  in  whatever  pursuit 
he  has  singled  out.  Young  people  should 
know  this  truth  in  advance.  The  ignorance 
of  it  has  engendered  more  faint-heartedness 
in  youths  embarking  upon  arduous  careers 
than  all  other  causes  put  together." 

The  practical  problem  for  the  educator 
during  the  whole  period  of  adolescence  is 
to  recognize  the  new  interests,  emotions 
and  impulses  as  they  emerge,  and  to  pro- 
vide for  them  suitable  outlet  in  action. 
The  confidence  that  later  adolescents  are 
willing  to  repose  in  sympathetic  adults  who 
understand  their  needs  and  the  longing 
that  they  feel  for  adequate  counsel  and 
adult  companionship  render  them  peculiarly 
susceptible  to  wise  guidance,  and  make 
possible  at  every  stage  a  gradual  transi- 
tion— an  evolution  rather  than  a  catas- 
trophic revolution,  as  is  too  often  the  case. 
B.  R.  SIMPSON. 

Adolph'ustown,  a  town  in  Prince  Ed- 
ward County  (north  shore  of  Lake  Ontario), 
in  Eastern  Ontario.  The  United  Empire 
Loyalists  first  landed  at  this  point  June  16, 
1784.  To  commemorate  this  event  an  im- 
portant centennial  celebration  was  held  at 
Adolphustown  in  *  June,  1884,  at  which 
were  present  the  Lieutenant  Governor  of 
the  Province  (John  Beverley  Robinson), 
and  other  notables.  The  settlement  of 
Upper  Canada  (now  Ontario)  began  in 
1784  by  the  arrival  of  the  Loyalists.  When 
the  American  colonies  revolted  in  1776  and 
declared  their  independence  many  of  the 
colonists  opposed  the  movement  and  aided 
the  imperial  troops  during  the  war.  These 
were  known  as  the  United  Empire  Loyalists. 
The  war  being  over,  many  of  them  moved 
and  made  their  homes  in  the  territory 
known  as  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia. 
Others  crossed  the  Niagara  River,  or  settled 


ADONIS 


16 


ADVERB 


on  tracts  along  the  St.  Lawrtnce.  A  con- 
siderable part  of  the  present  population  of 
Ontario  is  descended  from  these  pioneers. 
In  1784  the  total  white  population  of  the 
Province  of  Ontario  did  not  exceed  20,000. 
A  well  known  writer  says  "The  event  of 
the  Pilgrim  Fathers  at  Plymouth,  so  praised 
in  prose  and  verse,  was  a  holiday  excursion 
compared  with  the  arrival  of  the  expa- 
triated Loyalists." 

Adonis  (a-do'nis),  a  very  beautiful  youth 
celebrated  in  Greek  mythology.  The  god- 
dess Venus  loved  him  for  his  beauty,  and 
hid  him  in  a  chest,  which  she  intrusted  to 
Proserpine,  the  goddess  of  the  lower  world. 
A  dispute  arose  between  them  for  his  pos- 
session, and  Jupiter  decided  that  each 
should  enjoy  his  presence  for  half  the  year. 
Adonis  was  fond  of  hunting,  and  was  finally 
killed  by  a  wild  boar  in  the  forests  of  Ida. 
The  bitter  lament  of  Venus  for  his  loss 
moved  the  gods  to  permit  the  youth  to 
return  to  the  upper  world  for  six  months  in 
every  year.  A  yearly  festival  in  honor  of 
Adonis  was  given  in  the  countries  bordering 
on  the  Mediterranean,  and  consisted  of  two 
parts — a  mourning  for  his  departure  to 
the  underworld,  and  a  rejoicing  for  his 
return  to  Venus.  Adonis  is  believed  to 
be  the  sun,  and  his  stay  in  the  upper  and 
lower  worlds  to  represent  the  changes  of 
winter  and  summer. 

Adrian  (a'dri-an),  the  name  of  six  popes. 
Adrian  IV,  the  only  English  pope,  was 
named  Nicholas  Breakspeare.  He  left 
England  a  poor  man,  went  to  Paris,  became 
an  ardent  student,  and  was  soon  known  for 
his  learning  and  zeal.  He  was  chosen  abbot, 
then  cardinal,  and  lastly  pope  in  1154.  He 
was  vigorous  in  maintaining  his  authority 
at  Rome  and  throughout  Europe.  He  died 
in  Italy  in  1159. 

Adrian,  a  city,  the  county  seat  of  Lenawee 
County,  Mich.,  on  the  Raisin  River,  and  on 
the  New  York  Central,  Wabash,  Detroit, 
Toledo  and  Ironton  Railways,  thirty-two  miles 
from  Toledo,  Ohio,  and  sixty  miles  southwest 
of  Detroit.  -It  is  the  seat  of  Adrian  College 
(Meth.  Prot.),  the  State  Industrial  Home  for 
Girls,  and  St.  Joseph's  (R.  C.)  Hospital  and 
Academy.  It  has  a  considerable  agricultural 
trade  and  many  important  manufactures, 
woven  wire  fence,  underwear,  piano  and  organ 
factories,  steel  and  electrical  works,  four  banks 
and  daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  Popula- 
tion, 10,763. 

Adriano' pie  (tid-ri-an-o1 'pi) ,  meaning  the 
city  of  Hadrian,  is  a  city  of  European  Tur- 
key. It  is  next  to  Constantinople  in  impor- 
tance, though  not  in  population.  The  streets 
are  narrow,  crooked  and  filthy;  its  ancient 
citadel  and  the  walls  which  formerly  sur- 
rounded the  town  are  now  in  ruins.  It  was 
called  Uskadama  till  renamed  by  the 
Emperor  Hadrian.  In  1360  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Turks,  who  made  it  their 
capital  for  almost  a  hundred  years,  or  until 


they  came  into  possession  of  Constantinople- 
It  has  also  been  twice  taken  by  the  Rus- 
sians, in  1829  and  in  1878.  Population, 
83,000. 

Adriatic  (a-dri-dt'ik}  Sea,  is  an  arm  of 
the  Mediterranean,  which  separates  Italy 
from  Trieste,  Croatia,  Dalmatia  and  Al- 
bania. Its  greatest  length  is  450  miles  and 
its  mean  breadth  90  miles.  The  Po  is. the 
most  important  river  flowing  into  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  and  the  chief  cities  bordering 
it  are  Venice,  Trieste,  Ancona  and  Brindisi. 
In  1177  Venice  gained  a  victory  on  the 
Adriatic  over  Otho,  the  son  of  Frederick 
Barbarossa,  whereupon  the  pope  gave  the 
doge  a  ring  and  instituted  the  famous  cere- 
mony of  marrying  the  Adriatic. 

Adul'  tera'  tion  of  Foods,  any  changing 
of  a  food  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving  the 
purchaser.  The  term  includes,  for  example, 
the  mixing  of  cheaper  substances  with  the 
food  so  as  to  increase  the  amount  of  profit 
from  its  sale,  the  mixing  in  of  preservatives 
and  materials  calculated  to  improve  the 
appearance  of  partly  spoiled  food,  the  ex- 
traction of  cream  from  milk,  etc. 

The  practice  is,  no  doubt,  as  old  as  trade, 
and  has  frequently  been  legislated  against 
by  all  civilized  countries.  At  the  present 
time  the  laws  against  it  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  Europe  are  stringent  and 
usually  enforced.  The  laws  in  the  United 
States  concerning  adulteration  are  care- 
fully drawn,  but  it  has  not  always  been 
possible  to  enforce  them.  Recently  a  law 
of  national  scope  has  been  passed,  which 
requires  that  the  wrapper,  of  any  food  shall 
have  upon  it  a  statement  of  the  exact 
contents,  including  preservatives. 

Ad'verb  (Latin  adverbium,  from  ad,  to, 
+  verbum,  word,  verb).  In  grammar,  an 
adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  mean- 
ing of  a  verb,  an  adjective  or  another 
adverb.  It  is  essentially  "the  word"  of 
a  sentence,  and  has  a  number  of  functions, 
in  showing  how,  where  and  when  a  given 
action  is  performed,  besides  its  general  use 
as  a  modifier.  Adverbs  are  classed  as 
follows:  (i)  those  of  place,  used  in  answer- 
ing the  questions  Where?  Whence?  Whither? 
Of  these  the  following  are  some  examples: 
here,  there,  when,  forth,  far,  etc;  (2)  those 
of  time,  answering  questions  When?  How 
often?  How  long?  Ex:  once,  ago,  always, 
seldom,  now,  then,  etc. ;  (3)  those  of  manner, 
answering  the  question  How?  Ex:  then, 
so,  how,  well,  fast,  chiefly,  wholly,  slowly, 
etc.  Many  of  this  class  are  derived  from 
adjectives  by  adding  ly;  (4)  those  of  degree, 
answering  the  question  How  much?  Ex: 
less,  least,  enough,  more,  most,  scarcely, 
etc.;  (5)  those  of  cause,  answering  the 
question  Why?  Ex:  hence,  wherefore, 
therefore,  consequently,  accordingly,  etc. 
When  used  to  ask  questions,  these  adverbs 
of  the  various  classes  are  termed  interrog- 
ative adverbs.  The  words  soon,  away, 


^ECIDIOMYCETES 


AENEAS 


sometimes,  often,  are  used  only  as  adverbs; 
•while  other  words,  such  as  early,  late, 
fast,  etc.,  are  sometimes  adverbs  and  some- 
times adjectives,  according  as  we  use  them. 
Many  adjectives  become  adverbs  by  add- 
ing ly,  as  violent,  violently,  swift,  swiftly, 
slow,  slowly,  etc.  A  few  adverbs,  like  ad- 
jectives, are  compared,  such  as  soon,  sooner, 
soonest;  often,  oftener,  oftenest;  long, 
longer,  longest,  etc.;  some  also  are  com- 
pared by  the  use  of  the  adverbs  more  and 
most,  less  and  least.  Ex:  wickedly,  more 
wickedly,  most  wickedly;  quickly,  less 
quickly,  least  quickly.  For  other  details 
and  examples  in  the  use  of  adverbs  see 
any  good  text-book  on  grammar. 

/Ecidiomycetes  (e-std't-o-mi-se'-tez),  the 
technical  name  of  a  large  group  of  plants 
commonly  known  as  "rusts"  and  "smuts." 
They  are  very  destructive  parasites  and 
attack  some  of  the  most  valuable  crops. 
The  rusts  chiefly  attack  the  leaves  of  the 
higher  plants,  producing  rusty  lines  and 
dots;  while  the. smuts  chiefly  prey  upon  the 
grasses  and  are  very  injurious  to  cereals, 
attacking  the  grains  of  wheat,  corn,  oats, 
barley,  etc.  These  parasites  are  very  poly- 
morphic, that  is  they  assume  different  forms 
at  different  periods  in  their  life  histories, 
and  these  different  phases  have  often  been 


Phases  of  wheat  rust:  (I)  cluster-cups  on 

barberry  (lower  side);  (II)  winter  spores 

(teleutospores)  on  wheat;   (III)  summer 

spores  (uredospores)  on  wheat. 

described  as  different  kinds  of  plants.  The 
history  of  these  parasites  is  often  further 
complicated  by  the  fact  that  in  their  differ- 
ent phases  they  may  live  on  different  plants 
(hosts).  Great  attention  has  been  paid  to 
these  destructive  forms  by  the  national 


and  state  governm«nts,  in  the  hope  that 
some  way  may  be  discovered  by  which 
their  destructiveness  may  be  lessened.  The 
wheat  rust  is  one  of  the  best  known  forms, 
and  its  life  history  may  serve  as  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  whole  group.  When  the  wheat 
is  growing,  rusty  hries  and  dots  appear  on 
the  leaves  and  stalk.  These  spots  are  known 
as  the  "red  rust,"  and  are  masses  of  spores 
which  have  come  to  the  surface,  and  are 
called  "summer  spores"  or  "uredospores." 
(Ill  ur.)  They  arise  from  the  threadlike 
body  or  "mycelium"  of  the  parasite,  which 
is  imbedded  out  of  sight  among  living  cells 
of  the  wheat  body  and  is  feeding  upon  them. 
These  summer  spores  are  easily  scattered 
by  the  wind,  and  falling  upon  other  wheat 
plants  germinate,  enter  the  body,  and  begin 
to  feed  upon  it.  By  means  of  the  summer 
spores,  therefore,  the  rust  disease  is  spread 
rapidly  during  the  growing  season.  In  the 
late  summer  and  fall  black  lines  and  dots 
appear  upon  the  wheat  stubble,  forming 
tne  so-called  "black  rust,"  being  masses  of 
peculiar  spores  called  "teleutospores"  or 
"winter  spores,"  because  they  last  through 
the  winter.  (II,  *.)  These  teleutospores 
come  from  the  same  mycelium  (white 
threads)  which  produced  the  summer  spores, 
and  are  the  last  spores  it  produces.  Early 
the  following  spring  the  teleutospores 
germinate  and  form  a  little  filament  which 
produces  very  minute  spores  called  "spor- 
idia."  These  sporidia  are  scattered  by  the 
wind,  and  falling  upon  barberry  leaves  they 
germinate,  the  mycelium  entering  the  leaf. 
This  new  mycelium  sends  to  the  surface  of 
the  leaf,  especially  the  under  surface,  masses 
of  orange-colored  spores  in  little  cup-like 
clusters,  which  are  called  "cluster-cups," 
or  each  is  technically  called  an  "aecidium." 
(I,  a.)  These  aecidium  spores  from  the  bar- 
berry are  carried  by  the  wind  to  the  young 
wheat,  where  they  germinate  and  produce 
the  mycelium  with  which  we  started.  In 
case  the  barberry  is  not  present  to  be  used 
as  a  host  for  the  aecidium  stage  this  stage 
is  omitted,  and  the  sporidia  pass  directly 
to  the  wheat  and  germinate.  There  are  thus 
three  distinct  phases  in  the  life  history  of 
this  plant,  at  least  four  kinds  of  spores,  and 
two  host  plants,  the  sporidium  phase  not 
being  a  parasite.  See  FUNGI. 

JOHN  M.  COULTER. 
/Ecidium     (e-sld'tutrC) .     See    ^ECIDIOMY- 

CETES. 

>Egean  (e-je'&ri)  Sea,  an  arm  of  the  Med- 
iterranean between  Greece  and  Asia  Minor, 
is  now  called  the  Grecian  Archipelago.  One 
fable  traces  its  name  to  JEgeas,  king  of 
Athens,  who  threw  himself  into  its  waters. 
It  is  over  400  miles  in  length,  with  an  aver- 
age breadth  of  200  miles.  It  is  studded  with 
islands,  many  of  which  have  played  an 
important  part  in  Grecian  history. 

/Eneas  (e-nef Us) ,  a  Trojan  warrior  and 
hero  of  the  JEneid,  the  great  epic  poem  of 


^OLIAN 


£8 


AERONAUTICS 


Vergil;  the  son  of  Anchises  and  the  goddess 
Venus  he  married  Creusa,  the  daughter  of 
King  Priam.  After  the  sack  of  Troy  he 
left  the  city,  carrying  his  father  on  his 
shoulders  and  leading  his  son  Ascanius. 
Building  a  fleet,  he  set  sail  with  a  few  chosen 
companions,  but  was  shipwrecked  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  near  Carthage.  He  was 
received  kindly  bv  Queen  Dido,  whom  he 
would  have  married  had  he  not  been 
warned  by  the  gods  to  seek  Italy.  On 
setting  out  thither,  his  ship,  as  it  left  port, 
was  lighted  by  the  funeral  pyre  of  Dido, 
who  had  killed  herself  in  grief  at  his  de- 
parture. After  celebrating  the  national 
games  on  the  coast  of  Sicily  in  honor  of 
Anchises,  who  had  died  there,  and  paying 
a  visit  to  the  lower  world,  where  the  future 
was  unfolded  to  him,  JEneas  reached  the 
Tiber.  He  was  received  by  King  Latinus, 
whose  daughter  he  married.  He  fell  in 
battle  with  the  Etruscans,  and  after  his 
death  received  the  honors  of  a  god.  His 
son  Ascanius  or  lulus  founded  Alba  Longa, 
one  of  whose  kings,  Numitor,  was  the  grand- 
father of  Romulus,  who  founded  Rome. 
Hence  the  Romans  claimed  to  derive  their 
origin  from  JEneas. 

/4Eolian  (e-o'tt-ari)  Harp,  a  musical 
instrument  named  from  ^Eolus,  god  of  the 
winds.  It  is  made  by  stretching  catgut 
strings  or  wires  over  a  thin  sounding  box. 
The  strings  are  tuned  as  in  a  violin.  When 
placed  in  a  partially  closed  window,  where 
there  is  a  draught,  the  passing  of  the  wind 
over  its  strings  produces  strange  and  mel- 
ancholy musical  sounds,  varying  with  the 
force  of  the  wind. 

/Eolus  (e'o-lus),  the  mythical  god  of  the 
winds.  He  is  said  to  have  ruled  over  the 
^Eolian  islands,  now  the  Lipari  group  in 
the  Tyrrhenian  sea.  Here  he  kept  the 
winds  shut  up  in  a  cave,  loosing  them  and 
calling  them  back  at  the  command  of 
Neptune. 

A'era'tion  (d'er-a'shun)  (in  plants). 
Plants,  like  animals,  respire  (see  RESPIRA- 
TION); therefore,  air  (oxygen)  must  reach 
all  the  living  cells,  and  carbon  dioxid  must 
be  got  rid  of.  Green  plants  also  need  to 
absorb  carbon  dioxid  and  to  get  rid  of 
oxygen  in  the  process  of  food-making  (see 
PHOTOSYNTHESIS).  To  permit  these  gaseous 
exchanges  in  the  larger  plants  the  cells 
partly  separate  as  they  mature,  leaving 
irregular  passages,  which  usually  open  to 
the  outside  by  numerous  slits,  each  bounded 
by  two  guard  cells  and  called  stomata. 
The  air  does  not  flow  in  mass  through  these 
orifices  and  passages,  but  the  insensible 
movements  of  diffusion  suffice.  This  aerat- 
ing system  also  permits  the  evaporation 
of  water  by  land  plants  (see  TRANSPIRA- 
TION). Naturally  the  aerating  system  is 
best  developed  in  the  larger  water-plants, 
where  the  great  canals  can  be  seen  with 
the  naked  eye. 


Aeronautics  (a-er-o-naw'-iiks)  or  Aerial 
Navigation.  It  seems  to  be  a  fixed  principle 
of  nature  that  every  kind  of  animal  as  well  as 
every  individual  animal  must  work  out  its 
problems  in  an  individual  way.  As  man 
learned  to  navigate  the  water,  not  by  building 
an  artificial  fish — although  he  borrowed 
valuable  ideas  from  the  fish — so  he  finally 
learned  to  navigate  the  air,  not  by  building  an 
artificial  bird  as  he  originally  tried  to  do,  but 
by  devices  suited  to  the  machinery  of  his  body 
and  the  adaptation  of  some  of  the  machinery 
and  methods  of  both  the  bird  and  the  fish. 
While  the  "bird  man"  uses  wings — biplanes 
and  monoplanes — he  does  not  use  them  to 
drive  himself  forward  as  the  hawk  does,  for 
example,  when  flying,  but  to  keep  himself  in 
the  air  as  the  hawk  does  when  he  hovers  over 
the  chicken  lot.  For  the  tail  of  his  flying 
machine  the  "bird  man"  has  used,  as  we  shall 
see,  the  tail  feathers  of  the  bird  in  the  horizon- 
tal rudder  and  the  tail  fin  of  the  fish  for  his 
vertical  rudder.  At  the  same  time  that  he  was 
borrowing  ideas  of  the  bird  and  the  fish  he 
carried  these  ideas  out  with  machinery  bor- 
rowed from  his  fellow  travelers  on  land  and 
water.  Look  at  the  picture  of  the  Bleriot 
monoplane  and  see  if  you  cannot  find  the  ideas 
borrowed  from  the  sled,  bicycle  and  auto- 
mobile— the  horizontal  rudder,  like  the  tail  of 
a  bird,  the  upright  rudder  (marked  22)  like  the 
fin  of  a  fish,  and  the  gas  engine  in  the  heart  of 
the  machine,  surrounded  by  its  radiator,  like 
the  radiator  of  an  automobile;  and,  finally,  the 
propeller  borrowed  from  the  screw  propeller 
of  the  steamship—itself  probably  first  bor- 
rowed from  some  little  boy  with  a  whirligig,  in 
Egypt  or  Assyria  centuries  upon  centuries  ago ! 

Just  as  little  boys  do,  men  usually  learn  to  do 
things  right  by  beginning  to  do  them  wrong. 
The  story  of  Daedalus  (q.  v.)  simply  expresses 
the  fact  that  man's  original  idea  about  flying 
was  to  make  himself  wings  like  a  bird.  Next 
he  tried — and  succeeded — in  floating  through 
the  air  by  means  of  a  balloon — a  big  ball  filled 
with  gas,  just  like  a  child's  toy  balloon,  with 
the  difference  that  it  had  a  net  over  it  and  a 
basket  hanging  from  this  net  in  which  men 
could  ride  and  carry  scientific  instruments  for 
measuring  the  temperature  and  moisture  of  the 
air  and  learning  other  things  of  interest  and 
importance  to  science. 

It  was  on  June  5,  1783,  that  Stephen  and 
Joseph  Montgolfier,  paper  makers  of  Annonay, 
France,  launched  the  first  balloon,  of  which ' 
they  were  the  inventors. 

Balloons  anchored  to  the  ground  by  ropes 
are  still  used  for  military  observation,  but  the 
most  important  form  of  the  balloon  flying 
machine  is  what  is  known  as  the  dirigible,  in 
which  the  gas  which  holds  it  up  is  contained  in 
a  series  of  separate  bags  in  a  cigar-shaped 
frame  like  the  water-tight  compartments  of  a 
ship.  It  is  propelled  and  guided  by  machinery 
similar  to  that  of  an  aeroplane. 

THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF   AIRSHIPS 

Airships  are  divided  into  two  classes  —  the 


AERONAUTICS 


AERONAUTICS 


aeroplanes,  or  machines  that  are  heavier  than 
air,  and  the  dirigibles,  which  are  lighter  than 
air.  Aeroplanes  are  again  divided  into  two 
classes,  the  monoplanes,  which  have  one  set, 
and  the  biplanes,  which  have  two  sets  of  wings. 
A  hydro-aeroplane  is  a  machine  that  can  swim 
in  the  water  as  well  as  fly  through  the  air. 
There  is  only  one  thing  the  bird  can  do — a 
duck,  for  example — that  man  has  as  not  yet 
done;  for  the  duck  can  fly  over  the  water,  swim 
on  the  water  and  dive  under  the  water;  but  no 
machine  "bird"  has  yet  been  invented  that 
will  do  all  these  things.  The  submarine  (q.  v.) 
can  swim  on  the  water  and  dive  under  the 
water  but  cannot  fly. 

Of  the  dirigibles  the  Zeppelin — the  invention 
of  a  German  count — is  the  best  known;  and, 
like  the  aeroplanes,  has  found  its  most  exten- 
sive use  in  war.  ^  The  Zeppelins  are  really 
immense  "battleships  of  the  air,"  rigid  in  con- 
struction, metal  covered,  armed  with  machine 
guns,  equipped  with  wireless  apparatus  and 
searchlights,  are  from  485  to  550  feet  in  length, 
with  a  horse  power  varying  from  450  to  1,080, 
are  capable  of  a  speed  of  40  miles  against,  to  94 
miles  an  hour  with  the  wind;  can  stay  up  from 
thirty-five  to  forty  hours;  carry  a  crew  of 
twenty  men,  provision  and  fuel  for  a  3,000  mile 
journey,  and  a  large  quantity  of  explosives. 

HOW  THE   FLYING  MACHINE   PROBLEM   WAS 
SOLVED 

Following  important,  though  unsuccessful, 
experiments  by  Maxim  in  England  and  Langley 
in  America,  Wilbur  Wright  and  his  brother, 
Orville,  after  years  of  study  and  experiment, 
produced  an  aeroplane  which  was  first  suc- 
cessfully operated  near  Dayton,  Ohio,  in  1905. 

The  power  in  the  Wright  and  other  aero- 
planes is  controlled  by  a  lever  similar  to  that 
of  a  locomotive;  but  this  lever  has  a  right  and 
left  motion  by  which  the  planes,  or  wings, 
which  are  flexible,  can  be  tipped  at  the  outer 
end  so  as  to  counterbalance  adverse  air  currents 
just  as  a  bird  tips  his  wing  to  balance  himself 
against  the  wind. 

The  vertical  rudder  with  which  the  machine 
is  guided  to  the  right  or  left  is  controlled  by  a 
special  arrangement  on  the  power  lever.  The 
horizontal  rudders  with  which  the  "bird  man" 
steers  his  flight  up  or  down  and  checks  him- 
self, preparatory  to  lighting — just  as  a  bird 
does — is  controlled  by  a  separate  lever.  The 
machine  is  mounted  on  two  long  runners  which 
support  the  horizontal  rudder  when  the 
machine  is  running  along  the  ground. 

The  hydro-aeroplane  combines  the  flying 
machine  with  a  little  boat  on  wheels.  With 
the  wheels  it  runs  along  the  ground  when 
lighting  on  land  or  rising  for  flight.  The  boat, 
with  the  help  of  two  cylinders  filled  with  air  at 
either  end  of  the  lower  of  its  two  planes,  keeps 
it  afloat  in  the  water. 

A  very  important  step  in  connection  with 
aviation  was  the  granting  of  an  American 
patent  in  1913  to  the  Wright  Brothers  for  a 
stabilizer  for  maintaining  automatic  control — 
a  kind  of  mechanical  brain.  To  prevent  the 


tipping  of  the  wings  by  a  sudden  puff  a  pen- 
dulum is  connected  with  a  motor;  while,  to 
prevent  sudden  swerving  up  or  down,  there  is  a 
horizontal  rudder  actuated  by  a  small  plane 
mounted  at  a  different  angle  from  the  main 
aeroplane  so  that,  whenever  there  is  a  sudden 
change  in  the  position  of  the  machine,  the 
horizontal  rudder  restores  it  to  its  proper 
position. 

COMPARATIVE  ADVANTAGES  OF  DIRIGIBLES 
AND   AEROPLANES 

The  European  War  gave  a  tremendous 
impetus  to  the  construction  and  use  of  both 
aeroplanes  and  dirigibles,  and  demonstrated 
their  relative  advantages. 

While  Zeppelins  have  the  advantage  over 
the  smaller  craft  that  they  can  carry  a  larger 
number  of  men  and  a  larger  supply  of  explo- 
sives, the  value  of  both  the  biplane  and  the 
monoplane  is  in  their  use  for  scouting  and  for 
the  direction  of  gun  fire.  War  aeroplanes  are 
broadly  divided  into  three  types,  (i)  those  for 
chasing  and  fighting,  (2)  for  scouting,  and  (3) 
for  bombardment.  The  fighting  machines  are 
the  fastest  and  quickest  climbers  but  without 
much  flight  endurance  because  of  the  amount 
of  fuel  (petroleum)  necessary  to  be  carried. 
Armed  biplanes  are  built  with  as  high  as  150 
horse  power,  and  two  engines  and  two  machine 
guns,  one  pointing  forward,  one  backward. 
These  guns  are  rigid  and  are  aimed  by  maneu- 
vering the  machine.  These  machines  will 
travel  from  125  to  130  miles  an  hour. 

The  air  scouts  fly  6,000  feet  high,  hide  as 
much  as  possible  among  the  clouds  and  hang 


DIRIGIBLE    BALLOON 

for  hours  like  a  hawk  in  one  quarter  of  the  sky. 
On  discovering,  for  example,  the  hidden 
battery  of  an  enemy  the  scout  signals  by 
maneuvers  or  by  dropping  tinsel  that  glitters 
in  the  sun  or  by  smoke  balls.  Knowing  the 
elevation  the  artillery  observer  makes  calcula- 
tions by  geometry  so  rapidly  that  cases  are  on 
record  of  the  utter  destruction  of  a  battery 
within  thirty  seconds  of  the  aeroplane's  first 
signal.  For  scouting  a  half  dozen  aeroplanes 
are  considered  worth  a  division  of  cavalry.  In 
three  and  one-half  hours  an  airman  can  cover 
a  circular  area  of  eighty  miles  in  radius,  noting 
each  regiment  of  infantry,  cavalry,  squadron 
or  field  battery.  All  cavalry  screens,  feigned 
movements  and  secrecy  of  the  old  days  of 
warfare  have  been  swept  away.  Biplanes  for 
all-around  purposes  are  considered  superior  to 
monoplanes.  They  are  also  easier  to  build 


AERONAUTICS 


20 


AESCHYLUS 


and  operate  and  stand  better  the  severe  de- 
mands of  military  flying. 

Both  dirigibles  and  aeroplanes  are  used  for 
bombardment,  and  go  in  squadrons,  flying  in 
single  file  like  a  flock  of  wild  geese.  Reaching 
the  object  of  attack,  they  swoop,  each  in  turn, 
drop  bombs,  climb  skyward  in  a  zig-zag 
fashion  like  a  vessel  tacking  and,  making  a 
wide  circle  swoop  down  again. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war  there  were  many 
types  of  machines,  but  the  war  resulted  in  the 
development  of  fewer  types,  as  the  severe  test 
of  war  eliminated  the  unfit. 

Of  course,  an  army  does  not  permit  the 
enemy's  aircraft  to  spy  .out  its  position  un- 
molested, and  not  only  gives  chase  with  its  own 
aeroplanes,  but  types  of  guns  are  especially 
devised  for  attacking  aircraft. 

Zeppelins  were  used  not  only  in  the  attack 
on  Antwerp  and  other  cities  on  the  Continent, 
but  in  repeated  raids  on  London.  The  Hague 
Conference  (q.  v.)  voted  to  prohibit  the  dis- 
charge of  projectiles  and  explosives  from  air- 
craft, while  leaving  them  free  for  observation 
purposes;  but  this  provision  was  not  ratified 
by  Germany,  France  or  Italy. 

HISTORY   OF  THE   USE   OF   AIRCRAFT  IN   WAR 

Previous  to  the  European  War  aircraft  had 
been  successfully  employed  in  the  Italian- 
Turco  War,  in  the  Balkan  War  (q.  v.),  and  to 
some  extent  in  Mexico,  both  by  the  Mexicans 
and  by  the  American  army  of  occupation. 
The  use  of  both  types  of  aircraft  which,  in  the 
great  European  conflict  was  one  of  the  three 
most  important  elements  in  the  revolution  of 
methods  of  warfare — the  other  two  being  the 
development  in  heavy  portable  artillery  and 
the  use  of  submarines — was  itself  the  evolution 
of  experiments  almost  as  old  as  the  invention 
of  the  balloon  itself. 

Since  the  chief  value  of  flying  machines  in 
warfare  has  proven  to  be  that  of  scouting  and 
the  direction  of  gun  fire,  it  is  of  special  interest 
to  know  that  during  the  Civil  War,  General 
Stoneman's  direction  of  artillery  fire  from  a 
balloon  was  the  first  instance  of  the  use  of  air- 
craft for  this  purpose.  Balloons  were  used  for 
similar  purposes  in  the  Spanish-American,  the 
South  African  and  the  Russo-Japanese  Wars. 

HOW   BIRDS   FLY 

You  know  how  you  feel  when  you  are 
"walking  on  air" — when  you  feel  very  happy 
over  something.  Isn't  it  a  beautiful  thought 
that  perhaps  our  little  brothers  of  the  air,  the 
biids,  feel  just  that  way  most  of  the  time? 
We  may  easily  imagine  they  do,  for  flying  is 
really  walking  upon  the  air.  A  bird  can  fly, 
not  because  he  is  lighter  but  because  he  is 
heavier  than  the  air.  A  bird  lighter  than  air 
would  be  carried  away  into  space  by  even  a 
moderate  breeze  and  he  could  never  get  back. 
A  horse's  legs  and  a  bird's  wings  are  used  for 
the  same  purpose  and  in  a  similar  way.  Both 
the  horse  with  his  legs  in  walking  and  the  bird 
with  its  wings  in  flying  describe— isn't  it 
curious — a  figure  8;  the  horse  in  the  forward 
and  backward  movement  of  his  feet  and  the 


bird  in  the  forward  and  backward  motion  of  its 
wings. 

No  less  curious  is  the  fact  that  the  bird  is 
driven  forward  like  a  flying  machine  by  a 
"screw  propeller."  A  distinguished  English 


WRIGHT    BROTHERS    AEROPLANE 

R,  rudder;  LR,  lifting  and  lowering  rudder; 
P  P,  propellers. 

scientist,  Prof.  J.  Bell  Pettigrew,  showed,  in  a 
paper  read  before  the  Royal  Institution  in 
1867,  that  all  wings,  whether  of  insects,  birds 
or  beetles,  act  essentially  as  screws  owing  to 
the  fact  that  they  twist  in  opposite  directions 
in  the  up  and  down  strokes.  The  bird's  wings 
are  thus  worked  like  the  blades  of  a  whirligig  or 
the  propeller  of  a  steamship  or  a  flying  machine. 
And  the  elytra  or  wing  cases  of  insects — beetles, 
for  example-— are  like  aeroplanes,  for,  although 
the  beetle  flies  with  his  wings,  these  wing  cases 
spread  out  on  either  side;  and  as  he  is  flying 
and  carried  forward  by  the  motion  of  his  body, 
help  to  hold  him  up  like  little  kites. 

_  Some  people  still  think  that  the  air-sacs  of 
birds  help  them  in  flight  but  scientific  in- 
vestigation has  proven  that  this  is  not  true;  so, 
although  the  experiments  of  Santos- Dumont 
(q.  v.)  helped  in  the  invention  of  the  Zeppelin 
they  did  not  help  in  inventing  the  aeroplane. 
The  bats  and  some  of  the  best-flying  birds  have 
no  air-sacs;  and  you  know  how  hard  it  is  for  a 
light  person  to  walk  in  deep  water.  This  is 
because  he  is  not  heavy  enough  to  keep  his  feet 
on  the  ground.  A  bird  that  has  air-sacs  does 
not  require  such  large  wings  as  does  a  bird  of 
the  same  size  without  air-sacs,  of  course. 

Aerotropism  (in  plants).  A  form  of 
chemotropism  (which  see)  in  which  oxygen 
is  the  directive  agent. 

/Eschines  (es'ki-nez),  a  noted  Athenian 
orator,  the  rival  and  opponent  of  Demos- 
thenes. After  a  varied  career,  as  an  actor 
on  the  stage  and  a  public  speaker  of  great 
eloquence,  he  was  exiled  and  settled  in 
Rhodes.  Here  he  founded  a  school  of 
eloquence.  Three  of  his  orations  have  come 
down  to  us,  perhaps  the  most  famous  being 
that  Against  Ctesiphon.  He  died  in  Samos 
314  B.  C.,  at  the  age  of  76. 

/Eschylus  (WKt-lus)  (525-456  B.  C.), 
the  earliest  of  the  great  Attic  tragedians. 
He  was  born  at  Eleusis,  of  a  noble  family, 
and  took  an  honorable  part  in  the  Persian 
war.  His  first  efforts  at  tragedy  are  said 
to  have  been  suggested  by  the  god  Bacchus, 
who  appeared  to  him  while  asleep  in  the 
fields.  At  the  age  of  41  he  won  his  first 
prize  in  the  dramatic  contests  popular 
among  the  Athenians,  and  during  his  life 


WRIGHT  IN  FLIGHT  IN  HIS  AEROPLANE  ZEPPELIN  DIRIGIBLE  III 

BLERIOT  MONOPLANE 
CURTISS  AND   HIS   BIPLANE 


AESCULAPIUS 


21 


AFGHANISTAN 


was  thirteen  times  victor.  He  was  finally 
defeated  by  Sophocles  and  went  to  Sicily, 
where  he  lived  with  Hiero,  the  tyrant  of 
Syracuse.  Tradition  says  his  death  was 
caused  by  an  eagle  dropping  a  tortoise,  to 
break  its  shell,  on  his  bald  head,  which 
the  bird  had  mistaken  for  a  stone.  Attic 
tragedy  owes  much  to  ^Eschylus.  He  first 
brought  in  a  second  actor,  befitting  cos- 
tumes and  scenery,  and  caused  a  regular 
stage  to  be  built.  He  wrote  70  tragedies, 
of  which  only  seven  are  now  in  existence: 
The  Seven  Against  Thebes,  The  Suppliants, 
The  Persians,  Prometheus  Bound,  The 
Choephori,  and  The  Eumenides.  Mrs.  Brown- 
ing's poetical  version  of  Prometheus  Bound 
is  one  of  the  best  of  the  many  translations 
of  his  tragedies. 

/Esculapius  (ts-ku-la'pt-us"),  in  Greek 
fable,  the  god  of  medicine  and  patron  of 
physicians,  called  by  Homer  the  Blameless 
Physician.  He  was  the  son  of  Apollo.  He 
went  about  healing  and  raising  from  the 
dead  until  Pluto,  god  of  the  lower  world, 
finding  his  kingdom  was  losing  its  people, 
appealed  to  Jupiter,  who  destroyed  ^Escula- 
pius  by  a  thunderbolt.  Various  temples 
were  built  in  his  honor.  The  most  famous 
was  at  Epidaurus,  where  a  peculiar  breed 
of  snakes  was  believed  to  nave  received 
healing  power  from  ^Esculapius.  During  a 
pestilence  the  Greeks  used  to  send  for  one 
of  these  serpents.  The  Romans  also  sent 
a  solemn  embassy  to  bring  one  of  these 
healing  snakes  to  their  city,  and  later  intro- 
duced the  worship  of  ^Esculapius  at  Rome. 
The  priests  of  the  temples  of  this  god, 
called  ^Esclepiades,  or  sons  of  ^Esculapius, 
were  the  only  regular  physicians  of  an- 
tiquity. 

/Esop  (Psop),  a  Greek  writer  of  fables, 
born  about  620  B.  C.  He  was  sold  as  a 
slave  at  Athens,  but  was  freed  by  his  master. 
He  gained  great  reputation  as  a  writer, 
and  was  invited  by  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia, 
to  live  at  his  court.  He  was  sent  by  Croesus, 
about  564  B.C.,  to  the  temple  of  Apollo  at 
Delphi,  where  he  angered  the  Delphians 
by  his  sarcasm  and  was  thrown  from  a 
precipice.  His  real  works  have  probably 
been  destroyed,  the  fables  which  bear  his 
name  having  been  written  by  later  authors. 

/Esthetics  (es-thef-iks),  a  term  signify- 
ing perceptible  to  the  senses,  and  denoting 
the  science  of  the  beautiful  in  nature  and 
the  fine  arts  (Greek,  cesthetikos).  The  term 
aesthetics,  though  a  modern  German  one, 
is  one  which,  in  its  meaning,  was  familiar 
to  the  ancient  Greek  philosophers,  especially 
to  Socrates,  Plato  and  Aristotle.  What 
they  meant  by  the  term  was  the  quality 
in  the  beautiful  that  produces  to  the  mind 
as  well  as  to  the  eye  a  certain  pleasing 
effect  and  a  refined  pleasure.  When  we 
speak  of  aesthetic  ideas,  studies  or  emotions 
we  mean  those  things  that  appeal  to  our 
sense  of  the  beautiful,  or  that  treat  of  the 


expression  and  embodiment  of  beauty  by 
art.  See  Schiller's  Treatise  on  ^Esthetics; 
Cousin  on  The  True,  the  Beautiful  and  the 
Good,  and  Alison's  essay  on  The  Nature 
and  Principle  of  Taste. 

/Etna,    Mount.     See  ETNA. 

Afghanistan  (af-gan'is-tdn'},  is  a  moun- 
tainous country  of  south  Central  Asia  governed 
by  a  hereditary  monarch  called  an  amir.  The 
present  ruler  is  Habibullah  Khan.  The  gov- 
ernment is  under  the  supervision  of  Great 
Britain  which  contributes  to  it  an  annual  sub- 
sidy. It  is  frequently  spoken  of  as  the  "buffer 
state"  between  British  India  on  the  east  and 
Turkistan,  the  province  of  Russia  to  the  north 
of  it. 

Afghanistan  was  a  part  of  the  empire  of 
Timur  the  Great  and  after  changing  masters 
several  times  became  independent  in  1747. 
In  1838  the  British  sent  an  army  into  Afghan- 
istan to  place  on  his  throne  the  Amir  Shah 
Shuja  who  had  been  driven  into  exile  in  India. 
In  1841  the  British  suppressed  a  revolt  in 
Afghanistan  and  have  ever  since  been  the  real 
power  there.  In  1879  the  English  resident 
and  his  officers  and  escort  were  massacred  by 
the  Afghans.  For  this  severe  revenge  and 
firmer  hold  were  taken  by  the  English.  Under 
the  amir  there  is  a  council  with  governors 
for  the  separate  provinces. 

The  army  comprises  about  68,000  foot  sol- 
diery, with  7000  horses  and  350  guns.  The 
mounted  levies  are  for  the  most  part,  the  re- 
tainers of  the  great  chieftains  or  of  the  latters' 
wealthier  vassals. 

The  population,  mainly  Mohammedan,  is 
estimated  at  5,900,000.  It  is  very  mixed  and 
rather  discordant  in  character.  The  majority 
are  Persians.  The  Afghans  are  a  brave  race; 
but  although  apparently  frank  and  open- 
hearted  are  cruel  and  treacherous. 

The  total  area  (see  map  of  ASIA)  is  250,000 
square  miles.  There  are  practically  no  naviga- 
ble rivers  and  but  one  railway.  Travel  on  the 
few  high-ways  is  carried  on  by  camels  and 
ponies.  Besides  these,  the  domestic  animals  are 
goats,  dogs,  horses  and  *  few  cattle  and  sheep. 

The  climate  varies  greatly  from  regions 
where  snow  never  falls  to  regions  where 
it  seldom  melts.  The  trade  is  mainly  with 
British  India.  Exports  are  largely  horses, 
cattle,  hides,  tobacco,  grain,  pulse,  fruits, 
vegetables,  asafoetida,  madder,  the  castor  oil 
plant,  spices,  wool;  imports,  sugar,  tea,  cotton 
goods  and  dyes.  There  are  two  harvests: 
wheat,  barley,  peas  and  beans  sown  in  autumn 
and  reaped  in  summer;  rice,  millet  and  com 
sown  in  spring  and  reaped  in  autumn.  The 
other  principal  crops  are  almonds,  pomegra- 
nates, figs,  grapes,  peaches,  quinces,  cherries, 
apricots  and  plums. 

The  minerals  include  copper,  lead  and  iron 
with  small  quantities  of  gold  and  there  are 
precious  stones,  including  lapis  lazuli.  The 
manufactures  include  clothes,  silks,  felts,  car- 
pets and  various  articles  made  from  goat's 
and  camel's  hair  and  sheepskin. 


AFRICA 


22 


AFRICA 


Africa  (dfri-kd).  A  hundred  years  ago 
the  continent  of  Africa  was  almost  unknown 
to  the  educated  world  of  Europe  and  North 
America  as  regards  its  vast  interior. 

WHY  AFRICA  SO  LONG    REMAINED    UNEXPLORED 

Why  was  Africa  the  last  of  the  great  con- 
tinents to  be  effectively  opened  up?  Partly 
because  of  the  comparative  abundance  of  its 
negro  population,  its  warlike  character  and 
sturdiness  of  physique,  which  made  it  a  very 
serious  enemy  to  the  pioneer  before  the  days  of 
machine  guns;  partly  because  of  the  great 
heat,  and  most  of  all,  the  moist  heat  of  much 
of  Negro  Africa,  and  of  the  germ-diseases  more 
prevalent  there  than  any  other  part  of  the 
globe;  and  partly,  perhaps  mainly,  because  of 
the  remarkable  continuity  of  the  African 
coastline,  the  striking  absence  of  those  great 
gulfs,  those  far-reaching  straits  or  inlets  of  the 
sea,  those  rivers  navigable  from  their  mouths 
upwards  for  hundreds  of  miles,  which  are  so 
prominent  a  feature  in  the  geography  of  Asia, 
Europe,  and  the  eastern  side  of  America.  Any 
far-reaching  exploration  of  the  African  con- 
tinent had  to  be  made  by  land,  over  a  country 
more  savage,  less  imbued  even  with  the  ele- 
ments of  civilization  than  Asia  or  America. 
The  navigability  of  rivers  where  it  was  not 
barred  by  cataracts  or  shallows,  was  choked 
with  a  growth  of  vegetation,  the  riding  animals 
(horses,  asses,  oxen)  were  killed  by  the  bite  of 
the  tsetse  fly  or  by  some  other  injected  germ 
disease.  All  Africa  outside  the  waterless 
deserts  must  have  seemed  to  the  first  pioneers 
impassable  from  thickets  or  forest.  In  short, 
it  needed  tremendous  resolution  and  bravery 
and  all  the  most  recent  appliances  of  civiliza- 
tion before  Africa  could  be  conquered  for  the 
white  man's  knowledge.  And  this  result  has 
only  been  finally  achieved  within  the  memory 
of  middle-aged  people  now  living.  In  1875  the 
interior  of  Africa  was  still  very  little  known. 
By  1914  it  had  been  made  better  known 
than  the  interior  of  Asia  or  South  America. 

AFRICA  TEN   MILLION  YEARS   AGO 

Africa  is  a  sister  continent  to  South  America, 
which  it  slightly  resembles  in  shape.  In  the 
more  ancient  history  of  the  earth  (say  ten 
million  years  ago),  Africa  was  connected  by 
a  land  bridge  with  South  America  on  the  one 
hand,  with  India,  Ceylon,  Malaysia,  and 
Australia  on  the  other;  while  Australia  and 
New  Zealand  were  probably  connected  with 
the  west  side  of  South  America,  and  South 
America  across  Antarctica  with  Australia. 
This  is  virtually  proved  by  the  similarity  and 
coincidence  of  geological  formations  and  the 
possession  of  an  almost  uniform  flora  in  the 
Mesozoic  age.  In  fact,  this  great  continental 
belt  is  sometimes  called  "  Gondwanaland  " 
(from  the  typical  rocks  of  Gondwana  in  the 
Indiana  Dekkan)  and  sometimes  the  Glos- 
sopteris  Continent,  because  ot  the  predominant 
vegetation  prevailing  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Secondary  Epoch.  These  regions  might  also 
be  termed  the  "Diamond"  Continent;  for  all 


the  detached  portions  at  the  present  day  agree 
in  possessing  diamonds.  Outside  their  areas 
no  true  diamonds  are  found  except  some  doubt- 
ful examples  in  North  America  and  Scandi- 
navia. It  is  further  interesting  to  note  that 
the  diamonds  of  South  Africa  rather  resemble 
in  quality  and  composition  those  of  Australia 
than  those  of  Liberia  (West  Africa),  which  are 
more  akin  to  the  diamonds  of  India,  Guiana, 
and  Brazil.  Long  after  Glossopteris  land  had 
been  broken  up,  a  land  connection  subsisted 
more  or  less  between  Tropical  Africa  and  India, 
and  still  more,  and  still  later,  between  West 
Africa  and  Brazil.  This  is  the  only  supposition 
which  will  explain  the  remarkable  correspond- 
ence in  many  features  between  the  fauna  and 
flora  of  Tropical  Africa  and  Tropical  America, 
especially  the  Brazil-Guiana  region  and  the 
West  Indies. 

THE   AFRICA   OF  TODAY 

The  Africa  of  today,  which  has  been  for  two 
million  years  or  so  separated  from  the  great 
island  of  Madagascar,  extends  but  little  either 
north  or  south  into  the  Temperate  Zones.  It 
is  perhaps  the  most  tropical  of  the  continents, 
presents  the  'greatest  amount  of  land  area  to 
the  vertical  sun,  and  is  consequently  the  hottest 
of  the  continents.  Its  greatest  length,  5,000 
miles,  is  from  north  to  south,  from  Latitude 
37°2o'  N.  (Cap  Blanc,  near  Bizerta,  in  Tunis) 
to  34°5i'  S.  (Cape  Agulhas,  Cape  Colony); 
and  its  greatest  breadth — about  4,000  miles — 
is  from  Senegal  to  the  eastern  horn  of  Somali- 
land.  Its  total  area  is  about  1 1 ,500,000  square 
miles.  The  northernmost  projection  of  the 
continent,  Mauretania,  is  noteworthy,  es- 
pecially in  its  western  portion,  for  its  high 
plateaus  and  ranges  of  lofty  mountains,  which 
culminate  in  the  Atlas  peaks  of  Morocco,  at- 
taining to  more  than  15,000  feet  in  altitude 
and  being  under  perpetual  snow.  The  Tri- 
politaine,  which  lies  to  the  east  of  Mauretania, 
is  little  else  than  the  Mediterranean  coast  of 
the  Sahara,  and  consists  of  ranges  of  stony 
hills,  low  mountains,  and  arid  plateaus,  with 
occasional  wastes  of  shifting  sand,  and  a  few 
depressions  known  as  oases,  wherein  an  easily 
reached  water-supply  maintains  a  compara- 
tively rich  vegetation.  Egypt  is  a  prolonga- 
tion of  this  desert  region  traversed  by  the 
course  of  the  Nile,  which  in  its  delta  com- 
pletely banishes  the  desert  and  presents  us 
with  a  region  of  fertile  mud  and  rich  vegetation 
of  a  European  and  Asiatic  character.  The 
Sahara  Desert  region  extends  with  nothing  but 
the  interruption  of  the  Nite — and  the  few 
miles  of  cultivated  region  on  either  side  of  the 
Nile,  between  the  Red  Sea  on  the  east  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  west.  Arabia  carries 
on  the  characteristics  of  the  Sahara  to  the 
south  of  Persia  and  the  northwest  of  India. 

MOUNTAINS   AND   PLATEAUS 

In  Eastern  Nigeria  between  the  Eastern 
Niger,  the  Benue,  and  Lake  Chad,  and  on  the 
southern  frontier  of  the  central  Sahara,  there 
are  high  mountains  which  may  attain  to  as 


lit*     K/^2^  It' 

ibv^Ii1^     JZ     *    *        1'2 


NATIVES  OF  AFRICA— PLATE  1 

I  Shilluk     2   Dinka     3   Woman  of  Porto  Novo     4  Fu'.ah  Girl      5  Tamberma  Man      6  Man  of  Bamuro 
7  Ama-ngqika       8  Weushagga  Girl      9  Loarigo  Girl       10  Girl  of  Kamerun       11   Pygmy 

12   Woman  of  Lunda 


NATIVES  OF  AFRICA— PLATE  II 

i   Hadendoa        a  Bedouin       3   Biskra  Girl        4  Midgan        5  Somal  Woman       6  Wahuma  Girl 
7   Bushman  Woman     8  Hottentot     9  Mukamba     10  Hova  Girl     n   Sakalava  Girl 

12   Masai  Youth 


AFRICA 


AFRICA 


much  as  7,000  feet,  perhaps  more.  South  of 
the  Benue  the  country  is  very  mountainous, 
with  altitudes  of  as  much  as  8,000  feet.  Ad- 
vancing from  the  Benue  towards  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  we  meet  with  peaks  mostly  of  volcanic 
origin  of  9,000  and  10,000  feet,  culminating  in 
the  great  volcanic  mountain  of  the  Cameroons, 
which  is  about  13,000  feet  and  is  occasionally 
capped  with  snow.  A  few  miles  away  to  the 
west  of  the  Cameroons  lies  the  10,000  feet 
high  valcano  of  Fernando  Po  Island.  From 
the  Cameroons  southwards  there  is  an  almost 
unbroken  range  of  mountains  at  no  great  dis- 
tance from  the  coast,  which,  except  for  the 
passage  of  a  few  great  rivers,  is  continuous 
with  Table  Mountain  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  The  greater  part  of  the  center  of  Africa 
from  the  southern  Sahara  Desert  _  to  the 
southernmost  limits  of  the  Congo,  is  at  an 
average  altitude  of  1,500  feet  above  sea  level 
(with  depressed  areas  and  ancient  lake-basins 
here  and  there).  On  the  east  this  comparative 
flatness  gives  place  somewhat  abruptly  to 
plateaus  of  6,000  to  8,000  feet  in  height,  above 
which  towers  the  snow  range  of  Ruwenzori 
(the  true  Mountains  of  the  Moon),  nearly 
under  the  Equator. 

RAINFALL,   FORESTS   AND  ANIMAL  LIFE 

West  Africa  has  a  much  greater  rainfall 
than  the  eastern  half  of  the  continent.  There 
is,  however,  a  somewhat  well-marked  rainy 
equatorial  belt,  which  extends  from  the 
Victoria  Nyanza  on  the  east  to  the  Gambia 
River  on  the  west,  and  expands  over  a  good 
deal  of  the  basin  of  the  Congo,  the  lower  and 
the  upper  Niger.  This  equatorial  belt  has 
some  of  the  most  splendid  tropical  forests  the 
world  can  show.  It  is  in  this  region  also, 
expecially  in  Central  Africa,  that  some  of  the 
most  rare  and  remarkable  of  African  mam- 
mals continue  to  exist,  such  as  the  great 
Anthropoid  Apes  (Gorilla  and  Chimpanzi), 
the  strange  Drill  and  Mandrill  Baboons,  the 
Okapi,  the  Chevrotain,  and  (in  Liberia)  the 
Pygmy  Hippopotamus  and  Zebra  Antelope, 
The  Lion  has  become  extinct  in  North  Africa 
within  the  last  few  years,  but  a  Leopard  of 
very  large  size  still  exists  there,  together  with  a 
Striped  Hyena  and  the  Common  Jackal,  the 
true  Wild  Boar,  the  Porcupine,  and  a  Red 
Deer  allied  to  that  of  Southern  Europe.  The 
Sahara  Desert  is  by  no  means  devoid  of  animal 
life.  A  few  Lemurs  ("half  apes")  are  still 
found  in  Tropical  Africa  and  in  Tropical  Asia, 
but  in  Madagascar  this  group  in  the  recent 
past  developed  extraordinarily.  Within  the 
human  period  there  existed  in  Madagascar 
lemurs  nearly  as  large  as  a  man.  Such  re- 
markable forms  are  extinct  now,  as  is  also  the 
gigantic  bird  of  Madagascar,  the  Aepyornis, 
possibly  the  largest  bird  that  this  world  has 
ever  known,  and  the  origin  of  the  legend  of 
the  Rukh  of  the  Arabian  Nights.  One  of  the 
most  useful  birds  in  Africa  of  the  twentieth 
century  is  the  Ostrich,  which  fortunately  has 
been  domesticated  and  brought  into  the 
service  of  man. 


GOLD,  DIAMONDS  AND  OTHER  PRODUCTS 

It  was  not,  until  1884  that  the  wealth  in  gold 
of  the  Transvaal  rocks  was  fully  realized,  and 
the  gold  industry  centered  in  Barberton  and 
Johannesburg  was  started  on  a  large  scale. 
Since  then,  the  gold  export  of  South  Africa 
has  risen  to  something  like  £36,000,000  (180,- 
000,000  dollars)  per  annum.  In  the  sixties  of 
the  last  century,  likewise,  the  existence  of 
diamonds  was  made  known  in  South  Africa, 
and  the  working  of  diamonds  brought  immense 
wealth  to  that  region  and  quite  changed  the 
history  of  the  southern  third  of  Africa.  Within 
the  last  few  years,  however,  diamonds  have 
been  discovered  also  in  German  Southwest 
Africa,  in  the  south-western  portion  of  the 
Congo  basin,  and  in  Liberia,  on  the  west  coast 
of  Africa.  Gold  has  also  been  discovered  and 
worked  in  the  north-eastern  basin  of  the  Congo 
and  in  Liberia.  It  has  also  been  worked  in- 
termittently for  several  centuries  in  Bambara, 
in  the  basins  of  the  upper  Sengal  and  upper 
Niger.  Another  great  source  of  wealth  peculiar 
to  Africa  is  the  oil  palm,  the  full  importance 
of  which  is  scarcely  yet  realized.  The  two 
distinct  oils  which  come,  the  one  from  the 
kernel  and  the  other  from  the  husk  of  the  nut, 
are  not  only  of  great  value  as  food  products  for 
both  man  and  beast,  but  they  furnish  the  best 
material  for  soap,  and  for  a  great  many  other 
industrial  products,  including  lubricating  oils 
for  machinery,  and  a  vegetable  fat  for  making 
butter.  Other  products  of  great  future  value 
in  Africa  will  be  timber  and  rubber  from  the 
forests  and  the  plantations,  the  banana  (which 
though  not  in  its  cultivated  form  native  to 
the  continent,  has  been  established  there  for 
untold  centuries),  and  maize,  which,  though 
introduced  from  America,  has  found  a  second 
home  in  Africa.  Besides  the  ostrich  also, 
Africa  in  many  parts  is  a  splendid  field  for 
horse  and  cattle  breeding.  The  horses  of  North 
Africa  are  in  great  demand.  So  also  are  certain 
breeds  of  sheep  and  goat.  Madagascar  is  cele- 
brated for  its  cattle  and  apparently  is  free 
from  the  pest  of  the  tsetse  fly. 

THE  HUMAN   POPULATION   OF   AFRICA 

The  total  population  of  Africa  at  the  present 
day  is  probably  something  like  151,000,000, 
and  apportioned  racially  would  consist  of 
120,000,000  Negroes  and  Negroids,  6,000,000 
pure-blooded  Europeans  (absolute  White  men 
of  Northern  or  Mediterranean  stock),  and  25,- 
000,000  of  handsome,  physically  well  de- 
veloped, but  mentally  rather  backward,  dark- 
skinned  Caucasians — Berbers,  Arabs,  Egypt- 
ians, Galas,  and  Abyssinians.  Quite  distinct, 
from  the  true  Negro  is  the  Bushman  of  South 
Africa,  a  somewhat  (but  not  always)  stunted 
race,  with  a  yellow  skin,  very  sparse  and 
tightly  curljd  hair,  and  other  peculiar  physical 
features  not  ordinarily  met  with  in  the  Negro, 
though  sometimes  occurring  in  the  people  of 
the  Mediterranean  basin.  The  Hottentot  is 
nothing  but  an  early  hybrid  between  the  true 
Negro  and  the  Bushman. 


AFRICA 


AFRICA 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS   OF  AFRICA 

Scarcely  any  portion  of  Africa  at  the  present 
day  can  be  described  as  independent  of 
European  rule.  The  Empire  of  Abyssinia 
maintains  a  tottering  independence  which  can- 
not last  much  longer,  owing  to  the  utter  in- 
ability of  the  ruling  race,  the  Abyssinians,  to 
impose  law  and  order  throughout  their  ill- 
governed  dominions.  The  little  Republic  of 
Liberia  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  was  founded 
by  white  Americans  as  a  refuge  for  American 
slaves  who  had  gained  their  freedom  a  hundred 
years  ago.  It  has  not  so  far  been  much  of  a 
success  as  a  governing  power  over  the  wild 
negroes  of  the  territory  proclaimed  as  "Li- 
berian,"  and  the  government  of  the  country  is 
a  good  deal  controlled  and  influenced  nowadays 
by  the  American  organizers  lent  by  the  United 
States.  Not  only  is  the  whole  of  Africa  con- 
trolled by  Europe,  but  by  Christian  Europe; 
Muhammadan  Turkey  being  excluded  from 
any  further  interference  in  African  affairs,  since 
the  Italian  annexation  of  the  Tripolitaine  and 
the  establishment  of  a  British  control  in  Egypt. 

MARVELOUS  OPENING  UP  IN  RECENT  YEARS 

In  the  truly  marvelous  opening-up  of  Africa 
which  has  been  taking  place  during  the  last 
twenty  years,  and  more  especially  since  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century,  the 
great  schemes  and  public  works  which  most 
deserve  mention  in  a  brief  record  (beginning 
on  the  north  and  proceeding  southwards)  are 
the  following: 

The  damming  of  the  Nile  at  Assuan,  at  what 
is  called  the  first  (though  it  is  really  the  last) 
of  its  cataracts.  This  operation,  though  it  is 
leading  to  the  submergence  of  the  temples  of 
Philae,  will  more  than  double  its  native  popu- 
lation. For  Egypt  (compared  to  the  rest  of 
Africa)  is  a  healthy  land  for  Black,  White,  and 
Yellow.  Give  it  a  sufficient  water  supply  in 
the  way  of  irrigation  and  it  will  become  one  of 
the  wealthiest  regions,  for  its  area,  on  the 
world's  surface  and  one  of  the  most  habitable. 
What  the  ultimate  consequences  of  this  re- 
generation of  Egypt  under  the  British  aegis 
will  be,  it  is  interesting  to  speculate.  Certainly 
the  prosperity  of  this  land  will  far  exceed  the 
greatest  altitude  ever  reached  in  population 
and  civilization  at  the  best  period  of  the  rule 
of  the  dynastic  Egyptians — let  us  say,  Egypt 
1,500  years  before  the  time  of  Christ;  and  if 
ever  Egypt  again  is  one  of  the  great  nations  of 
the  world  the  thanks  of  her  people  will  be  due 
entirely  to  the  British  nation  which  undertook 
its  regeneration. 

The  Italians  are  commencing  a  similar  work 
in  the  Tripolitaine,  and  once  Italy  has  got 
effective  control  we  may  look  with  confidence 
to  the  restoration  of  the  sparsely  inhabited 
region  between  Egypt  and  Tunis  to  a  state  of 
prosperity  such  as  it  has  not  enjoyed  since  it 
ceased  to  form  part  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
Wells  will  be  dug  and  will  tap  the  immense 
reserves  of  water  underlying  the  surface  of  the 
Sahara.  The  French  have  r«ally  transformed 
Tunis  from  a  semi-desert  country  to  one  of  the 


most  fertile  and  beautiful  in  the  Mediterranean 
Basin.  Algeria  has  more  than  twice  the  native 
population  at  the  present  day  which  it  pos- 
sessed at  the  time  the  French  abolished  the 
rule  of  the  Turkish  pirates  in  1830-40. 

A  VAST  SYTSEM    OF  RAILWAYS 

The  French  are  entirely  revolutionizing  con- 
ditions of  life  in  Morocco,  chiefly  by  means  of 
railways.  They  have  carried  their  eventual 
Trans-Saharan  Railway  from  Oran  on  the 
coast  to  a  distance  of  700  miles  south,  into  the 
desert,  beyond  the  range  of  the  great  Atlas. 
In  fact,  what  with  the  work  of  the  Italians  in 
Tripoli,  the  British  in  Egypt,  and  the  French 
in  the  rest  of  North  Africa,  there  will,  before 
very  long,  be  a  continuous  line  of  rail  between 
Tangier  through  North  Africa  to  Alexandria 
and  Cairo. 

The  French  also,  once  they  are  free  from  any 
reasonable  dread  of  German  invasion,  will  com- 
plete their  Trans-Saharan  Railway  right  across 
the  Desert  of  Timbuktu,  and  joining  with  other 
railways  already  constructed  or  under  con- 
struction, will  eventually  link  up  Tangier 
with  Kano  in  Northern  Nigeria,  as  well  as  the 
British,  French  and  German  colonies  on  the 
West  African  coast. 

Tangier,  which  will  certainly  be  the  point  of 
departure  for  these  tremendous  overland  rail- 
way journeys  through  the  once  Dark  Con- 
tinent, constitutes  at  the  present  time  a  tiny 
internationalized  state  of  Morocco,  under  the 
joint  guardianship  of  Britain,  France  and 
Spain.  It  is,  of  course,  only  a  few  hours' 
steam  from  Gibraltar  and  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  coasts.  It  is  the  Calais  of  Africa, 
and  perhaps  some  day  may  be  its  most  im- 
portant city. 

RECENT  DISCOVERIES  OF  MINERAL  WEALTH 

The  extraordinary  rate  at  which  railway 
building  is  now  proceeding  in  Africa  is  justified 
commercially  by  recent  discoveries  of  great 
mineral  wealth.  The  tin  and  the  coal  of 
Nigeria;  the  phosphate  deposits  of  Tunis; 
mineral  oil  in  Somaliland,  .Egypt,  and  the. 
Northern  Sudan;  gold,  tin,  copper,  coal, 
petroleum,  in  North  and  Central  Africa; 
haematite  iron,  lead,  silver,  in  Morocco; 

Ehosphates,  soda,  copper,  iron  and  gold  in  the 
ahara  Desert  and  the  Egyptian  Sudan;  are, 
or  will  be,  inducements  for  railway  adventure 
in  those  regions,  while  in  much  of  Central 
Africa,  Angola,  Nyasaland,  Uganda,  Kamerun, 
the  Congo  Basin  and  the  forest  regions  of 
West  Africa,  the  inducement  for  railway  and 
road  construction  is  often  not  mineral  but 
vegetable;  for  these  regions  are  producing 
ever-increasing  quantities  of  rubber,  coffee, 
cotton,  tobacco,  maize,  peanuts,  bananas, 
cocoa,  palm-oil  and  palm-nuts;  besides  timber, 
cattle,  nides  and  wax.  One  of  the  most  inter- 
esting phases  in  the  opening-up  of  Africa  is  the 
greatly  increased  application  of  the  negro  races 
to  agriculture  and  horticulture  on  their  own 
account.  The  cocoa  of  British  West  Africa  is 
produced  not  by  hired  laborers  or  slaves  for 
white  planters,  but  by  free  natives  working 


AFRIKANDER 


AGAVE 


their  own  land.  This  is  the  case  with  regard  to 
the  immense  ground-nut  industry  of  French 
West  Africa  and  the  palm-oil  and  rubber  of 
Southern  Nigeria. 

SIR  HARRY  HAMILTON  JOHNSTON. 

Afrikander  (df-re-kdn'der),  a  name  ap- 
plied to  whites  of  Dutch  descent  born  in 
South  Africa.  The  term  is  opposed  to  Uit- 
lander,  which  signifies  an  outsider,  or  one 
born  in  another  country.  The  Afrikander 
Bund  is  an  organization  among  the  Dutch 
in  Cape  Colony  which  aims  at  the  political 
independence  of  South  Africa  in  Dutch  in- 
terests. 

Agamem'non,  the  leader  of  the  Greeks 
in  the  Trojan  war.  He  was  the  son  or  grand- 
son of  Atreus,  king  of  Mycenae,  and  the 
most  powerful  prince  in  Greece.  He  and 
his  brother  Menelaus  married  the  two 
daughters  of  the  king  of  Sparta,  Clytem- 
nestra  and  Helen.  When  the  Trojan  Paris 
carried  off  Helen,  Agamemnon  was  chosen 
chief  of  the  forces  sent  out  for  her  recovery. 
At  Troy,  in  the  ninth  year  of  the  war,  he 
quarreled  with  Achilles  over  two  captive 
maidens,  and  almost  ruined  the  Greek  cause. 
After  his  return  from  the  capture  of  Troy, 
he  was  murdered  at  a  feast  by  his  wife  and 
her  lover.  His  death  was  afterward  avenged 
by  his  son  Orestes.  Agamemnon  was  wor- 
shiped in  Sparta  as  a  god. 

Agar'icus.  The  best  known  genus  of 
mushrooms,  one  of  whose  species,  A.  cam~ 
pestris,  is  the  common  cultivated  mush- 
room. The  genus  belongs  to  the  Basi- 
diomycetes,  and  the  spores  are  exposed 
along  the  surfaces  of  radiating  plates  or 
"gills"  under  the  cap  or  "pileus."  See 
BASIDIOMYCETES. 

Agasias  (a-ga's%-as),  a  Greek  sculptor  of 
Ephesus,  who  probably  lived  about  the  fourth 
century.  His  celebrated  work,  called  the 
Borghese  Gladiator,  was  found  in  the  ruins 
of  Antium  in  the  third  century,  and  is  now 
in  the  Louvre  collection  at  Paris. 

Agassiz  (ag'a-se),  Louis  Jean  Rodolphe, 
a  distinguished  naturalist,  was  born  at 
Motiers,  Switzerland,  May  28,  1807.  After 
years  of  study  he  began  to  write  on  scientific 
subjects.  His  reputation  was  made  by  his 
book,  Studies  of  Glaciers.  In  1846  he  be- 
came professor  of  zoology  and  geology  at 
Harvard  College.  He  made  explorations  in 
Brazil  and  in  the  South  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans.  Agassiz  was  not  merely  a  learned 
naturalist,  but  a  great  force.  H&  did  much 
by  public  lectures  and  by  teaching  to  make 
natural  history  popular.  He  trained  many 
young  naturalists  who  have  carried  out  his 
methods.  He  founded  the  Agassiz  Museum 
of  Comparative  Zoology  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege. His  Methods  of  Study  in  Natural  His- 
tory and  Contributions  to  the  Natural  History 
of  the  United  States  are  his  most  popular 
works.  He  died  at  Cambridge.  Mass.,  Dec. 
14,  1873- 

His  son,  Alexander  (1835-1910),  also  a  dis- 


tinguished naturalist  and  writer,  was  from 
1874  to  1897  chief  curator  of  the  Museum  of 
comparative  zoology  at  Cambridge,  Mass. 
Ag'ate  is  a  kind  01  chalcedony.  Its  colors 
are  arranged  in  bands,  but  sometimes  form 
spots,  clouds  and  often  stains  like  moss, 
when  it  is  called  the  moss  agate.  By  boiling 
the  stone  in  a  syrup  and  then  in  an  acid  the 
beautiful  colors  can  be  made  brighter. 
Agates  take  a  high  polish  and  are  cut  into 
brooches,  seals  and  bracelets,  and  used  in 
mosaic  work.  They  are  found  in  Egypt, 
Germany,  Scotland,  South  America,  the 
United  States  and  other  parts  of  the  world. 
In  this  country  moss  agates  abound  in  Wy- 
oming, Nevada  and  other  points;  small 
banded  agates  of  great  beauty  are  numerous 
on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  and  also  in 
western  Texas,  where  large  specimens  are 
plentiful.  The  agate  marble  is  a  name 
known  to  every  boy,  though  most  of  these 
marbles  are  cheap  glass  imitations.  Agate 
was  prized  by  the  ancients,  mention  being 
frequently  made  in  history  of  onyx,  the 
black  and  white  banded  agate,  and  of  sar- 
donyx, the  red  and  white. 


AGAVE 

Agave  (d-ga've).  A  genus  of  plants  of  the 
amaryllis  family,  whose  numerous  species 
are  peculiar  to  the  warm  and  dry  regions  of 
America.  Along  with  forms  of  cactus  and 
yucca,  agave  forms  the  characteristic 
American  desert  vegetation.  One  of  the 
species,  the  American  aloe,  has  received  the 
fanciful  name  of  Century  Plant,  from  the 
mistaken  notion  that  it  must  be  a  hundred 
years  old  before  it  blooms. 

It  is  a  native  of  Mexico  and  Central  Amer- 
ica. In  native  soils  the  plant  usually  blooms 
in  its  seventh  or  eighth  year,  but  in  hothouses 
it  rarely  blooms  until  it  is  from  40  to  60  years 
old;  whence  arises  the  story  that  they  flower 


AGESANDER 


AGRICULTURE 


only  once  in  a  hundred  years.  After  flower- 
ing the  plant  dies  down  to  the  ground  and 
new  plants  spring  up  from  the  roots.  It  has 
no  stem  proper,  or  a  very  short  one,  bearing 
a  crowded  head  of  large  fleshy  leaves,  which 
are  spiny  at  the  edge.  From  the  midst  of 
these  shoots  up  the  straight,  upright  scape, 
24  to  36  feet  high,  and  at  the  base  frequently 
a  foot  through,  along  which  are  lance-like 
flower  branches,  ending  in  clusters  of  blos- 
soms often  numbering  4,000  flowers. 

Although  agaves  are  decorative  plants  in 
the  United  States  and  Europe,  in  their  native 
home  in  Mexico  they  are  among  the  most 
useful  plants.  There  they  are  called  maguey, 
and  are  a  regular  farm  crop  and  valued 
highly.  Some  of  the  species  supply  fiber 
which  is  used  in  making  rope,  cordage,  mat- 
ting, clothing,  thread,  hammocks,  bagging, 
burlap  and  other  coarse  textile  stuffs,  and 
the  old  Mexicans  used  it  to  make  a  coarse 
paper.  Its  introduction  on  our  arid  western 
plains  is  highly  recommended,  for  it  will  grow 
in  the  dry  lands  of  Texas,  New  Mexico,  Ari- 
zona and  southern  California.  When  pas- 
turage is  scarce  the  leaves  are  cut  up  and  fed 
to  cattle.  From  some  of  the  species  soap  is 
made,  while  the  two  most  common  Mexican 
drinks,  pulque  and  mescal,  are  obtained 
from  still  others.  When  the  young  flower- 
bud  is  cut  out,  the  sap  keeps  on  flowing  into 
the  cavity.  This  juice  is  quite  sweet.  It  is 
gathered  daily  and  fermented,  and  becomes 
the  great  Mexican  drink  known  as  pulque. 
It  is  milky,  sour  and  bad  smelling,  looking 
like  thin  buttermilk,  and  has  a  rank  taste; 
yet  even  Americans  soon  find  it  agreeable 
and  refreshing.  A  distilled  liquor  is  also 
made  from  it.  The  unfeimented  maguey, 
called  honey-water,  is  used  as  a  substitute 
for  milk. 

Agesander  (ag-e-sdn'der)  of  Rhodes, 
See  LAOCOON. 

Agesilaus  (d-^es'i-ld'Hs),  one  of  the  most 
warlike  of  the  kings  of  Sparta.  Though  not 
the  lawful  heir,  he  became  king  in  398  B.  C., 
and  reigned  38  years.  He  was  small,  lame 
and  mean-looking,  but  had  a  wonderful 
amount  of  energy.  His  first  war  against 
the  Persians,  whom  he  defeated  in  Asia 
Minor,  led  to  his  forming  the  project  of 
entering  the  heart  of  the  Persian  Empire, 
which  Alexander  the  Great  afterward  carried 
out.  But  he  had  to  give  up  the  attempt  in 
order  to  defend  Sparta  against  her  enemies 
at  home.  In  the  later  years  of  his  life  Sparta 
lost  her  power,  but  he  remained  faithful,  and 
devoted  his  fortune  to  her  service.  He  died 
at  the  age  of  eighty  on  the  coast  of  Africa, 
while  returning  from  a  last  effort  against  his 
enemy,  Persia. 

Agincourt  (a-zh&n-koort),  a  village  in  the 
north  of  France,  known  in  history  as  the 
scene  of  the  battle  between  the  English  under 
Henry  V  and  the  French  under  the  Duke 
D 'Albert,  commanding  for  the  Dauphin 
Charles,  Oct.  25,  1415.  Having  driven  the 


French  cavalry  by  strategy  into  a  swamp, 
Henry  V  turned  his  archers  upon  them  and 
almost  annihilated  them.  The  fugitives 
threw  the  army  into  confusion,  and  the 
battle  of  three  or  four  hours  ended  in  a  terri- 
ble defeat  for  the  French.  More  than  10,000 
French  were  killed,  including  many  princes 
and  nobles,  while  the  English  lost  only  600. 
This  decisive  battle  so  crippled  the  power  of 
France  that  Henry  V  soon  had  control  of 
the  entire  kingdom. 

Agra  (d'gra),  a  city  on  the  Jumna  River, 
in  the  British  Northwestern  provinces  of 
India.  It  contains  the  Taj  Mahal,  or  Pearl 
Mosque  Mausoleum,  the  finest  piece  of  Indian 
Mohammedan  architecture  in  the  East. 
Population  185,449. 

Agric'ola  (born  37,  died  93  A.  D.),  a 
Roman  general,  born  in  the  south  of  France. 
He  was  made  governor  of  Aquitania  by  the 
Emperor  Vespasian,  then  elected  consul,  and 
later  given  the  province  of  Britain  to  govern. 
He  spent  seven  years  there,  completing  the 
conquest  of  the  island.  He  built  a  chain  of 
forts  as  a  defense  against  the  northern  tribes, 
and  was  the  first  Roman  to  send  his  fleet 
around  Britain,  proving  it  to  be  an  island. 
He  introduced  Roman  customs  and  the 
Roman  language.  He  was  recalled  by  the 
Emperor  Domitian,  who  was  jealous  of  his 
popularity.  His  life  has  been  written  by 
his  son-in-law,  the  historian  Tacitus. 

Ag'riculture  comprehends  the  tillage  of 
the  soil,  the  cultivation  and  harvesting  of 
crops,  the  rearing,  breeding,  feeding  and 
management  of  the  various  domesticated 
animals,  and  the  manufacture  of  numerous 
products  of  the  farm  into  commodities 
suitable  for  home  use  or  for  commercial 
purposes.  No  other  of  the  arts  antedates 
this,  which  not  only  feeds  and  clothes  the 
world  but  contributes  in  ways  innumerable 
to  its  wealth  and  welfare. 

History.  Wherever  husbandry  has  been 
in  highest  esteem  there  has  been  found  a 
people  advanced  in  civilization.  Apart  from 
the  present-day  advantages  of  knowledge 
that  centuries  of  research  and  investigation 
have  given,  and  those  contributed  by  agri- 
cultural chemistry,  new  and  improved  ma- 
chinery and  modern  transportation  facilities, 
the  husbandmen  of  some  of  the  nations  of 
antiquity  were  in  many  essentials  so  ad- 
vanced as  to  make  comparison  of  their 
practices  with  those  of  to-day  appear  by  no 
means  discreditable.  The  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, we  are  informed,  knew  the  wisdom  of 
crop  rotation,  were  skilled  in  their  methods 
of  suiting  these  to  soils  and  seasons,  and  even 
the  rearing  of  poultry  hatched  by  artificial 
incubation  was  not  uncommon.  The  ex- 
ceeding care  in  their  execution  of  deeds  of 
conveyance,  minute  description  of  both  the 
seller  and  realty  and  explicitness  of  terms 
warrant  the  belief  that  land  was  held  in 
earliest  times  at  high  value  as  a  means  of  pro- 
ducing wealth.  Farming  operations  were 


AGRICULTURE 


AGRICULTURE 


overseen  by  superintendents,  shelter  pro- 
vided for  beasts  and  vehicles,  and  records 
kept  of  accounts.  The  Scriptures  abound 
in  allusions  to  flocks  and  herds  and  the 
produce  of  the  field. 

Palestine  afforded  an  early  example  of 
intensive  farming,  where  small  holdings  were 
the  rule.  The  limited  farms,  it  is  recorded, 
produced  abundantly,  and  their  fertility  was 
maintained  by  judicious  cultivation  and 
management.  A  mixed  husbandry  ob- 
tained, and  the  fields  were  enriched  by  the 
application  of  manures.  Ancient  Romans 
were  among  the  foremost  of  their  time  in 
agricultural  pursuits,  and  problems  of  irri- 
gation, tillage  and  fertilization  were  among 
those  which  commanded  their  attention. 
Cato,  Pliny  and  others  expounded  doctrines 
that  in  the  present  century  are  being  pro- 
mulgated by  our  most  learned  teachers. 
They  recommend  rotation,  such,  for  instance, 
as  having  wheat  follow  legumes,  because,  as 
Pliny  said,  they  enriched  the  ground;  also 
the  keeping  and  feeding  of  live  stock  was 
advocated.  To-day  it  is  quite  generally 
recognized  that  any  rational  system  of  farm- 
ing includes  these  usages. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  agriculture  in 
Europe  under  barbarian  conquerors  was 
neglected,  and  those  engaged  in  it  held  in 
contempt ;  its  peaceful  pursuits  were  largely 
abandoned  by  the  landowners  for  war  and 
the  chase,  and  every  one  not  of  the  nobility 
was  regarded  as  a  slave,  subject  to  the  will 
of  a  master.  This  resulted  in  a  most  deplor- 
able condition  of  labor,  and  retarded  prog- 
ress; but  the  end  of  the  feudal  system 
marked  the  beginning  of  a  new  era,  and 
renewed  attention  was  given  to  tillage.  By 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  it  was 
probably  as  skilfully  practiced  as  ever 
before,  and  the  prestige  of  the  husbandmen 
had  been  regained. 

The  eighteenth  century  was  one  notable  in 
its  relation  to  the  world's  agriculture. 
Jethro  Tull,  an  Englishman,  introduced  the 
method  advocated  by  him  of  sowing  crops 
in  drill  rows,  which  admitted  of  their  culti- 
vation, and  a  four-crop  rotation  that  has 
been  followed  more  or  less  strictly  to  the 
present  time  is  credited  tc  Lord  Townshend. 
Robert  Bakewell,  another  Englishman,  re- 
vealed the  methods  by  which  all  breeds  of 
farm  live  stock  have  since  been  improved, 
i.  e.,  by  judicious  selection,  mating  and 
feeding,  as  illustrated  in  the  Leicester  sheep 
which  he  developed,  and  in  the  cattle  known 
as  Longhorns  which  he  improved.  By  the 
same  methods  the  brothers  Colling  produced 
from  the  native  Teeswater  cattle  the  famous 
breed  now  known  as  the  Shorthorn,  and 
Herefords  were  similarly  improved  or  de- 
veloped by  Benjamin  Tomkins.  These  were 
the  pioneers  in  this  work.  Thomas  Bates, 
Thomas  Booth  and  others  became  famous 
as  improvers  of  Shorthorns,  as  did  Amos 
Cruickshank,  a  Scotchman,  later, and  through 


the  latter's  breeding  came  some  of  the 
greatest  Shorthorns  of  the  last  quarter  of  a 
century. 

In  the  light  of  present-day  knowledge  and 

Practices  agriculture  differs  much  in  our  own 
rom  that  of  earlier  times.  Chemistry,  in- 
vention of  new  tools  and  machinery  and 
improvement  of  the  old,  better  methods  of 
tillage,  and  superior  educational  facilities 
raising  the  general  plane  of  intelligence  are 
among  the  more  potent  forces  that  have 
effected  the  change.  The  most  far-reaching 
developments  have  been  accomplished  dur- 
during  the  past  century,  and  from  the  multi- 
tude of  scientists  and  investigators  now 
delving  into  the  mysteries  of  the  soil  and 
of  animal  and  plant  life,  much  more  of  value 
is  likely  to  be  evolved.  Agricultural  im- 
plements and  machinery  were  developed  and 
perfected  to  their  present  efficiency  only  in 
recent  times,  and  there  is  nothing  to  suggest 
that  the  end  in  their  improvement  is  near; 
the  rapid  extension  of  railroads  and  im- 
proved methods  of  travel  and  transportation 
are  the  work  of  the  past  few  years,  and  the 
institutions  on  every  hand  for  agricultural 
education  are  also  the  products  of  modern 
times. 

Agriculture  in  the  United  States.  In  the 
United  States  there  has  been  no  lack  of  ap- 
preciation of  agriculture.  The  chief  execu- 
tives from  Washington  to  Roosevelt  have 
been  strong  advocates  of  its  promotion.  In 
his  first  annual  message  to  Congress,  in  1 790, 
Washington  urged  its  advancement  by  all 
proper  means.  Many  of  his  later  messages 
and  writings  contained  discussions  of  the 
country's  agriculture,  which  he  considered 
of  primary  importance  with  reference  either 
to  the  individual  or  national  welfare.  In  his 
last  message  to  Congress  he  said :  "  In  pro- 
portion as  nations  advance  in  population  and 
other  circumstances  of  maturity  this  truth 
becomes  more  apparent,  and  renders  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil  more  and  more  an 
object  of  public  patronage."  President 
Roosevelt  in  his  message  to  Congress,  Decem- 
ber 4.  1906,  urged  the  wisdom  of  scientific 
research  and  education  as  a  means  of  for- 
warding the  country's  agriculture,  recog- 
nized as  the  nation's  chief  industry.  He 
wrote:  "It  is  a  mere  truism  to  say  that  no 
growth  of  cities,  no  wealth,  no  industrial 
development  can  atone  for  any  falling  off 
in  the  character  and  standing  of  the  farming 

population There  is  no  longer 

any  failure  to  realize  that  farming,  at  least 
in  certain  branches,  must  become  a  technical 
and  scientific  profession." 

The  pioneer  American  farmers  derived 
their  methods  from  those  in  vogue  in  the 
respective  countries  from  which  they  came, 
and  these  practiced  ever  so  perseveringly 
oftentimes  failed  because  lacking  adapta- 
bility to  the  new  conditions  of  so:1s  and 
climate.  Besides  the  natural  wildness  of  the 
country  to  be  tamed  and  subdued,  the 


AGRICULTURE 


28 


AGRICULTURE 


vicissitudes  of  their  environment  were  many 
and  hazardous.  Wild  beasts,  unfriendly 
Indians  and  the  absence  of  adequate  facili- 
ties all  retarded  the  country's  development. 
For  approximately  two  centuries  farming  in 
America  was  confined  to  a  comparatively 
narrow  area  adjacent  to  the  Atlantic.  The 
first  of  the  farmer's  implements  were  of  the 
crudest,  and  his  practices  were  wasteful. 
The  conserving  of  the  land's  fertility  was 
ignored;  such  vast  areas,  uncultivated  and 
unclaimed,  encouraged  no  other  practice; 
and  if  a  field  was  exhausted  it  was  abandoned 
and  another  cleared  and  tilled.  Buildings, 
equipment  and  other  necessities  were  had 
at  the  expense  of  the  soil.  Thus  an  indiffer- 
ence to  the  maintaining  of  the  soil's  fertility 
was  inherited  by  succeeding  generations, 
with  the  result  that  one  of  the  great  problems 
of  our  times  in  the  older  portions  of  America 
}s  to  remedy  the  evil  done  in  days  gone  by 
and  inaugurate  a  system  that  tends  in  the 
other  direction.  Agricultural  chemistry  is 
quite  clearly  pointing  the  way.  It  required 
a  full  century  for  Americans  to  realize  that 
the  productivity  of  their  land  was  limited, 
and  that  the  deep  fertile  soil  could  become 
exhausted. 

In  the  aggregate  of  its  field  productions 
the  United  States  is  without  a  close  com- 
petitor among  the  nations,  but  it  must  be 
confessed  that  from  the  viewpoint  of  the 
acre-yield  we  do  not  favorably  compare  with 
others  whose  density  of  population  makes 
small  holdings  and  intensive  cultivation  a 
necessity.  That  our  average  yields  are  low 
may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  of  abun- 
dant land  in  proportion  to  population.  The 
capabilities  of  some  portions  are  yet  but 
partially  comprehended  and  of  others  well- 
nigh  unknown.  Owing  to  the  country's 
vast  area  the  developments  already  achieved 
are  comparatively  superficial  because  of  the 
largeness  of  the  farms  and  lack  of  sufficient 
labor.  These  conditions  scarcely  make 
possible  the  use  of  methods  adapted  to  pro- 
ducing the  maximum  per  acre,  although  the 
use  of  modern  machinery  has  made  farming 
on  an  extensive  scale  exceedingly  profitable. 
As  the  country  more  nearly  approaches  a 
maximum  development,  with  the  inevitable 
increase  in  population,  smaller  farms  and 
benefits  of  the  revelations  and  teachings  of 
science,  it  may  be  expected  that  average 
yields  per  acre  will  show  continual  increases 
until  the  maximum  has  been  attained. 
Recent  economic  revolutions  in  the  art  and 
science  of  agriculture  have  had  a  noticeable 
effect  already,  as  evidenced  in  the  nation's 
enlarged  prosperity. 

At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
great  percentage  of  our  population  were 
farmers.  The  farms  were  comparatively 
small  in  area,  and  tilled  sparingly  and  mostly 
for  self-support ;  because  of  lack  of  adequate 
transportation  facilities  markets  were  not 
available,  and  hence  there  could  be  little 


incentive  to  produce  more  than  was  required 
for  home  consumption.  Inefficient  equip- 
ment was  also  a  barrier  to  any  surplus  that 
might  have  been  desired.  Under  these  con- 
ditions none  but  the  simplest  methods  were 
employed,  and  but  scant  attention  given  to 
cultivation.  Providence  was  the  main  reli- 
ance. In  those  days  it  was  commonly  said 
that  "anybody  can  farm,"  and  in  truth 
nearly  everybody  did.  With  a  population 
the  greater  part  of  whom  raised  their  own 
supplies,  and  the  exporting  of  any  surplus 
being  practically  impossible,  the  situation 
of  the  American  farmer  about  the  close  of 
the  eighteenth  century  was  one  that  created 
little  enthusiasm.  About  this  time,  how- 
ever, the  discoveries  of  science  led  to  the 
belief  that  chemistry  would  greatly  promote 
the  art  of  agriculture;  new  ideas  were  enter- 
tained, better  implements  sought,  improved 
methods  were  adopted,  and  a  general 
awakening  marked  the  first  great  stride  in  a 
progress  that  has  become  the  admiration  of 
the  world. 

As  the  population  increased  and  the  fron- 
tier was  gradually  pushed  further  into  the 
interior  of  the  continent  the  pioneers  in  the 
westward  movement  were  required  to  adapt 
themselves  to  yet  other  conditions  and  solve 
new  problems.  Each  new  outpost  of  civili- 
zation was  in  a  sense  an  agricultural  experi- 
ment station.  The  vast  expanse  of  country 
presented  a  variety  of  soils  and  climates,  and 
to  learn  what  crops  and  methods  were  best 
adapted  to  their  differing  conditions  was 
tedious  and  expensive.  This  gave  birth  to 
the  state  agricultural  experiment  stations, 
and  with  their  help  many  obstacles  have 
been  overcome  and  the  development  of  the 
country  steadily  expanded. 

The  first  society  for  the  promotion  of 
agriculture  in  the  United  States  was  organ- 
ized in  1785;  this  was  followed  by  others  in 
rapid  succession,  and  at  the  present  time 
nearly  every  community  has  its  agricultural 
association.  Agricultural  fairs  have  been 
helpful  educators,  and  nearly  if  not  all  the 
states  have  their  boards  of  agriculture  or 
other  similar  organizations  supported  with 
public  funds  for  the  purpose  of  advancing  the 
farming  interests.  From  these  are  issued  re- 
ports, bulletins  and  other  useful  publications, 
which  are  usually  distributed  free.  An 
extensive  agricultural  literature  has  grown 
up,  including  not  only  many  general  and 
special  works  but  a  long  list  of  periodicals, 
some  of  them  devoted  exclusively  to  special 
products  of  the  farm,  some  particular  breed 
of  live  stock,  or  branch  of  industry,  such  as 
dairying,  poultry  raising,  market  gardening, 
fruit-growing,  bee-keeping  and  the  like. 

Agricultural  Colleges.  The  educational 
movement  inaugurated  by  the  early  agricul- 
tural societies  has  grown  into  the  excellent 
agricultural  colleges,  with  which  are  gener- 
ally connected  the  experiment  stations,  in 
every  state  and  territory.  These  are  given 


AGRICULTURE 


AGRICULTURE 


liberal  appropriations  by  national  and  state 
governments,  and  are  assisted  and  co-op- 
erated with  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  This  Department  was 
established  in  1862  as  a  Bureau,  under 
direction  of  a  commissioner.  In  1889  Con- 
gress enacted  a  law  making  it  an  executive 
department  of  the  government,  under 
direction  of  a  secretary  to  be  appointed  by 
the  president  and  to  be  a  member  of  his 
cabinet.  In  1862  Congress  also  passed  the 
Land-Grant  Act,  donating  public  lands  to 
the  states  and  territories  providing  colleges 
for  the  benefit  of  agriculture  and  the  me- 
chanic arts,  which  has  resulted  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  such  institutions  in  every  state 
and  territory.  The  Hatch  Act  of  1887  gav« 
$15,000  a  year  for  the  maintenance  of  each 
agricultural  experiment  station,  for  experi- 
mentation, investigation  and  the  reporting 
of  results.  The  value  of  these  stations  as 
agencies  for  the  advancement  of  agriculture 
through  scientific  research  was  early  dem- 
onstrated, and  in  1906  Congress  passed  the 
Adams  Act,  which  has  for  its  object  the 
extension  and  strengthening  of  the  experi- 
mental work  of  the  stations  by  additional 
appropriations.  By  provision  of  this  act 
the  initial  appropriation  of  $5,000  is  to  be 
increased  each  year  until  1911,  when  it  will 
amount  to  $15,000,  making  then  and 
thereafter  annually  available  an  aggregate 
of  $30,000  of  government  funds  for  each 
station,  under  the  Hatch  and  Adams  Acts. 
Labor-Saving  Implements  —  Transporta- 
tion. It  is  a  far  cry  from  the  old-time  forked 
stick  for  stirring  the  ground  to  the  modern 
steam  plow  that  turns  sixteen  or  more 
furrows  at  a  time,  or  from  the  flail  to  the 
twentieth-century  thrashing  machine,  but 
these  improved  implements  have  been 
brought  to  their  present  perfection  in 
comparatively  recent  times,  and  to  Ameri- 
cans belongs  the  distinction  of  first  providing 
farm  implements  of  the  greatest  labor-saving 
and  time-saving  qualities.  The  invention 
of  those  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the 
American  farmers  has  been  a  potent  factor 
in  developing  the  country 's  agriculture.  Eli 
Whitney's  cotton  gin  was  the  first  of  these 
wonderful  contributions;  Charles  Newbold 
and  Jethro  Wood  were  probably  the  first  to 
fashion  the  plow  of  modern  times;  and  Cyrus 
H.  McCormick  made  the  first  successful 
reaper.  Until  better  means  of  transpor- 
tation were  provided  by  railways  there  were 
comparatively  few  settlements  away  from 
the  seaboard  or  the  navigable  rivers.  Trans- 
continental railways,  by  making  markets 
available,  have  brought  remote  areas  within 
the  pale  of  profitable  agriculture,  incidentally 
quickening  a  widespread  interest  in  the 
improvement  of  country  roads,  and  modern 
machinery  has  in  large  measure  solved  the 
next  problem  caused  by  the  sparse  popula- 
tion in  proportion  to  area — that  of  labor. 
The  acreage  of  arable  land  yet  uncultivated 


is  vast.the  greater  proportion,  of  course,  being 
in  the  states  west  of  the  Mississippi  River; 
much  of  that  previously  regarded  as  barren 
is  being  brought  into  a  high  state  of  pro- 
ductivity by  systems  of  irrigation,  and  much 
is  being  accomplished  in  this  line  also 
through  a  better  understanding  of  climate 
and  soils,  the  adoption  of  methods  of  tillage 
best  adapted  to  them,  and  the  introduction 
of  plants  found  more  suitable.  It  is  claimed 
by  engineers  that  under  the  operation  of  the 
National  Irrigation  Act  of  1902,  100,000,000 
of  acres  of  practically  arid  lands  now  useless 
may  be  reclaimed  for  agricultural  and 
home-making  purposes. 

Crop  Distribution  and  Development.  Cli- 
mate and  soil  determine  the  kind  of  crops 
raised;  for  instance,  the  farmers  of  some 
portions  of  the  southern  states  found  theirs 
especially  adapted  to  cotton  and  tobacco; 
others  found  theirs  peculiarly  suited  to  corn, 
and  especially  was  this  the  case  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley  states;  the  great  wheat- 
growing  region  is  further  north  in  the  middle 
states,  and  semi-tropical  fruits  are  grown 
throughout  the  south. 

Something  of  the  country 's  rapid  develop- 
ment may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  the 
yield  of  corn  in  1910  in  the  United  States  was 
more  than  twice  as  much  as  was  produced 
in  1875.  In  J8?4  tne  country  assumed  first 
rank  as  a  wheat-producer,  surpassing  France 
in  an  aggregate  yield  of  308,102,700  bushels. 
In  1901  the  yield  was  119  million  bushels 
more  than  double  that  quantity. 

In  quantity  and  value  our  agricultural 
productions  exceed  those  of  any  other  class. 
Sixty  years  ago  the  United  States  produced 
insufficient  breadstuffs  to  supply  home 
demands,  but  now  is  the  largest  exporter  of 
breadstuffs  and  other  kindred  products. 
American  agriculture  rivals  that  of  all  Europe 
in  the  aggregate  of  its  yields,  and  with  a 
continued  growth  in  population,  the  conse- 
quent decreased  areas  in  individual  farms 
and  their  better  cultivation,  a  far  greater 
production  seems  inevitable. 

Exports.  Millions  of  acres  of  fresh  land 
have  come  into  production  faster  than 
domestic  consumption  required ;  this  necessi- 
tated finding  markets  elsewhere  for  their 
surplus  products,  and  much  of  America's 
prosperity  is  due  to  her  export  trade.  In 
providing  export  commodities  the  farms 
overshadow  all  other  sources.  Not  only 
this,  but  the  farms  support  the  manufactures 
of  the  country  by  supplying  the  raw  material. 
For  the  year  ending  June,  1910,  the  value  of 
farm  products  exported  reached  $933,000,- 
ooo,  the  largest  by  any  country.  Of  this  the 
live-stock  products  constituted  no  small  pro- 
portion. The  annual  shipments  of  our  cattle 
and  sheep  to  foreign  ports  are  estimated  in 
the  hundreds  of  thousands,  and  dressed 
meats  in  millions  of  pounds.  The  leading 
export-product  is  cotton,  the  quantity 
exported  in  1910  amounting  to  3,206,708,226 


AGRICULTURE 


AGRICULTURE 


pounds,  worth  $450,447,243.  The  1910 
cotton  crop  of  Texas  alone  was  greater  than 
that  of  British  India,  nearly  three  times  that 
of  Egypt  and  half  as  much  again  as  the  crop 
of  the  world  outside  of  the  United  States, 
India  and  Egypt.  Cotton  and  tobacco  were 
among  the  first  export  articles  grown  in 
America.  In  1910  the  live  animal  exports 
exceeded  a  value  of  $17,000,000,  while  the 
packing  house  and  dairy  products  aggre- 
gated $130,632,783 

Crop  Acreage  and  Value.  According  to 
the  national  census  of  the  year  1900  there 
were  in  the  United  States  838,591,774  acres, 
or  about  1,310,300  square  miles,  divided 
into  5,737)372  farms.  Of  their  entire  areas 
perhaps  half  were  under  cultivation.  In 
1910  the  wealth- production  of  the  farms  of 
the  United  States  amounted  to  $8,926,000,- 
ooo.  Among  the  crops  largest  in  acreage 
and  contributing  to  this  wealth  the  most 
important  is  Indian  corn  or  maize,  a  product 
native  to  America.  The  crop  of  1910 
amounted  to  3,121,381,000  bushels,  grown 
on  approximately  108,500,000  acres.  The 
value  of  the  1909  corn  crop  of  the  United 
States  was  $1,652,822,000,  and  no  other  crop 
of  the  year  was  worth  half  so  much.  Natur- 
ally, corn  is  more  used  in  America  for  human 
food  than  in  other  countries,  but  this  is  little 
compared  with  the  whole,  and  Toy  far  the 
most  is  utilized  in  the  meat-making  industry, 
of  which  it  is  the  mainstay  and  buttress.  Its 
commercial  uses  have  been  largely  increased 
in  late  years,  however,  and  it  is  important 
in  the  manufacture  of  such  commodities  as 
alcohol,  starch,  glucose,  cellulose  and  oils 
for  various  uses,  and  the  newer  products 
have  resulted  in  increasing  its  price. 

Corn  is  grown  in  every  state  and  territory, 
but  in  recent  years  the  six  states  of  Illinois, 
Iowa,  Nebraska,  Missouri,  Indiana  and 
Kansas  have  yielded  the  major  portion.  In 
1906  these  states  raised  nearly  60  per  cent 
of  the  year's  product.  Corn  contributes 
more  to  the  nation's  wealth  than  any  other 
of  the  cereals.  Of  the  world's  total  produc- 
tion of  3,478,328,000  bushels  of  corn  in  1908, 
the  United  States  raised  2,668,651,000 
bushels. 

Wheat  comes  second  among  the  grain 
crops,  and  as  a  nation  the  United  States 
ranks  first  in  its  production.  The  crop  of 
1909  was  737,189,000  bushels  from  46,723,- 
ooo  acres.  For  the  five  years  ending  with 
1909  the  average  annual  yield  was  some- 
what over  700,000,000  bushels.  Large  quan- 
tities of  wheat  and  wheat-flour  are  exported. 
Oats,  rice,  sugar-cane,  potatoes,  rye,  barley, 
buckwheat  and  many  other  crops  receive 
more  or  less  attention,  the  climate  and  char- 
acter of  the  soil  in  large  measure  dictating 
which  shall  be  grown.  Timothy,  clovers, 
blue-grass,  alfalfa,  and  the  like,  often  mixed, 
and  the  native  wild  grasses,  both  for 
meadows  and  pastures,  claim  vast  areas,  and 
especially  in  many  of  the  central  and  more 


western  states  immense  tracts  of  native 
grasses  are  utilized  for  grazing  purposes 
alone.  No  survey  of  agriculture  in  America 
would  be  adequate  without  special  mention 
of  alfalfa  or  lucerne,  which,  while  one  of  the 
world's  oldest  forage  plants,  is  one  of  the 
newest  to  America.  Within  a  decade  its 
values  have  brought  it  to  attention  as  one 
of  the  richest  acquisitions  to  the  farm. 
Considerably  more  valuable  as  a  feed,  acre 
for  acre,  than  the  justly-prized  red  clover,  it 
is  even  superior  as  a  soil  renovator  and 
fertilizer.  In  the  Middle  West  especially  it 
has  already  made  itself  a  permanent  place, 
and  to  this  more  than  to  any  other  agency 
perhaps  is  due  the  marvelous  growth  of  the 
dairy  industry  there,  which  is  a  striking 
feature  of  its  husbandry,  as  it  is  an  important 
one  to  the  whole  country.  (See  ALFALFA.) 

Dairy  Industry.  Indeed,  a  foremost 
branch  of  American  agriculture  is  the  dairy, 
and  in  recent  years  its  progress  has  been 
most  marked.  The  Babcock  test,  a  simple 
but  accurate  device  for  ascertaining  the  per 
cent  of  fat  in  milk,  and  the  separator  which 
extracts  the  fat  from  the  milk  by  centrifugal 
force,  have  been  incalculable  aids  to  dairy- 
men as  well  as  to  the  progress  of  the  dairy 
industry.  The  Babcock  test,  in  connection 
with  the  scales,  enables  the  farmer  to  detect 
the  profitable  and  unprofitable  cows.  The 
separator  cannot  only  separate  the  butter- 
fat  from  the  milk  as  soon  as  drawn  from  the 
cow,  but  secures  more  of  the  butter-fat  or 
cream  from  the  milk  than  is  possible  by  the 
old  and  laborious  gravity  system  of  setting 
milk  in  pans  or  other  receptacles  and 
skimming  by  hand.  Creameries  and  cheese 
factories  mark  the  thriftier  agricultural 
communities,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  for 
these  institutions  to  draw  their  supplies 
from  long  distances,  many  railroads  supply- 
ing special  milk  trains  to  insure  prompt 
delivery.  The  skill  and  appliances  required 
for  the  making  of  high-grade  articles  are  such 
that  the  manufacturing  of  butter  and  cheese 
for  commercial  purposes  has  become  an 
extensive  business,  and  has  raised  the  quality 
of  the  product  as  well  as  taken  a  burden 
from  the  formerly  overtaxed  housewives. 

Silos. — The  storage  of  green  or  partly 
green  forage  crops,  such  as  corn,  the  clovers 
and  the  sorghums,  in  silos,  which  then  be- 
comes silage,  has  overcome  many  difficulties 
of  the  cattle  grower,  and  especially  of  the 
dairyman,  making  available  in  winter  suc- 
culent food  second  only  to  June  pastures.  It 
not  only  saves  in  feed  and  labor,  but  makes 
possible  the  keeping  of  an  increased  number 
of  animals  on  a  given  area,  as  by  its  use 
pasture  can  be  largely  or  entirely  dispensed 
with.  It  promotes  an  intensive  husbandry 
that  makes  possible  greater  returns  from  the 
same  farm,  and  helps  to  simplify  the  problem 
of  winter  feeding.  Use  of  the  silo  affords 
ideal  conditions  both  for  the  preparation  and 
conservation  of  feed,  and  its  introduction 


AGRICULTURE 


AGRICULTURE 


may  be  considered  one  of  the  important 
features  of  modern  agriculture. 

Veterinary  Science.  Commensurate  with 
and  contributory  to  the  advance  in  animal 
husbandry  has  been  the  progress  in  veteri- 
nary science.  Among  beneficial  economic 
measures  made  possible  by  veterinary 
schools  have  been  the  inspection  by  govern- 
ment officials  of  meat  animals  and  meat  and 
dairy  products  for  both  home  consumption 
and  export,  the  quarantine  against  conta- 
gious diseases,  and  extensive  investigation  of 
diseases  not  hitherto  understood.  The 
successful  treatment  of  milk  fever  in  cows 
by  simple,  harmless  processes  has  become  a 
great  boon  to  dairymen  everywhere.  The 
tuberculin  test  as  a  means  of  detecting 
tuberculosis  in  cattle  has  been  perhaps  the 
most  valuable  discovery  of  recent  years. 
"  Texas"  or  "  Spanish  "  fever  is  no  longer  the 
dreaded  disease  it  formerly  was,  and  im- 
munity is  had  by  inoculation  and  by 
immersion  in  crude  petroleum  or  other  dips. 

Stock  Feeding.  All  breeds  of  domesticated 
animals  have  been  greatly  improved  in  the 
past  century,  and  the  methods  of  feeding 
and  care  have  kept  pace  with  the  advance- 
ment in  other  lines.  Much  earlier  maturity 
in  meat-producing  animals  is  one  of  the  great 
improvements  attained,  as  by  it  increased 
profits  are  derived,  the  feeding  period  is 
comparatively  shortened,  and  the  invest- 
ment can  be  turned  oftener.  It  has  been 
fully  demonstrated,  too,  that  far  greater 
gains  for  given  quantities  of  feed  are  made 
in  the  earlier  stages  of  an  animal's  growth. 
Early  finishing  obviously  has  many  advan- 
tages over  the  former  practice  of  fattening 
meat  animals  when  several  years  old. 
Feeding  standards  for  the  various  farm 
animals  have  been  computed  that  show  the 
quantities  and  combinations  of  the  different 
feedstuffs  for  rations  containing  the  proper 
proportions  of  essential  compounds,  such  as 
protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat.  Experi- 
ments to  identify  the  digestible  nutrients  of 
the  different  feeds  and  test  their  effects  when 
used  have  resulted  in  practically  determining 
the  food  requirements  of  all  kinds  of  farm 
live  stock  under  normal  conditions.  Tables 
of  such  feeding  standards  have  been  con- 
veniently arranged,  and  the  various  rations 
cover  such  a  wide  diversity  of  feedstuffs  that 
they  meex  all  ordinary  farm  situations  and 
enable  the  farmer  to  form  the  most  advan- 
tageous combinations,  from  the  viewpoints 
of  both  cost  and  efficiency.  Many  farmers 
have  regarded  Indian  corn  as  an  all-sufficient 
grain,  and,  probably  because  of  its  abun- 
dance and  ease  of  production,  it  has  been 
difficult  to  persuade  them  otherwise.  While 
its  low  cost  of  production  and  high  feeding 
value  make  it  the  leading  meat-making  feed 
on  American  farms,  its  value  is  greatly 
enhanced  by  the  use  with  it  of  other  elements 
in  which  it  is  lacking.  Corn  has  an  excess 
of  carbonaceous  matter  in  proportion  to  the 


protein  compounds,  and  the  tables  of  feeding 
standards  point  out,  among  other  things, 
how  and  with  what  it  may  be  most  advanta- 
geously associated  to  make  the  properly 
balanced  ration.  The  study  of  animal 
nutrition  has  resulted  in  most  valuable 
developments  for  the  farmer  and  stock- 
laiser. 

Stock  Breeding.  Wonderful  advancement 
has  been  made  in  the  breeding  of  horses,  and 
one  of  the  marvels  in  horse  speed  was  the 
performance  in  1906  of  the  harness  horse, 
Dan  Patch,  when  he  paced  a  mile  in  a  minute 
and  fifty-five  seconds.  The  different  breeds  of 
swine  nave  been  greatly  improved,  and 
something  of  the  importance  of  the  swine 
industry  of  the  United  States  may  be  noted 
from  the  fact  that  about  two-fifths  of  the 
world 's  hog  supply  is'produced  in  the  United 
States,  and  about  six-sevenths  of  this  is 
from  the  Mississippi  Valley,  where  the  corn 
is  most  extensively  raised.  The  various 
breeds  of  cattle  have  likewise  been  greatly 
improved  for  their  specific  uses,  as  evidenced 
by  the  increased  milk  flow  from  dairy  cows, 
and  in  the  superior  flesh-forming  and  fatten- 
ing propensities  of  the  beef  breeds.  The 
live-stock  industry  has  increased  greatly  in 
importance  in  the  last  half  century,  and  the 
value  of  the  various  kinds  on  hand  in  the 
United  States  January  i,  1910  amounted  to 
$5,138,486,000,  divided  as  follows:  Horses, 
$2,276  363,000;  mules  $494  095,000*  milch 
cows,  $780,308,000;  other  cattle,  $917  453,- 
ooo;  sheep,  $233  664,000;  and  hogs,  $436,- 
603,000. 

Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Seed  Selec- 
tion. Progress  in  agricultural  chemistry  is 
assisting  to  a  constantly  widening  develop- 
ment in  agriculture.  It  has  taught  the 
composition  of  soils,  whereby  their  adapta- 
bility to  certain  crops  is  shown;  of  the 
composition  of  plants,  thus  determining  their 
relative  values  in  compounding  food  rations 
of  greatest  excellence  at  minimum  cost.  It 
has  also  tended  to  the  development  of  new 
crops,  and  improved  in  various  ways  those 
already  staple.  Great  strides  have  been 
made  in  beneficially  changing  the  chemical 
properties  of  plants,  especially  in  recent 
years.  Plants,  like  animals,  can  be  modified 
and  improved  by  selection  and  breeding,  and 
this  is  a  work  now  employing  the  minds  of 
many  of  our  foremost  agricultural  authori- 
ties. For  example,  corn  can  be  improved 
in  its  physical  characteristics  by  the  selection 
of  seed  according  to  certain  standard 
requirements,  and  by  planting  seed  tested 
by  chemical  analyses  the  chemical  composi- 
tion of  its  progeny  can  be  changed  at  will,  as 
to  a  high-  or  low-protein,  or  oil  content,  or 
other  constituent,  as  desired.  The  signifi- 
cance of  this  is  readily  apparent  from  the 
facts  stated  regarding  the  feeding  standards, 
as  a  corn  richer  in  protein  would  be  corre- 
spondingly more  valuable  as  a  feed  for 
growing  animals;  high-oil  corn  would  be  of 


AGRICULTURAL  STATIONS 


AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES 


special  advantage  in  fattening  stock;  and  an 
increase  in  the  percentage  of  carbohydrates 
would  render  it  more  valuable  to  the  manu- 
facturers of  starch,  glucose,  syrup  and  other 
articles.  By  the  application  of  similar  prin- 
ciples the  gluten  content  of  wheat  has  been 
increased,  enhancing  its  value  for  the 
manufacture  of  flour.  Strict  selection  of 
seed,  which  is  coming  to  be  more  or  less 
generally  practiced,  according  to  well-known 
principles,  is  having  a  most  telling  effect 
upon  subsequent  productions.  In  Minne- 
sota, particularly,  where  the  work  has  been 
carried  on  systematically  and  continuously 
for  a  series  of  years,  the  staple  crops,  such  as 
wheat,  corn  and  flax,  have  been  so  improved 
by  selection  and  breeding  that  they  yield 
much  larger  crops  per  acre  than  formerly. 
The  study  of  entomology  is  also  contributing 
its  quota  of  usefulness  to  the  country's 
agriculture  by  revealing  the  habits  of 
various  insects,  distinguishing  the  useful 
from  the  harmful,  and  promoting  the  in- 
crease of  those  desirable  and  retarding  that 
of  others. 

Farming  in  the  United  States  is  being 
reduced  to  such  a  science  that  the  likelihood 
of  crop  failure  is  gradually  becoming  less. 
Haphazard  methods  are  replaced  by  scien- 
tific practices  that  accurately  lead  to 
probable  results  foreknown.  It  is  no  longer 
the  drudgery  it  once  was,  and  the  environ- 
ments of  the  farmer  of  to-day  are  vastly 
changed  for  the  better  from  those  of  the 
preceding  generation.  In  this  time  trolley 
cars,  telephone  lines,  rural  free  mail  delivery 
and  improved  roads  have  modified  and 
benefitted  his  industrial  and  social  conditions. 
An  enlarged  prosperity  provides  for  the 
modern  conveniences  in  his  home,  and  the 
situation  of  the  more  progressive  present-day 
farmer  is  one  of  increased  comfort  and  ease. 
F.  D.  COBURN. 

Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  in 
America  have  been  modeled  after  those  of 
Europe.  Their  aim  is  to  advance  agriculture 
as  a  science  with  special  reference  to  local 
needs.  The  federal  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, founded  by  President  Cleveland  in 
1889,  includes  an  Office  of  Experiment 
Stations,  which  controls  the  funds  that  are 
expended  on  these  stations  in  the  United 
States,  and  administers  the  stations  in 
Alaska,  Hawaii  and  Porto  Rico.  This 
department  issues  a  monthly  journal  called 
the  Experiment  Station  Record.  To  such 
states  and  territories  as  support  an  agricul- 
tural college,  the  federal  government  makes 
annual  grants  in  aid;  many  of  the  states 
also  make  special  grants.  The  federal  office 
co-operates  with  the  Experiment  Stations 
to  make  such  investigations  as  Congress  may 
from  time  to  time  desire.  Joint  researches 
have  even  been  made  in  co-operation  with 
foreign  agricultural  stations. 

Agricultural  Schools  and  Colleges. 
As  so  large  a  part  of  our  population  is  en- 


gaged in  agriculture  people  have  gradually 
come  to  see  that  a  study  of  its  underlying 
principles  is  just  as  important  and  necessary 
as  the  study  of  the  older  branches  of  science 
and  philosophy.  It  was  not  till  1862, 
however,  that  the  means  for  placing  the 
desired  instruction  within  reach  of  the 
agricultural  community  at  large  was  realized 
through  the  establishment  of  state  agricul- 
tural schools.  In  that  year  by  act  of  Con- 
gress 30,000  acres  of  land  for  each  congress- 
man were  set  aside  to  ensure  the  permanent 
endowment  of  at  least  one  college  in  each 
state  and  territory  for  the  teaching  of 
agriculture  and  mechanical  arts.  In  1890 
a  further  grant  was  made  to  each  state  of 
the  maximum  annual  value  of  $25,000. 

The  majority  of  the  state  agricultural 
colleges  are  connected  with  a  university. 
The  others,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  are 
departments  of  technical  schools. 

Conditions  of  admission  vary  considerably 
in  different  parts  of  the  country.  In  parts 
of  the  south  and  west  pupils  from  the 
eighth  and  ninth  grades  of  the  public  schools 
are  usually  admitted,  while  some  of  the 
universities  have  a  standard  of  admission 
about  as  high  as  that  for  students  entering 
upon  literary  courses. 

As  to  courses  of  study,  in  general  the 
agricultural  schools  connected  with  univer- 
sities do  more  work  along  the  line  of  scien- 
tific research,  while  in  the  schools  not 
connected  with  universities  more  attention 
is  given  to  the  directly  practical  work.  The 
universities  wish  to  put  the  four  years' 
course  in  agriculture  on  a  par  with  those  in 
literature  and  philosophy.  The  aim  is  not 
to  produce  all-round  agricultural  experts, 
but  to  give  students  a  general  working 
knowledge  of  the  things  of  fundamental 
importance  to  intelligent  farmers,  with 
opportunity  of  becoming  a  spe  ialist  in  some 
one  particular  line.  The  courses  usually 
include  care  of  orchards,  grafting,  pruning, 
dairying,  feeding  and  judging  of  stock, 
properties  of  soils,  etc. 

Some  colleges  have  winter  courses,  lasting 
three  months,  especially  adjusted  to  the 
needs  of  those  students  who  cannot  afford 
to  be  away  from  their  home  farms  during 
the  rest  of  the  year.  Such  courses,  have 
proved  so  helpful  that  many  students  have 
returned  for  several  successive  winters. 

Tuition  in  agricultural  colleges  is  free,  but 
a  small  fee  is  usually  charged  to  cover  cost 
of  materials  used  in  experiments.  In  some 
states  allowance  is  made  for  work  done  by 
pupils  towards  the  payment  of  their  personal 
expenses  of  board  and  lodging,  and  in  some 
places  free  lodging  is  provided  by  the 
institution. 

The  Agricultural  Department  of  Cornell 
University  has  given  courses  by  correspond- 
ence which  have  proved  to  be  highly  suc- 
cessful. Too  much  encouragement  and 


AGUILAR 


33 


AIR 


commendation  cannot  be  given  to  the 
farmers  and  farmers '  sons  who  are  industri- 
ous and  intelligent  enough  to  take  advantage 
of  these  aids  toward  improving  their 
vocation,  thereby  raising  their  own  standard 
of  living  and  increasing  their  value  to  the 
community  in  which  they  live.  In  few 
occupations  will  the  results  achieved  be 
more  increased  by  a  knowledge  of  underlying 
principles  and  an  intelligent  application  of 
them  than  in  farming. 

Aguilar  (d-ge-lar'),  Grace,  a  story- writer 
for  girls,  of  some  popularity,  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  a  Jewish  merchant  in  London.  Her 
books  are  numerous,  among  them:  Home 
Influence,  Women  of  Israel  and  Days  of 
Bruce. 

Aguinaldo  (a-ge-ndl'do),  Emilio,  late 
leader  of  the  Filipino  insurgents,  of  mixed 
European  and  Mestizo  or  native  half-breed 
descent,  was  born  in  1872  near  Cavite\  Luzon 
Island,  one  of  the  Philippine  group.  He  was 
educated  by  a  Jesuit 
priest,  and  at  Manila 
he  took  a  course  in 
medicine.  In  1896  he 
was  mayor  of  Cavite", 
and  later  became 
leader  in  the  anti-Span- 
ish revolt.  The  insur- 
gents becoming  dis- 
couraged, Aguinaldo 
and  other  chief  leaders 
accepted  terms  offered 
by  Spain,  which  in- 
volved, however,  their 
expatriation  to  Hong 
Kong.  Here,  when  the  Spanish-Amer- 
ican war  broke  out,  Admiral  Dewey 
found  him,  and  agreeing  with  him  that 
he  would  once  more  take  up  arms  against 
Spain  in  the  Philippines,  he,  with  his  com- 
rades, was  given  passage  thither  on  the 
dispatch  boat  McCuttoch,  and  landing  in 
Luzon  they  renewed  the  insurrection,  be- 
seiged  Manila,  and  captured  some  5,000 
Spanish,  including  the  wife  and  children  of 
the  Spanish  captain-general.  This  achieve- 
ment, added  to  Aguinaldo 's  ambition, 
appears  to  have  incited  him  and  his  com- 
patriots to  wrest  the  islands  from  both 
Spanish  and  American  rule ;  for  in  June,  1898, 
the  insurgents  set  up  a  provisional  govern- 
ment with  Aguinaldo  as  president,  and  when 
peace  between  the  United  States  and  Spain 
was  proclaimed,  Aguinaldo  refused  to 
recognize  the  treaty  and  assumed  active 
hostilities  against  the  United  States.  After 
attacking  the  American  lines  on  February 
4-5,  1899,  he  declared  war  by  proclamation 
against  the  United  States,  and  for  over  two 
years  maintained  desultory  fighting  against 
its  forces  in  various  parts  of  the  Tagal  prov- 
inces. Aguinaldo  and  his  immediate  follow- 
ing were  entrapped  on  March  23,  1901,  at 
Palanan,  and  Aguinaldo  was  made  a 
prisoner  by  General  Fred.  Funston  and 


AGUINALDO 


brought  to  Manila.  Here  the  insurgent 
president  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
United  States,  and  issued  a  manifesto  to  the 
Filipinos  acknowledging  and  accepting  the 
sovereignty  of  the  United  States. 

Aikins,  Hon.  James  C.,  born  in  Ontario 
in  1823.  Educated  at  Upper  Canada 
College.  Elected  to  the  Legislature  for  the 
County  of  Peel  (his  native  county)  in  1854, 
and  remained  in  the  Assembly  until  1861. 
From  1869  to  1873  he  was  Secretary  of  State 
and  a  member  of  the  Administration  of  Sir 
John  A.  Macdonald,  and  was  a  second  time 
Secretary  of  State  in  1878.  Resigned  in 
1882  and  was  appointed  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor  of  Manitoba.  At  the  expiration  of  his 
term  of  office  he  returned  to  Toronto  and 
was  again  appointed  to  the  Senate  of  Canada. 

Aino  (i'no)  or  Ainu,  an  aboriginal  Japan- 
ese race  of  Caucasian  stock  inhabiting  Yezo 
(Hokkaido),  the  Kuriles,  the  southern  part 
of  Saghalien  and  other  northern  islands  of 
Japan.  They  are  in  appearance  short  in 
stature,  stoutly  built,  and  in  general  rather 
hairy;  their  chief  occupations  are  hunting 
and  fishing.  Their  present  number  is  less 
than  20,000.  In  early  times  they  lived  in 
the  heart  of  the  Japanese  archipelago  and 
exercised  considerable  influence  upon  the 
Japanese,  though  these  treated  them  as  half- 
barbarians  and  drove  them  to  their  present 
retreat  in  the  northern  sections  of  the  coun- 
try. Their  religion  is  a  primitive  nature 
worship,  though  of  late  many  of  them  have 
become  Buddhist,  while  a  few  have  been 
made  converts  to  Christianity.  An  Aino 
grammar  and  dictionary  has  been  published 
by  the  Rev.  John  Batchelor,  a  missionary  who 
translated  the  New  Testament  into  the 
native  tongue.  Of  recent  years  the  Ainos 
have  been  blending  with  the  Japanese,  the 
latter  having  parted  with  their  former  low 
opinion  of  the  mental  inferiority  of  the  race 
and  their  backward  civilization.  See  Batch- 
elor 's  The  Ainu  of  Japan  (London,  1892), 
Chamberlaine 's  Things  Japanese  (Lon- 
don, 1899),  an(l  Savage  Lander's  Alone 
with  the  Hairy  Ainu  (London,  1893). 

Air  is  the  atmosphere  in  which  we  live.  It 
is  invisible,  and  has  neither  taste  nor  smell, 
but  we  know  that  it  is  all  around  us,  for  we 
take  it  into  our  lungs  with  every  breath  and 
it  becomes  our  most  important  food.  It  has 
weight,  which  we  do  not  feel  because  of  the 
air  and  other  gases  within  us  that  exert  an 
equal  outward  pressure.  Upon  every  square 
inch  of  the  earth's  surface  there  rests  a 
weight  of  about  fifteen  pounds  of  air,  so  that 
upon  the  body  of  a  medium-sized  man  the  air 
presses  with  a  force  equal  to  thirty  thousand 
pounds.  Air  may  be  compressed  or  packed 
closely  into  smaller  space  than  it  usually 
fills.  Thus,  if  a  tumbler  is  pushed  down, 
bottom  upward,  under  water,  the  water  will 
rise  up  inside  the  tumbler  and  press  the  air 
into  smaller  space.  But  as  the  tumbler  is 
brought  back  to  the  surface  the  air  again 


AIR  BRAKE 


34 


AIR  PUMP 


becomes  as  rare  as  the  surrounding  atmos- 
phere, showing  that  it  is  elastic.  The  weight 
of  the  atmosphere  makes  the  lower  air  so 
much  denser  than  the  upper  air  that  one-half 
of  the  whole  atmosphere  is  squeezed  into  a 
belt  around  the  earth  about  three  and  one- 
half  miles  in  thickness,  while  the  upper  half 
extends  more  than  forty  miles.  Air  is  made 
up  of  about  78  parts  by  volume  of  nitrogen, 
21  of  oxygen  and  one  of  argon,  in  100  parts, 
and  with  it  is  always  mixed  a  variable 
quantity  of  water-vapor,  which  amounts  to 
about  one  per  cent  by  volume  on  the 
average.  It  contains  also  about  ^5^7  of  carbon 
dioxide  and  minute  quantities  of  several 
other  gases,  including  helium,  neon,  krypton 
and  xenon,  which  are  inactive  elements 
resembling  argon.  Oxygen  is  the  element 
that  is  necessary  to  animal  life,  while  carbon 
dioxide  is  required  by  plants.  On  the  other 
hand,  animals  produce  carbon  dioxide  while 
plants  give  off  oxygen,  so  that  each  supplies 
the  other,  and  the  composition  of  the  air  is 
kept  nearly  constant.  There  is  air  also 
dissolved  in  water,  and  by  the  same  double 
process  fishes  and  sea-plants  keep  the  air 
pure.  In  the  cities  the  air  is  less  pure  than 
in  the  country,  as  there  are  more  people  to 
breathe  it  and  fewer  plants  to  supply  oxygen. 
The  gases  of  combustion  and  decay,  which 
produce  much  carbon  dioxide,  also  tend  to 
contaminate  the  air.  In  a  room  the  breath- 
ing of  a  number  of  persons  will  soon  make 
the  air  unwholesome  if  the  ventilation  is  not 
good.  The  gas,  carbon  dioxide,  which  is 
commonly  called  carbonic  acid,  is  often 
called  a  poison;  but  it  is  not  poisonous, 
although  the  presence  of  a  large  quantity  of 
it  interferes  with  breathing,  and  if  enough  is 
present  it  may  cause  suffocation.  Carbon 
monoxide,  the  gas  that  burns  with  a  pale- 
blue  flame  at  the  top  of  coal  fires  and  is 
present  in  illuminating  gas,  on  the  other 
hand  is  a  deadly  poison.  If  this  escapes 
unburned  into  the  air  of  a  room,  the  results 
may  be  very  serious. 

Air  Brake.  SEE  BRAKES. 

Air  Gun,  a  weapon  for  shooting  bullets 
or  other  projectiles  by  means  of  condensed 
air.  The  air  is  forced  into  a  vessel,  usually 
in  the  stock,  by  means  of  a  condensing 
syringe.  When  the  finger  touches  the 
trigger,  the  air  reaches  into  the  space  behind 
the  bullet  and  drives  it  out  of  the  barrel, 
and  when  the  finger  is  taken  away  the  ves- 
sel is  again  closed.  Thus  several  shots 
may  be  fired,  but  with  less  force  each  time. 
At  its  greatest,  the  force  is  not  equal  to  an 
ordinary  charge  of  gunpowder. 

Air  Plants.  Those  plants  which  ob- 
tain all  their  food  materials  from  the  air. 
See  EPIPHYTES. 

Air  Pump,  an  instrument  used  either  to 
compress  air  in  a  closed  vessel  or  to  exhaust 
the  air  from  a  closed  vesel.  When  used 
for  the  former  purpose  it  is  generally  known 
as  a  "force  pump,"  and  when  used  for  the 


latter   purpose    it    is    frequently    called    a 
"vacuum  pump." 

Air  pumps,  like  other  pumps,  consist  es- 
sentially of  a  cylinder  fitted  with  a  piston 
and  two  valves.  The  simplest  of  those 
which  are  used  for  compressing  air  is,  per- 
haps, the  ordinary  bicycle  pump  illustrated 
in  Fig.  i.  Here  the  piston  is  provided  with 
a  more  or  less  flexible  leather  collar  which 
allows  the  air  to  pass  down  around  it  as  the 
piston  is  lifted.  But  on  the  down  stroke 
of  the  piston  this  leather  collar  acts  as  pack- 
ing and  prevents  the  air  from  passing  up. 
Hence  this  one  part  acts  as  both  piston  and 
valve. 

A  second  valve,  Vz,  at  the  bottom  of  the 
cylinder  prevents  the  air  in  the  tire  from 
getting  back 
into  the  cylin- 
der during  the 
upstroke  of  the 
piston. 

The  vacuum 
pump  is  built 
upon  exactly 
the  same  prin- 
ciples  as  the 
force  pump, 
only  the  direc- 
tion in  which 
the  valves  open 
is  reversed. 

The  first  ar- 
tificial vacuum 
was  produced 
by  Otto  von 
Guericke, 
about  1650,  with  a  pump  similar  to  an  ordinary 
lift-pump  used  in  wells,  except  that  instead  of 
pumping  the  air  out  of  an  open  vessel,  such 
as  a  well,  he  pumped  it  out  of  a  closed  vessel. 
___y^~\  The  immense  improve' 

f||       ^ ment  which  has  recently 

been  made  in  the  con- 
struction of  air  pumps, 
especially  by  the  intro- 
duction of  valves  which 
open  automatically,  can 
be  seen  from  the  fact 
that  Guericke's  pump  re- 
quired four  able-bodied 
men  to  operate  it.  A 
modern  air  pump  is  easi- 
ly worked  by  one  hand. 

Ordinary  vacua  are 
thus  produced  by  a  piston 
working  in  a  brass  cylin- 
der; but  when  it  comes 
to  "high  vacua,"  such  as 
those  employed  in  the 
incandescent  lamp  and 
in  X-ray  bulbs,  a  much 
more  perfect  instrument 
is  required.  Here  it  is 
PIG.  2  necessary  to  replace  the 

SPRENGEL  AIR  PUMP  ordinary  cylinder  by  a 
mercury  column  in  a  glass  tube. 


FIG.  i 

SINGLE-ACTING  BICYCLE 
PUMP 


I  ] 

(7J-     : 

(BJJU  t 


AJX-LA-CHAPELLE 


35 


ALABAMA 


In  Fig.  2  is  given  a  diagram  of  the  best  of 
these  mercury  pumps,  the  one  devised  by 
Sprengel. 

The  supply  of  mercury  is  contained  in  the 
reservoir  on  the  left.  It  flows  over  into  the 
bulb  B,  where  it  falls  in  drops  into  the  long 
tube  on  the  right.  These  drops  entrap  be- 
tween them  the  air  in  B.  The  mercury 
which  runs  out  is  collected  and  poured  back 
into  the  reservoir  on  the  left.  In  this  man- 
ner practically  all  the  air  can  be  removed 
from  the  bulb  B,  and  hence  from  any  vessel 
R,  which  may  be  connected  with  B.  At  M 
is  a  manometer  which  indicates  the  pressure 
in  the  vessel  R,  which  is  being  exhausted. 

A  pump  of  this  type  is  capable  of  produc- 
ing a  vacuum  in  which  the  pressure  is  only 
100,000, oooth  of  an  atmosphere. 

Aix-la-Chapelle  (dks-la-shd-feV ),  Ger- 
man Aachen,  a  city  of  Prussia.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Romans  and  contains  the 
tomb  of  Charlemagne.  Three  treaties  were 
signed  here,  the  most  important  being  that  of 
1748,  when  a  congress  was  held  between 
France,  England,  Holland,  Austria,  Spain, 
Sardinia  and  Modena.  This  treaty  made 
Switzerland  independent,  the  Rhine  free  to 
navigation,  secured  the  Protestant  succession 
in  England,  and  the  disunion  of  the  French 
and  Spanish  crowns.  The  dislike  of  Eng- 
land and  France  for  the  treaty  caused  the 
"Seven  Years'  War,"  begining  in  1755. 
Pop.  (1910)  156,044. 

A'jax  was  the  son  of  Telamon,  king  of 
Salamis,  and  next  to  Achilles  in  warlike 
strength.  He  led  the  men  of  Salamis  to 
Troy  in  twelve  ships,  and  was  called  the 
bulwark  of  the  Greeks.  At  the  death  of 
Achilles  Ajax,  as  the  bravest  of  the  Gtreeks, 
claimed  his  armor,  but  it  was  given  to  his 
rival,  Ulysses.  Upon  this,  becoming  in- 
sane, he  killed  himself.  Sophocles  tells  the 
story  of  his  madness  and  death  in  his  tragedy 
Ajax. 

Ak'  bar,  one  of  the  greatest  and  wisest  of 
the  Mogul  emperors,  was  born  at  Amarkote, 
in  Sindh,  in  1542.  When  he  ascended  the 
throne  only  a  small  part  of  what  had  for- 
merly belonged  to  the  Mogul  empire  owned 
his  authority,  and  he  devoted  himself  with 
wonderful  success  to  the  recovery  of  the 
revolted  provinces.  He  tried  by  every 
means  to  encourage  commerce.  He  had 
the  land  carefully  measured,  so  that  the 
taxes  should  be  fair.  His  people  were  of 
different  races  and  religions,  but  he  was  just 
and  tolerant  to  all.  He  founded  schools 
and  was  friendly  to  scholars.  Measures  like 
these  gained  for  him  the  title  of  "Guardian 
of  Mankind,"  and  caused  him  to  be  held  up 
as  a  model  to  Indian  princes  of  later  times. 
He  died  in  1605. 

Akene  (d-kenr).  A  seed-like  fruit,  as  in 
the  sunflower,  dandelion,  etc.  Often  writ- 
ten "achene."  See  FRUIT. 

Akenside  (d'ken-sld),  Mark  (born  1721, 
died  1 7  70) , an  English  physician  and  poet.who 


chiefly  owes  his  position  among  the  poets  to 
his  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination,  a  poem 
which  at  once  became  famous. 

Ak'  ron,  Ohio,  a  city,  the  county  seat  of 
Summit  County,  and  a  large  manufacturing, 
shipping  and  railroad  center,  35  miles  south 
of  Cleveland.  Incorporated  in  1836,  the 
city  is  on  the  Ohio  Canal,  the  Pennsylvania, 
Erie,  Baltimore  &  Ohio  and  other  railroads. 
It  has  coal  mines  in  its  vicinity  and  large 
industries  within  it,  including  one  of  the 
largest  printing  and  publishing  establish- 
ments in  the  world,  match  and  rubber  goods 
factories,  flour  and  other  cereal  mills,  boiler 
and  mining  machinery  works,  besides  cord- 
age, pottery  and  sewer-pipe,  mower  and 
reaper  works,  a  lithographic  plant,  etc. 
The  Municipal  University,  formerly  Buchtell 
College,  has  its  seat  here,  with  20  instructors 
and  300  students,  while  there  are  good  pub- 
lic school  facilities,  a  public  library,  a  hos- 
pital and  efficient  police  and  fire  protection. 
In  the  neighborhood,  reached  by  train  serv- 
ice, are  a  number  of  attractive  lake  resorts. 
Population  100,000. 

Alabama  (cU'a-da'ma),  State  of  (mean- 
ing "here  we  rest"),  with  its  southern  border 
on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is  from  150  to  200 
miles  wide,  and  from  278  to  336  miles  long, 
and  is  larger  than  New  York,  Pennsylvania 
or  Virginia. 

Surface.  The  area  of  the  state  is  about 
52,250  square  miles.  The  northern  end  of 
the  state  is  crossed  by  the  Tennessee  River, 
which  in  the  west  flows  through  a  fertile 
terraced  valley,  but  in  the  eastern  section 
is  flanked  by  low  mountain  ranges.  The 
Allegheny  range  enters  in  the  northeast, 
trends  southwest  and  terminates  in  foot 
hills  and  sand  mountains  toward  the  center 
of  the  state.  There  next  succeeds  on  the 
west  a  plateau  in  which  are  found  the  rich 
iron  and  coal  beds  for  which  the  state  is 
famous;  on  the  east  a  Piedmont  region  of 
rolling  upland,  while  the  southern  part  of 
the  state,  comprising  three-fifths  of  its  area, 
is  a  broad  coastal  plain. 

The  chief  rivers  are  the  Mobile,  Alabama, 
Tombigbee  and  Tennessee.  The  Mobile 
is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Alabama 
and  the  Tombigbee,  and  after  a  short  course 
of  forty-five  miles  empties  into  Mobile  bay. 

Climate.  Because  of  its  altitude  the 
northeastern  section  of  the  state  has  a  de- 
lightful climate;  the  Piedmont  region  is 
healthful,  and  in  the  country  near  the  coast 
the  heat  is  tempered  by  the  Gulf  winds, 
while  the  low  lands  along  the  rivers  are 
malarious. 

Resources.  The  climate  and  varied  soils 
of  Alabama  are  favorable  to  the  growth  of 
a  wide  range  of  agricultural  products,  and 
previous  to  the  discovery  and  development 
of  its  vast  mineral  wealth  the  products  of 
the  state  were  chiefly  agricultural.  The 
chief  crop  is  cotton,  grown  throughout  the 
state,  but  especially  in  the  famous  black 


ALAMCh 


belt  which  crosses  the  state.  Her  annual  yield 
of  this  great  staple  gives  Alabama  the  rank  of 
fifth  among  cotton-producing  states.  Other 
important  products  are  corn,  oats,  sweet 
potatoes,  sugar  cane,  peanuts,  peaches  and 
melons.  ^ 

In  minerals  the  state  is  enormously  rich. 
Immense  deposits  of  iron,  coal  and  lime- 
stone in  close  proximity  afford  conditions 
for  the  manuafcture  of  iron  products  at 
low  cost,  and  this  has  led  to  great  develop- 
ment of  this  and  kindred  industries  within 
the  last  twenty  years.  In  quantity  of 
coal  mined  the  state  ranks  fifth  in  the 
United  States,  and  in  iron  ore  mined  it  ranks 
third,  next  after  Michigan  and  Minnesota. 
Other  minerals  include  immense  beds  of 
cement  rock  and  of  phosphates;  also  soap- 
stone,  lithographic  stone,  emery  and  corun- 
dum, asbestos,  graphite,  slate,  gold,  silver, 
copper,  tin  and  marble  of  finest  grade. 

Manufactures.  The  iron  industry  is  the 
most  important  and  has  had  marvelous 
growth.  This  has  facilitated  and  given 
impetus  to  the  establishment  of  other  in- 
dustries, so  that  the  manufactures  of  the 
state  have  doubled  in  ten  years.  Manu- 
factures of  open-hearth  steel  and  of  cot- 
ton goods  have  greatly  advanced  in  recent 
years. 

Transportation.  The  state  is  traversed 
by  about  5,225  miles  of  railway.  The  rivers 
of  the  state  furnish  1,500  miles  of  navigable 
waters,  the  main  streams,  the  Alabama 
and  the  Tombigbee,  connecting  with  the 
port  of  Mobile  through  the  Mobile  River. 

Education.  Alabama  maintains  sepa- 
rate schools  for  white  and  colored  children, 
and  applies  the  public  school  fund  in  exact 
proportion  to  the  two  classes  of  schools. 
In  the  state  there  are  now  6,566  public 
schools,  besides  45  high  schools,  nine 
normal  schools,  three  of  them  for  colored 
students,  three  private  normals,  nine  agri- 
cultural schools,  nine  universities  and 
colleges  and  nine  women's  colleges.  Among 
the  more  prominent  institutions  are  Uni- 
versity of  Alabama,  at  Tuscaloosa;  Southern 
University  (M.  E.),  at  Greensboro;  St  Ber- 
nard College  (R.  C.),  at  Cullman;  at  Auburn, 
the  Polytechnic  school  and  the  Agricul- 
tural and  Mechanical  College;  at  Tuskegee, 
the  Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial  In- 
stitute (colored),  which  has  national  fame. 

History.  The  first  settlement  was  made 
at  Mobile  Bay,  in  1702,  by  the  Frenchman, 
Sieur  de  Bienville,  called  the  "Father  of 
Alabama,"  though  De  Soto,  the  Spanish 
cavalier,  was  the  first  to  cross  the  state 
with  his  knights,  priests  and  crossbow- 
men,  in  1540.  In  1813  occurred  the  war 
against  Tecumseh  and  the  Creeks.  Ala- 
bama was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1819. 
In  January,  1861,  the  state  seceded  and 
furnished  the  confederate  army  sixty-nine 
regiments  of  infantry,  twelve  of  cavalry 
and  twenty-seven  batteries.  The  principal 


cities  are  Mobile,  Montgomery  (the  capital), 
Birmingham,  Anniston,  Selma  and  Dem- 
opolis.  Population  2,348,273. 

Alabama  Claim,  The.  The  Alabama 
was  a  cruiser  which  was  built  in  a  British 
port  for  the  use  of  the  Confederacy  in  de- 
stroying the  commerce  of  the  northern 
states  during  the  Civil  War.  Against  the 
protests  of  Mr.  Charles  Francis  Adams,  the 
American  minister  to  Great  Britain,  the 
Alabama  was  permitted  to  sail  from  the 
latter  country  in  1862.  For  three  years 
she  did  much  harm  to  the  shipping  of  the 
United  States,  but  she  was  at  last  defeated 
and  sunk  off  the  northern  shore  of  France 
(June  19,  1864)  by  the  Kearsarge,  under 
the  command  of  Captain  Winslow.  The 
United  States  presented  its  claims  for 
damages  to  Great  Britain.  In  1871  it 
was  decided  by  a  treaty  between  the  two 
countries  to  submit  all  claims  for  damages 
done  by  the  Alabama  and  other  vessels  to 
a  tribunal  of  five  persons,  who  were  to  be 
named  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  the  Queen  of  England,  the  King 
of  Italy,  the  President  of  the  Swiss  Con- 
federation and  the  Emperor  of  Brazil.  In 
1872  this  court  awarded  $15,500,000  to 
the  United  States.  Because  the  tribunal 
met  in  Geneva,  Switzerland,  its  verdict  is 
often  called  the  Geneva  Award. 

Alaba'  ma  River,  a  river  of  the  state  of 
Alabama,  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the 
rivers  Coosa  and  Tallapoosa.  It  unites 
with  the  Tombigbee  to  form  the  Mobile  at 
a  point  forty-five  miles  above  the  Gulf  of 
Mobile.  It  has  a  depth  of  six  feet  for  sixty 
miles  above  its  mouth. 

Alabaster     (al'a-bas-ter).      See    GYPSUM. 

Aladdin  (a-lad'in),  a  hero  of  one  of  the 
stories  of  the  Arabian  Nights1  Entertain- 
ments. He  possessed  a  wonderful  lamp 
and  an  equally  wonderful  ring,  on  rubbing 
which  two  frightful  genii  appeared,  who 
are,  respectively,  the  slave  of  the  ring  and 
of  the  lamp,  and  who  obey  the  bidding  of 
any  one  who  may  have  them  in  his  keeping. 

Alameda  (a-ld-ma'da) ,  California,  an  im- 
portant city  of  Alameda  County,  opposite 
San  Francisco,  on  the  shore  of  the  Bay  of  San 
Francisco,  and  contiguous  to  the  city  of 
Oakland.  It  is  reached  by  the  Southern 
Pacific,  Central  Pacific  and  Santa  Fe  railroad 
systems;  while  by  ferry  from  the  moles  and 
wharfs  of  the  town  it  is  connected  with  San 
Francisco.  The  town  makes  a  delightful 
suburb  of  the  latter  city,  surrounded  by  shady 
oaks,  and  with  clean  streets,  good  schools 
and  churches  and  the  quiet  and  freedom  of 
suburban  life.  Population  30,000. 

Alamo  (a' Id-mo'),  The,  a  fort  near  San 
Antonio,  Texas.  Here  188  Texans  bravely 
resisted  2,500  Mexicans  from  February  n 
to  March  5,  1836,  and  nearly  all  perished 
rather  than  surrender.  When  the  fort 
was  taken  by  the  Mexicans,  who  lost  1,600 
men,  only  five  Texans  were  alive.  These 


ALARIC 


37 


ALASKA 


were  ordered  to  be  shot.  Here  were  killed 
David  Crockett  and  Col.  James  Bowie, 
from  whom  the  bowie  knife  was  named. 
Because  of  this  heroic  defense  Alamo  is 
called  the  "Thermopylae  of  America." 
"Remember  the  Alamo!"  became  the  cry 
of  the  Texans  in  their  struggle  for  independ- 
ence. 

Al'  aric,  whose  name  means  "all  ruler," 
was  a  chief  and  king  of  the  Visigoths.  We 
first  find  him  in  394  A.  D.,  as  a  commander 
in  the  army  of  the  conquered  Goths,  under 
the  Roman  Emperor  Theodosius.  When 
Theodosius  died,  the  Goths  rebelled,  at- 
tacked Athens  and  plundered  it  of  its 
treasures.  A  Roman  army  was  now  sent 
against  him,  under  General  Stilicho,  which 
drove  him  to  a  stronghold  in  Elis  and  be- 
sieged him  there.  Managing  to  escape  with 
his  army,  the  new  emperor,  Arcadius,  de- 
cided to  make  him  prefect  or  governor  of 
the  Roman  province  of  Illyricum.  This 
kept  Alaric  quiet  for  five  years.  But  about 
400  A.  D.  he  set  out  to  invade  the  empire 
of  the  west.  It  took  him  two  years  to  reach 
Milan,  where  the  Emperor  Honorius  was. 
He  drove  him  to  a  fortress  and  besieged 
it,  but  was  defeated  here,  and  afterward 
at  Verona,  by  Stilicho.  Still  it  was  thought 
safest  to  give  Alaric  his  old  place  as  prefect 
of  Illyricum  and  a  large  amount  of  gold. 
When  the  emperor  foolishly  killed  Stilicho, 
his  best  general,  Alaric  marched  at  once 
on  Rome  and  laid  siege  to  it.  When  the 
people  attempted  to  buy  him  off,  his  price 
was  so  exorbitant  that  they  said  they  could 
not  pay  it.  Alaric's  well-known  reply  was, 
"The  closer  hay  is  pressed,  the  easier  it  is 
mown."  He  was  at  last  bought  off  with 
a  great  treasure  of  gold  and  silver.  Hon- 
orius, however,  broke  the  treaty,  and  a 
second  time  Alaric  attacked  Rome.  This 
time  the  people  opened  the  gates  and  asked 
him  to  name  a  new  emperor.  When  Hon- 
onus  became  emperor  again,  he  sent,  treach- 
erously, a  savage  chief  to  attack  the  camp 
of  the  Goths.  Alaric  marched  again  on 
Rome  and  pillaged  it  for  six  days,  and  then 
overran  all  Italy  with  his  troops.  He  died 
in  410. 

Alas'ka,  a  territory  of  the  United  States, 
situated  in  the  extreme  northwestern  part 
of  the  continent.  In  a  political  sense  Alaska 
is  not  a  territory  but  a  district,  with  no 
territorial  organization.  It  is  governed 
directly  by  Congress  at  Washington,  and 
is  locally  administered  by  a  governor  ap- 
pointed by  the  President.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean;  on  the 
east  by  British  Columbia  and  the  north- 
west (Yukon)  territories  of  Canada;  on  the 
south  by  the  Gulf  of  Alaska  and  the  North 
Pacific;  and  on  the  west  by  Bering  Strait 
and  the  North  Pacific  Ocean.  It  com- 
prises an  area  of  590,884  square  miles,  equal 
to  one-sixth  of  the  United  States  or  one- 
seventh  of  Europe.  Much  of  the  coast 


line  is  very  irregular,  deeply  indented  and 
having  many  islands,  the  chief  of  which 
are  the  Aleutian,  Prince  of  Wales,  Chichagoff , 
Kadiak,  Baranoff,  Admiralty,  Unimak,  St. 
Lawrence,  Kupreanof  and  Pribyloff  Islands. 

Surface  The  coast  line  is  followed  by 
mountain  ranges,  which  are  a  continua- 
tion of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  spread 
apart  in  this  peninsula.  The  main  range 
bends  westward  along  the  coast  to  the 
end  of  the  Alaskan  peninsula.  The  other 
takes  a  northwest  direction  at  Prince 
Will:am  Sound,  and  a  second  turn  gives 
it  a  southwest-northeast  direction,  and  it 
is  known  as  the  Alaskan  Range.  This  is 
the  loftiest  elevation  in  North  America. 
Its  noted  peaks  are  Mt.  McKinley  (20,464 
feet),  Mt.  Logan  (19,539  feet),  Mt.  St. 
Elias  (18,024  feet)  and  Mt.  Wrangell 
(17,500  feet). 

Moving  down  through  the  valleys  of 
this  chain  of  mountains  are  the  great  ice 
rivers,  known  as  glaciers.  Many  of  these 
reach  to  the  sea,  and  one  of  them,  Muir 
Glacier,  not  far  from  Sitka,  is  wonderfully 
beautiful. 

Alaska's  interior,  west  of  the  Porcupine 
Hills,  is  a  vast  swampy  moor  which  stretches 
to  interminable  wastes  of  tundra  that 
reach  to  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Climate.  The  entire  coast  section  and 
the  insular  districts  are  influenced  by  the 
Japanese  current  and  the  mountains.  The 
latter  are  a  protection  against  the  Arctic 
winds,  while  the  former  fills  the  air  with 
warm  vapors.  Condensation  takes  place 
when  these  come  in  contact  with  the  moun- 
tains and  causes  almost  perpetual  fog  and 
rain.  For  these  reasons  the  temperature  is 
less  extreme  than  in  districts  east  of  the 
Rockies.  Inside  the  mountains,  where  the 
warm  currents  and  vapors  are  absent,  Arctic 
weather  prevails — long  intense  winters  and 
short  warm  summers. 

Drainage.  The  main  river  is  the  Yukon, 
over  2,000  miles  long,  which  may  be  trav- 
eled from  end  to  end  four  months  out  of  the 
year  without  seeing  snow.  Other  rivers 
are  the  Stickeen,  Copper,  Sushitna,  Musha- 
gak  and  the  Kuskowim,  and  the  tributaries 
of  the  Yukon,  which  are  the  Porcupine  and 
the  Tanana.  The  Sushitna  is  navigable 
for  no  miles  and  the  Yeutna  for  100  miles. 

Minerals.  The  all  important  mineral 
product  so  far  is  gold,  of  which  the  product 
in  1908  was  $19,858,800.  In  1909  the 
amount  produced  was  $20,339,000,  but  in 
1910  there  was  a  decrease  in  gold  production, 
the  total  shipment  being  $15,173,008.  Coal 
is  found  in  several  places,  the  best  grade 
in  Copper  River  Valley.  The  main  coast 
range  contains  extensive  copper  deposits, 
while  silver,  tin  and  petroleum  have  been 
found,  and  on  Prince  of  Wales  Island  large 
quarries  of  marble. 

Forests.  The  forest  wealth  of  Alaska 
is  also  large,  chiefly  white  pine,  cedar  and 


ALBANI 


ALBANY 


fir.  The  most  valuable  timber  is  the  yel- 
low cedar;  there  is  also  balsam  fir,  used 
for  tanning,  but  the  wood  of  universal  use 
is  the  Sitka  or  Alaska  spruce,  which  grows 
in  a  stunted  form  even  up  to  the  Arctic 
circle. 

Agriculture.  Alaska  claims  only  that 
she  can  supply  her  present  population 
with  its  agricultural  needs.  Experiments 
have  demonstrated  that  oats,  wheat,  rye, 
barley,  potatoes,  turnips,  beets,  lettuce, 
radishes,  etc.,  have  been  planted,  and  nearly 
all  reached  perfection  in  the  brief  summer. 
In  the  Yukon  Valley  are  wild  berries  of 
great  variety,  wild  celery,  wild  parsnip, 
beautiful  ferns,  purple  lupine  and  red 
columbine,  yellow  lilies  on  the  ponds  and 
iris  on  the  banks. 

Fisheries.  The  fisheries  of  Alaska  are 
among  the  richest  in  the  world;  more  than 
half  of  the  salmon  product  of  the  United 
States  comes  from  Alaska  j  while  cod, 
mackerel,  halibut  and  herring  are  found. 
The  Pribyloff  Islands  are  the  seat  of  the  fur 
seal  industry  of  Alaska.  The  number  of 
seals  to  be  killed  each  year  is  fixed  by 
regulation  of  the  secretary  of  the  treasury. 

Education.  Alaska  has  35  public  schools, 
and  the  Protestant  and  Catholic  church 
organizations  have  their  missions,  churches 
and  converts. 

History.  The  peninsula  and  strait  were 
discovered  in  1728  by  Vitus  Bering,  a  Danish 
navigator  in  Russian  service.  The  first 
settlement  was  made  in  1784  on  Kadiak 
Island  at  Three  Saints,  and  in  1799-1800 
the  important  one  at  Sitka.  In  1867  the 
United  States  bought  the  territory  from 
Russia  for  $7,200,000,  and  took  formal 
possession  on  October  i8th  the  same  year. 

Boundary  Dispute.  The  United  States 
and  Russia  claimed  joint  ownership  of 
Bering  Sea  as  an  inland  body  of  water 
to  protect  their  seal  fisheries.  This  Great 
Britain  would  not  allow,  for  she  had  Cana- 
dian sealing  interests  to  protect.  At  length 
in  1902  a  protective  agreement  was  entered 
into  between  the  two  nations. 

Besides,  there  was  an  old  contention  as 
to  the  United  States  and  Canadian  boun- 
daries which  was  never  urged  because  the 
districts  in  debate  were  regarded  as  worth- 
less. The  discovery  of  gold  in  1896-97 
revived  the  question  and  forced  a  settle- 
ment. On  September  3,  1903,  the  Alaskan 
Boundary  Commission  met  in  London,  and 
on  October  20,  1903,  the  official  report 
was  signed  by  the  British  and  American 
commissioners,  the  Canadians  refusing. 
The  majority  ruled,  nowever,  and  the 
report  was  substantially  in  favor  of  the 
United  States.  By  the  decision  the  gold 
fields  are  part  in  Canada  and  part  in  the 
United  States,  but  the  Pacific  coast-line 
is  wholly  within  the  control  of  the  United 
States. 

Cities.     Juneau,  in  the  southern    district, 


near  Douglas  Island,  is  the  capital  (pop- 
ulation 1,644);  the  other  chief  towns  are 
Nome  City,  at  Cape  Nome  on  Norton  Sound, 
opposite  St.  Michael  (population  2,600), 
Sitka,  on  Baranof  Island  in  Sitka  Sound 
(population  1,039),  Skaguay  City  near  the 
head  of  the  canal  (population  872),  and  the 
chief  mart  where  the  miners  purchase  their 
supplies  on  their  way  north,  by  the  Chilkoot 
Pass,  overland  to  the  gold  mines  of  the  Klon- 
dike and  the  Yukon. 

Alaska  is  provisionally  divided  into  two 
districts,  the  northern  and  the  southern, 
the  census  of  1910  givir.g  ice  territory  a 
total  population  of  64.356. 

Albani,  Madame  (Marie  Louise  C.  E 
Lajeunesse),  a  famous  soprano  and  prima 
donna,  was  born  at  Chambly,  near  Mon- 
treal, Canada,  November  i,  1850.  After 
an  education  at  Montreal,  Paris  and  Milan 
she  made  her  de"but  at  Messina,  in  1870,  in 
Bellini's  opera  of  La  Sonnambula.  In  1878 
she  married  Ernest  Gye,  the  English  im- 
presario In  1897  she  was  awarded  the 
Beethoven  gold  medal  by  the  London 
Philharmonic  Society. 

Albania  (al-ba'ni-a)  is  the  southwestern 
part  of  European  Turkey.  It  is  about  290 
miles  long  from  north  to  south,  and  from 
40  to  50  miles  in  width.  The  country  is 
mountainous,  and  is  noted  for  its  under- 
ground rivers  and  beautiful  lakes.  The 
Albanians  are  mountaineers  and  many  of 
them  brigands. 

Albano  (al-bd'no),  a  lake,  mountain  and 
town  in  Italy,  situated  about  1 5  miles  south- 
east of  Rome.  The  town  (known  as  the 
Roman  Alba'num)  is  built  on  the  slope  of 
the  Alban  mountains,  on  the  site  of  Pom- 
pey's  villa.  It  is  noted  for  the  beauty  of 
its  surrounding  scenery  and  for  the  interest 
it  possesses  for  the  classicist  and  anti- 
quarian. Population  between  6,000  and 
7,000. 

Albany  (al'ba-ni),  the  capital  of  the 
state  of  New  York,  is  situated  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Hudson  River,  142  miles  above 
New  York  City.  •  It  was  settled  by  the 
Dutch  in  1614,  and  was  the  first  settlement, 
after  Jamestown,  within  the  thirteen  col- 
onies. In  1624  a  Fort  Orange  was  built, 
and  the  village  which  grew  up  around  it 
was  named  Beaverwyck.  This  was  changed 
in  1646  to  Willemstedt.  When  captured 
by  the  British  in  1664,  the  name  was 
changed  to  Albany.  The  city  was  chartered 
in  1686.  It  is  an  important  distributing 
point  for  trade  from  the  west.  It  has  a 
large  trade  in  fruit,  lumber,  grain  and  wool, 
and  extensive  manufactures  of  iron,  stoves, 
shoes  and  other  products.  It  has  many 
fine  public  buildings,  of  which  the  most 
notable  is  the  state  capitol,  a  magnificent 
structure,  built  of  granite,  at  a  cost  of  over 
$24,000,000.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  State 
Normal  College,  Albany  Institute,  the 
medical  and  law  schools  of  Union  College 


ALBANY  CONGRESS 


39 


ALBERTA 


at  Schenectady  and  other  educational  in- 
stitutions. Fine  residences  and  public 
buildings,  a  beautiful  park,  modern  nitration 
plant,  and  excellent  drainage  combine  to  make 
it  an  attractive  as  well  as  a  healthy  city.  Pop- 
ulation 1 10,000. 

Albany  Congress.  A  convention  of 
representatives  of  the  colonies  of  Massa- 
chusetts, New  Hampshire,  Connecticut, 
Rhode  Island,  New  York,  Pennsylvania 
and  Maryland  which  met  at  Albany  at 
the  call  of  the  British  government,  June 
19,  1754,  to  consider  defensive  measures 
in  view  of  the  threatened  war  with  France. 
At  this  congress  Benjamin  Franklin  pro- 
posed a  confederation  of  the  colonies  under 
a  president  to  be  appointed  by  the  Crown, 
with  a  council  to  consist  of  representatives 
chosen  by  the  different  colonies.  The 
president,  who  was  to  be  commander  in 
chief,  was  to  appoint  all  military  officers, 
and  commission  civil  officers  who  should 
be  nominated  by  the  council,  and  to  have 
veto  power  over  the  council.  The  council 
was  to  have  power  to  assess  taxes,  main- 
tain an  army,  build  defenses  and  legislate 
concerning  matters  of  common  interest, 
such  as  relations  to  Indians,  etc.  The  plan 
was  not  adopted,  and  the  congress  was  of 
consequence  only  as  presenting  an  idea 
which  later  on  was  realized  in  the  union 
of  the  colonies. 

Al'  batross,  a  long- winged  ocean  bird, 
occurring  in  tropical  and  southern  seas.  It 
almost  never  goes  ashore,  save  in  the 
breeding  season,  then  seeks  lonely  cliff  or 
rocky  slope.  The  single  egg  is  usually 
hatched  in  the  bare  earth.  The  albatross 
is  famous  in  literature,  as  in  Coleridge's 
Ancient  Mariner,  and  also  in  accounts  of 
voyages.  The  birds  follow  vessels  for  many 
days,  being  almost  continuously  on  the 
wing,  though,  in  calm  weather,  they  are  some- 
times seen  resting  on  the  surface  of  the 
water.  Many  naturalists  believe  that  their 
powers  of  flight  have  been  overestimated, 


WANDERING     ALBATROSS 

and  that  most  of  the  birds  sleep  on  the 
water  at  night  and  join  the  ship  again 
after  an  interval  of  rest.  A  few  birds  may 
be  seen  flying  astern  at  night,  but  a  less 
number  than  in  the  daytime.  They  feed 
on  refuse  that  is  thrown  overboard,  not 
diving  for  their  food  but  eating  what  they 
find  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  Their 
cry  is  between  that  of  a  raven  and  a  sheep. 
The  wandering  albatross  or  Cape  Sheep 


is  the  largest  water-bird  in  existence,  some- 
times measuring  14  feet  in  expanse  of  the 
wings.  Its  general  color  is  white,  with 
wavy  lines  of  black,  and  its  hand  feathers 
are  black.  The  bill  is  pinkish  white  and 
the  legs  a  light  flesh  color.  The  coat  of 
feathers  is  very  heavy,  serving  as  protec- 
tion against  water  and  long  continued  cold. 
Their  flight  is  described  as  a  beautiful  sail' 
ing  motion. 

Albemarle.  See  MONK. 
Al'  bemarle  Sound,  a  deep,  shallow  inlet 
of  the  Atlantic,  on  the  northeast  coast  of 
North  Carolina,  connected  southward  with 
Pamlico  Sound.  It  extends  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Roanoke  River  for  about  sixty  miles 
eastward,  where  it  is  separated  from  the 
Atlantic  by  a  long,  narrow  spur  of  land. 
It  is  from  5  to  15  miles  in  width,  and  being 
enclosed  from  the  ocean  its  waters  are 
mainly  fresh,  while  it  is  almost  useless  for 
shipping.  Its  average  depth  is  only  20 
feet.  The  Sound  and  neighboring  region 
received  its  name  in  early  colonial  days 
when  Charles  II  of  England,  in  1663,  made 
a  favorite  general  of  his,  the  first  Duke  of 
Albemarle,  one  of  the  Lords  Proprietors  of 
the  Carolinas. 

Alber'  ta  became  a  province  of  Canada 
in  1905.  It  and  the  new  province  of 
Saskatchewan  were  carved  out  of  the 
Northwest  Territories.  Out  of  22  members 
in  the  Canadian  Parliament  it  was  given 
a  representation  of  seven  members.  It 
lies  north  of  the  international  boundary 
line  and  immediately  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  between  the  49th  and  6oth 
parallels  of  latitude  and  the  i  loth  and  i2pth 
meridians.  Its  area  is  255,285  square  miles 
and  its  population  (1911)  374,663.  It 
stretches  760  miles  from  north  to  south. 
The  state  of  Montana  lies  to  the  south  of 
it  and  the  province  of  Saskatchewan  to 
its  east.  No  other  political  division  of  the 
Dominion  possesses  greater  or  more  varied 
natural  resources.  Edmonton  is  its  capital 
and  seat  of  government;  Calgary 
and  Medicine  Hat,  considerable  cen- 
ters of  population,  are  in  Alberta. 

Climate.  It  is  characterized  by 
a  mild  climate  in  winter  and  cool 
breezes  in  summer.  Its  location 
gives  it  the  benefit  in  winter  of 
the  Chinook  winds,  which  follow  an 
easterly  direction  from  the  currents 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  whence  they 
receive  their  warmth.  The  snow  in 
winter  rarely  lies  longer  than  four  or  five  days 
at  a  time  when  it  is  melted  by  the  wind,  thus 
making  the  winters  mild  and  filling  the  creeks 
and  ponds  with  water  for  the  stock  on  the 
ranches.  In  the  summer  these  creeks  are  con- 
stantly supplied  with  water  from  the  melting 
snow  in  the  mountains,  so  that  during  summer 
and  winter  there  is  always  to  be  found 
throughout  the  district  an  abundance  of 
water  for  grazing  and  all  other  purposes. 


ALBERT  EDWARD  NYANZA 


40 


ALBINO 


Resources. — The  wild  grasses  are  most 
nutritious,  as  has  been  demonstrated  by 
the  thousands  of  cattle  sold  from  the 
different  ranches  all  in  first-class  condition 
for  the  market. 

The  grain  raised  in  Alberta  at  present  is 
largely  required  to  supply  local  require- 
ments. The  surplus  finds  a  market  in 
British  Columbia,  the  Orient,  and  to  some 
extent  in  eastern  Canada.  Winter  wheat 
is  successfully  grown  in  Alberta,  more 
especially  in  the  southern  parts,  and  the 
area  under  crop  is  rapidly  increasing.  The 
growing  of  winter  wheat  has  revolutionized 
conditions. 

The  cool  temperature  in  summer,  with 
the  grasses  and  pure  cool  mountain  streams 
mentioned,  makes  Alberta  one  of  the  best 
countries  to  be  found  for  cheese  and  butter- 
making,  and  it  is  rapidly  becoming  as  noted 
for  such  industries  as  for  its  ranches. 

There  is  a  local  lumber  supply  at  Ed- 
monton and  other  points,  but  the  finer 
grades  are  obtained  from  British  Columbia. 

The  province  is  opened  up  by  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railway  and  its  branches  from 
Calgary  to  Edmonton,  Macleod  and  to 
the  great  ranching  country  around  Medicine 
Hat,  which,  owing  to  its  climate,  permits 
cattle  to  graze  without  shelter  throughout 
the  whole  winter. 

Alberta  has  a  border  line  of  30  townships 
which  front  upon  the  American  Republic. 
The  province  contains  170,000,000  acres 
of  arable  lands.  Of  this  immense  tract 
scarcely  one  million  acres  have  been  tilled. 
It  has  no  waste  country.  In  its  south- 
west corner  (near  Montana)  there  is  a  rich 
oil  field.  Its  coal  fields  extend  all  over  the 
province;  vast  deposits  of  coal  are  found 
all  along  the  foothills.  Medicine  Hat,  one 
of  its  largest  towns,  is  famous  for  its  natural- 
gas  wells.  The  largest  zinc  smelter  in  the 
world  is  at  Frank,  Alberta.  Its  greatest 
wealth,  however,  will  always  be  in  agri- 
culture. The  northern  part  of  this  province 
is  in  the  same  degree  of  latitude  as  Scot- 
land, and  the  southern  part  of  the  province 
the  same  as  a  part  of  Germany.  North 
Alberta  is  watered  by  portions  of  two 
great  river  systems,  the  Peace  River  and 
the  Athabasca  River.  The  markets  of  the 
agricultural  products  of  Alberta  will,  it  is 
likely,  ultimately  be  to  the  west  and  to 
the  Orient  what  they  are  now  to  the  mining 
districts  of  British  Columbia.  Her  coal 
will  go  to  the  east,  to  the  plains  of  Saskatch- 
ewan and  the  prairies  of  Manitoba,  but 
her  agricultural  products  will  seek  a  nearer 
market.  It  is  over  2,000  miles  to  Montreal, 
»nd  only  600  to  Victoria,  B.  C.  The  soil 
of  from  one  to  three  feet  of  black  vegetable 
mould  with  but  little  of  sand  or  gravel  is 
of  almost  inexhaustible  fertility. 

Education.  Common  schools  are  estab- 
lished with  liberal  government  assistance 
wherever  the  number  of  children  of  school 


age  warrants.  High  schools  are  established 
at  several  central  points,  and  arrangements 
are  well  under  way  for  opening  a  well 
equipped  provincial  university.  The 
opportunities  for  primary  (common  school) 
education  are  excellent,  and  "when  the 
university  opens  for  actual  work  the 
facilities  for  the  professional  training  of 
the  teachers,  a  most  important  considera- 
tion, will  be  all  that  can  be  desired. 

Albert  Edward  Nyanza  (nl-dn'za),  a 
lake  in  Africa,  about  50  miles  southwest  of 
Lake  Albert  and  connected  with  the  lat- 
ter lake  by  the  Semliki  River.  This  lake 
was  discovered  by  Stanley  in  1876,  and  was 
again  visited  by  him  in  1889  while  on  his 
Emin  Pasha  relief  expedition ;  but  it  is  still 
somewhat  veiled  in  uncertainty.  It  is 
probably  much  smaller  than  its  northern 
companion.  Several  small  salt  lakes  are 
in  its  vicinity.  Its  old  name  was  Muta 
Nzige.  Stanley  says  of  this  lake:  "No 
rivers  of  any  great  importance  feed  the 
Albert  Edward  Nyanza,  though  there  are 
several  which  are  from  20  to  50  feet  wide 
and  two  feet  deep.  The  river-like  arms  of 
the  lake,  now  narrowing  and  now  broaden- 
ing, swarm  with  egrets,  ducks,  geese,  ibis, 
heron,  storks,  pelicans,  snipes,  kingfishers 
and  other  water-birds."  ("Nyanza"  means 
"lake".) 

Albert  Nyanza,  a  large  lake  in  east 
Central  Africa.  Its  surface  is  2,720  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  On  its  western 
coast  are  the  Blue  Mountains,  rising  7,000 
feet  higher,  and  on  the  east  steep  cliffs 
rise  almost  as  high.  The  White  Nile,  flow- 
ing from  Lake  Victoria,  enters  Lake  Albert 
and  issues  from  it  near  its  northernmost 
point.  Sir  Samuel  Baker  was  the  first  Euro- 
pean who  explored  it  in  1864.  Area  about 
2,000  square  miles. 

Albert,  Prince  Consort,  Prince  of 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  and  husband  of  the 
late  Queen  Victoria  of  England,  was  born 
near  Coburg,  August  26,  1819.  He  married 
Victoria  in  1840;  soon  after  was  made  field- 
marshal  in  the  British  Army;  and  in  1857 
received  the  title  of  prince  consort.  He 
acquired  great  influence  in  public  affairs  as 
the  prudent  and  trusted  adviser  of  the 
queen,  and  became  popular  throughout 
England.  He  died  December  14,  1861. 

Albigenses  (al-bt-jen' sez) ,  a  French  re- 
ligious sect,  so  named  from  the  town  oi 
Alby,  where  a  council  was  held  in  1176 
which  condemned  their  doctrines.  They 
taught  the  doctrines  of  the  Manichaeans 
that  there  are  two  opposing  principles,  one 
good  and  the  other  evil.  They  also  rejected 
the  Old  Testament.  The  sect  practically 
died  out  about  1227. 

Albino  (Si-be1  no),  a  person  or  animal 
whose  skin  and  hair  are  perfectly  white. 
The  white  negroes  of  West  Africa  were  first 
called  by  this  name  by  the  Portuguese,  but 
it  is  now  applied  to  persons  of  any  race  who 


ALBONI 


ALCINOUS 


hav«  this  peculiarity,  though  it  is  most 
common  among  dark  races.  Animals  also 
have  the  same  peculiarity,  as  the  white 
elephant,  white  hare  and  white  mice.  The 
whiteness  is  caused  by  the  absence  of  color- 
ing matter  in  the  outside  layer  of  the  skin. 
The  eyes  of  albinoes  are  red,  and  are  weak 
in  the  daytime  but  strong  at  night. 

Alboni,  Marietta,  a  celebrated  (con- 
tralto) opera  singer,  born  in  the  Romagna, 
Italy,  in  1823,  and  died  at  Paris,  June  23, 
1894.  She  studied  under  Rossini  and  made 
her  de"but  at  Bologna,  achieving  a  phenom- 
enal success.  She  afterward  sang  in  all  the 
chief  Continental  and  English  cities,  and 
also  appeared  in  the  United  States.  She 
married  Count  Pepoli,  a  Bolognese,  after 
whose  death,  in  1863,  she  retired  from  the 
stage. 

Albu'  men,  a  substance  familiarly  known 
in  the  white  of  eggs,  which  exists  abun- 
dantly in  all  animals  and  in  the  juices,  seeds, 
grains  and  other  parts  of  plants.  It  is  one 
of  a  class  of  substances  called  proteids, 
which  form  an  important  part  of  food,  since 
they  build  up  the  tissues  of  the  body. 
Albumen  is  naturally  a  fluid,  but  when 
heated  to  a  high  temperature  it  is  changed 
into  a  firm,  white  solid.  White  of  egg  is 
used  to  clear  liquids,  as  coffee,  because  when 
boiled  it  collects  all  the  impurities  in  flakes 
and  rises  to  the  surface  as  scum,  or  sinks 
to  the  bottom,  according  to  the  weight  of 
the  liquid  holding  it. 

Albuquerque  (dl-boo-kdr'kd'),  the  county 
seat  of  Bernadillo  County,  New  Mexico. 
It  is  56  miles  southwest  from  Santa  Fe,  and 
its  elevation  is  4930  feet.  The  territorial 
University  of  New  Mexico  is  situated  in 
this  city.  Among  the  chief  industries  of 
the  city  are  the  trade  in  wool  and  hides  and 
manufactures  of  lumber,  sash,  doors,  boxes, 
etc.  There  are  mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper 
and  iron  in  the  vicinity.  Albuquerque  is  lo- 
cated on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe 
railroad.  Owing  to  the  surrounding  resources 
and  the  enterprise  of  its  people  its  industries 
are  developing  and  its  population  increasing 
at  a  rapid  rate.  Population,  11,020. 

Alcamenes  (al-kam'e-nez) ,  a  famous 
Athenian  sculptor,  a  pupil  of  Phidias.  He 
nourished  from  about  448  to  400  B.  C. 
He  is  said  to  have  once  competed  with  his 
master  in  chiseling  a  statue  of  Minerva. 
Alcamenes's  statue  was  beautiful  in  finish, 
but  he  had  forgotten  that  it  was  to  be 
placed  on  a  high  column;  and  so  placed  his 
work  would  not  bear  comparison  with  that 
of  his  great  master.  His  masterpiece  was 
his  statue  of  Venus  Urania,  in  the  temple 
of  Venus  at  Athens. 

Alcestis  (al-ses'tes) .  In  classic  mythol- 
ogy, the  daughter  of  Pelias  and  wife  of 
Admetus,  king  of  Thessaly.  She  is  said  to 
have  sacrificed  herself  that  her  husband's 
life,  then  in  danger,  might  be  spared,  as 
Apollo  had  promised  her.  She  was  brought 


back  from  Hades  by  Hercules.  The  story 
of  her  wifely  devotion  is  the  theme  of  a 
tragedy,  or  rather  of  a  melodrama,  by 
Euripides. 

Ar  chemy,  the  art  of  making  gold  and 
silver  and  of  preparing  a  universal  medi- 
cine. In  ancient  times  it  seems  to  have 
been  cultivated  to  some  extent  by  the 
Greeks  and  Chinese,  and  was  learned  by 
the  Arabs  in  their  invasions.  In  the  middle 
ages  it  was  looked  upon  as  a  science,  and 
was  earnestly  studied  among  the  nations 
of  Europe.  A  university  of  alchemy  was 
founded  at  Prague,  and  princes  for  a  time 
kept  their  private  alchemists. 

The  alchemists  believed  in  the  existence 
of  a  certain  solid  red  preparation  called  the 
philosopher's  stone  or  the  grand  elixir, 
which,  when  placed  on  common  metals, 
such  as  lead,  and  melted  to  a  liquid,  would 
change  them  into  gold.  It  would  also  cure 
all  diseases,  while  a  similar  white  prepara- 
tion changed  all  metals  to  silver.  In  the 
study  of  this  art  many  scientific  truths  were 
discovered,  and  so  alchemy  became  the 
forerunner  of  chemistry. 

Alcibiades  (al-si-bl1 'd-dez) ,  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  of  the  Athenians.  He  was 
born  at  Athens  about  450  B.  C.,  and  boasted 
that  he  was  descended  from  the  hero  Ajax, 
and  through  him  from  Jupiter  himself.  He 
was  brought  up  by  Pericles,  his  guardian, 
and  was  a  favorite  pupil  of  Socrates.  He 
was  beautiful  in  person,  had  splendid  abil- 
ities and  energies  and  great  ambition,  but 
was  without  self-restraint  and  utterly 
selfish.  Entering  public  life  at  the  time  of 
the  contest  with  Sparta  he  became  the 
leader  of  the  war  party,  and  persuaded  the 
Athenians  to  undertake  an  expedition 
against  Sicily.  The  night  before  he  set  out 
as  one  of  the  generals  all  the  images  of  the 
god  Hermes  or  Mercury  were  thrown  down, 
and  he  was  charged  with  a  share  in  the 
sacrilege.  No  sooner  had  he  reached  Sicily 
than  he  was  recalled  to  stand  trial,  but  fled 
to  Sparta  and  devoted  all  his  energies  to 
defeating  his  own  countrymen.  Soon  the 
Spartans  grew  jealous  of  his  power  and  in- 
fluence and  he  was  compelled  to  flee  to  the 
Persians.  Anxious  to  return  to  his  native 
Athens,  he  promised  the  Athenians  the 
help  of  the  Persians.  He  was  recalled  and 
made  general,  and  won  several  brilliant 
victories,  but  was  banished  again  at  his 
first  defeat.  After  the  fall  of  Athens,  on 
his  way  to  the  Persian  court  to  seek  help 
for  his  country,  he  was  assassinated,  404  B.C. 

Alcinous  (al-cin'o-us'),  a  mythical  king 
of  the  island  of  Scheria  described  in  the 
Odyssey.  Being  separated  from  other 
people,  he  and  his  people  lived  in  unbroken 
peace  and  prosperity.  The  description  of 
the  king's  palace  with  its  fine  furnishings, 
and  its  wonderful  court  containing  the 
orchard  of  everbearing  trees  and  vines  is 
well  known  and  is  quite  remarkable.  The 


ALCOHOL 


42 


ALDER 


chief  employment  of  the  people  was  naviga- 
tion. It  was  said  that  the  ships  were  in- 
telligent, and  without  helm  or  pilot  could 
find  any  coast  or  harbor.  King  Alcinous 
received  Ulysses  near  the  close  of  the 
latter's  long  period  of  wandering.  He 
entertained  him  hospitably  and  furnished 
him  with  a  ship  to  carry  him  to  Ithaca. 
Upon  its  return  to  Scheria  this  ship  and 
its  sailors  were  transformed  to  stone  by 
Neptune  as  a  mark  of  his  wrath  for  the 
favor  shown  to  Ulysses. 

Al'  cohol,  the  spirit  of  fermented  liquors. 
The  word  is  of  Arabic  origin,  and  was 
originally  used  as  the  name  of  a  kind  of 
black  paint  used  by  Eastern  women  for 
darkening  the  eyes.  It  is  not  known  why 
the  word  was  applied  to  its  present  use. 
Alcohol  is  made  from  the  juice  of  grapes, 
apples,  etc.,  and  from  corn,  grain  and 
other  materials  containing  starch,  after  the 
latter  has  been  converted  into  sugar.  When 
the  juices  or  "mashes"  ferment  or  "work", 
the  sugar  which  they  contain  changes  into 
the  spirit  alcohol.  It  has  great  affinity  for 
water,  which  is  to  a  great  degree  separated 
from  it  by  distillation  and  other  processes. 
When  pure  it  is  a  deadly  poison,  and  is  the 
intoxicating  principle  in  the  so-called  spir- 
ituous liquors.  Brandy,  whiskey,  rum  and 
gin,  which  are  called  distilled  liquors,  are 
about  one-half  alcohol;  port  wine  about 
one-fourth  or  one-fifth,  and  claret  and 
white  wines  one-tenth,  while  ale  and  cider 
have  still  less. 

When  alcohol  is  drunk  it  undergoes  oxida- 
tion in  the  body,  just  as  sugar,  starch  and 
other  similar  substances  do.  As  a  narcotic, 
it  produces  at  first  high  spirits;  then,  as  it 
gets  possession  of  the  nerves  of  feeling, 
stupidity;  then  when  it  has  paralyzed  the 
nerves  of  motion,  insensibility;  and,  finally, 
if  taken  in  large  enough  quantities,  it  reaches 
the  heart  and  the  result  is  death.  Alcohol 
has  many  interesting  properties  and  uses. 
As  it  never  freezes  at  any  natural  tem- 
peratures, it  is  used  in  cold  countries  in 
thermometers.  It  is  used  in  medicines  by 
mixing  it  with  drugs;  in  varnishes  by  mix- 
ing with  resins  and  gums;  and  in  cologne 
by  mixing  with  oils.  It  is  used  in  preserving 
specimens,  as  it  is  an  antiseptic.  Chemists 
find  it  a  clean  and  valuable  fuel. 

Alcott  (awl'kof),  Amos  Bronson,  Ameri- 
can educator,  philosophical  writer  and  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  New  England  Tran- 
scendentalist  school,  was  born  at  Wplcott, 
Conn.,  November  29,  1799,  and  died  at 
Boston,  March  4,  1888.  His  active  life 
began  by  teaching  in  schools,  founded  by 
himself  and  on  methods  of  his  own,  the 
teaching  being  imparted  more  by  conversa- 
tion than  by  books.  Later  on,  he  exchanged 
the  schoolroom  for  the  lecture  platform, 
and  became  dean  of  the  Concord  School  of 
Philosophy.  At  Concord,  he  was  intimate 
with  Emerson,  Hawthorne,  Thoreau  and 


LOUISA  MAY  ALCOTT 


Channing,  and  was  a  frequent  contributor 
to  The  Dial.  Besides  his  Table  Talk  his 
best  known  work  is  his  Concord  Days. 

Aicott,    Louisa   May,    daughter    of    the 
above,  was  born  in  1833  an<^  died  in  1888. 

Her  books  for  • 
children  are  per- 
haps the  most 
popular  works  of 
the  kind  pub- 
lished in  this 
country.  Her 
Hospital  Sketches 
are  selections 
from  letters 
written  home 
from  the  army  in 
1863,  where  she 
was  a  volunteer 
nurse.  Her  best 
known  books  are  Little  Women,  Little  Men, 
Old-Fashioned  Girls,  Eight  Cousins  and 
Rose  in  Bloom. 

Alcuin  (al'kwin),  born  in  England  about 
735  A.  D.,  and  died  in  France  in  804.  He 
was  educated  in  the  cathedral  school  at 
York,  England,  and  became  head  master 
of  that  school.  He  is,  perhaps,  best  known 
for  his  labors  in  the  celebrated  palace 
school  opened  by  King  Charlemagne  in 
France.  Alcuin  became  the  head  of  this 
school  and,  in  addition  to  teaching,  he  had 
corrected  copies  made  of  classical  manu- 
scripts which  had  gradually  become  very 
inaccurate  through  careless  copying.  Dur- 
ing his  last  years,  Alcuin  was  abbot  of  the 
monastery  of  St.  Martin  in  Tours,  France. 
Alden  (awl'den),  John  (born  1599,  died 
1689),  one  of  the  Pilgrim  fathers,  who  came 
over  in  the  Mayflower  in  1620.  For  more 
than  fifty  years  he  was  a  magistrate  of  Ply- 
mouth colony.  Miles  Standish  once  sent 
him  to  a  lady  with  an  offer  of  marriage, 
but  she,  liking  John  better,  said,  "  Prithee, 
John,  why  do  you  not  speak  for  yourself?" 
— anc1  T  1 
Lonj 

or  shrub,  fond  of  the  water  and  the  wood 
valued  for  its  durability  in  water.  It  be- 
longs to  the  genus  Alnus;  20  species  are 
known.  A  giant  among  these  is  the  famous 
black  alder  of  Europe,  Asia  and  North 
Africa.  The  alder  is  widely  distributed. 
In  North  America  there  are  six  species  of 
trees  and  three  of  shrubs.  "The  alder  by 
the  river"  is  not  only  a  very  pretty  feature 
of  the  landscape,  but  also  of  value  to  the 
land,  keeping  the  banks  from  crumbling. 
The  tree  is  not  ranked  with  the  more  im- 
portant timber  trees,  but  is  put  to  numer- 
ous uses;  alder  branches  furnish  the  best 
charcoal  for  the  making  of  gunpowder; 
from  the  bark  and  shoots  is  obtained  a  dye; 
the  wood  is  turned  to  account  in  various 
small  common  articles,  and  is  used  for 
piles,  pumps,  watering-troughs,  etc. 


ALDERMAN 


43 


ALEUTIAN  ISLANDS 


The  Oregon  or  red  alder  is  found  in  the 
far  west,  in  Washington,  Oregon  and  in 
the  mountains  of  California  down  to  Santa 
Barbara.  It  grows  along  streams,  on  can- 
yon sides,  and  up  on  the  mountains  beyond 
the  spruces.  On  Puget  Sound  the  tree  some- 
times reaches  the  height  of  80  feet.  The 
bark  is  smooth  and  grayish,  the  leaves  dark 
green.  The  wood  is  red-brown  in  color  and 
is  sometimes  used  for  furniture. 

The  white  alder  also  belongs  to  the  west, 
borders  mountain  streams  from  Idaho  down 
toward  the  Mexican  line.  It,  too,  is  a  tall 
tree  for  an  alder.  Very  early  in  the  year 
it  puts  forth  great  yeUow  catkins,  at  this 
season  specially  conspicuous  and  attractive. 
In  the  spring  the  unfolding  leaves  are  cov- 
ered with  white  hairs  and  the  young  shoots 
have  a  white  crust.  The  bark  is  rough  and 
dark  brown  in  color. 

The  lanceleaf  alder  grows  on  high 
lands  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  The 
paperleaf  alder  is  another  species  found  in 
the  mountains  of  the  west. 

The  seaside  alder,  an  attractive  small 
tree,  is  found  fringing  stream  and  pond  in 
Delaware,  Maryland  and  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory. It  is  from  15  to  30  feet  in  height,  its 
bark  light  brown,  the  leaves  a  gleaming 
dark  green  above,  paler  beneath.  A  feature 
of  this  tree  is  the  beautiful  yellow  catkins 
with  which  it  decks  itself  in  September. 

Plants  of  other  orders  are  popularly  called 
alders.  Mention  may  be  made  of  the  winter- 
berry  or  black  alder,  common  on  low 
grounds,  closely  related  to  the  American 
holly,  bearing  thick-clustered  coral-red 
berries,  these  appearing  in  September.  The 
sweet  pepperbush  or  white  alder,  a  shrub 
in  late  summer  adorned  with  fragrant  white 
blossoms,  grows  along  the  New  England 
coast. 

Al'derman,  Edwin  Anderson  (1861), 
American  educator  and  president  of  the 
University  of  Virginia,  was  born  at  Wil- 
mington, N.  C.,  and  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  his  native  state.  Of  the  latter, 
in  1896-99,  he  was  president,  when  he  be- 
came head  of  Tulans  University  at  New 
Orleans,  La.,  subsequently  removing  to 
Charlottesville,  Va.,  to  take  the  presidential 
chair  at  the  University  of  Virginia. 

Aldrlch  (awl'drlch),  Nelson  Wilmarth 
(1841 — ),  U.  S.  Senator  (Republican)  from 
Rhode  Island,  born  at  Foster,  R.  I.  For 
six  years  he  was  a  member  of  the  Provi- 
dence Common  Council,  in  two  of  which  he 
acted  as  president.  In  1875  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Rhode  Island  General  Assembly 
and  in  the  latter  was  elected  speaker  of  the 
state  House  of  Representatives.  In  1878 
he  was  returned  to  the  Federal  Congress 
and  in  1880  was  re-elected,  but  in  the  follow- 
ing year  resigned  to  take  a  seat  in  the 
Senate.  He  was  successively  elected  to  the 
Senate  (in  the  years  1886,  1892  and  1905), 
and  became  one  of  the  most  forceful  and 


T.  B.  ALDRICH 


efficient  members  of  that  body.  He  had 
charge  of  the  tariff  bill  passed  in  1909.  He 
was  also  chairman  of  the  commission  ap- 
pointed to  revise  the  monetary  system  of  the 
country. 

Aldnch  (awl'drich'),  Thomas  Bailey,  an 
American  poet  and  novelist,  was  born  in 

Portsmouth, 
New  H  a  m  p- 
shire,  Novem- 
ber ii,  183*. 
Between  the 
years  1881  and 
1890  he  was 
editor  of  the 
Atlantic  Month- 
ly. He  has 
written  The 
Stillwater  Trag- 
edy, Story  of  a 
Bad  Boy,  Mar- 
jorie  Daw,  Pru- 
dence Palfrey, 
Judith  and  Holofernes  and  several  volumes 
of  poems.  He  died  March  19,  1907. 
Ale.  See  BEER. 

Alemainl  (d'ld-man'ne)  (meaning  "all 
men"),  a  union  of  several  tribes,  who  lived 
in  the  heart  of  Germany.  They  were  at- 
tacked at  different  times  in  their  history 
by  nine  Roman  generals  or  emperors.  They 
were  defeated  time  and  again,  but  never 
conquered.  They  were  at  last  united  with 
the  Suevi  into  the  dukedom  of  Alemannia, 
and  thereafter  their  history  is  included  in 
the  history  of  Germany. 

Aleppo  (a-l%p'po),  a  city  of  Syria,  is  built 
over  the  ancient  city  of  Beroea.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  stone  wall  forty  feet  high  and 
three  and  a  half  miles  long.  In  an  earth- 
quake which  occurred  in  1822  two- thirds 
of  the  people  were  swallowed  up.  Outside 
the  city  beautiful  gardens  stretch  for  12 
miles  to  the  southeast.  The  "boil  of 
Aleppo"  is  a  cancer  that  breaks  out  on 
the  faces  of  children  and  lasts  a  year,  leav- 
ing a  scar  for  life,  by  which  a  citizen  of  the 
place  can  be  easily  recognized.  Population, 
210,000. 

Aleutian  Islands  or  Catharine  Archi- 
pelago, a  group  of  over  150  islands,  vol- 
canic as  well  as  rocky  in  their  foundation, 
which  extend  southwestward  from  the 
Alaskan  peninsula  across  the  northern 
Pacific  and  between  the  latter  ocean  and 
Bering  Sea.  They  are  populated  by  a 
hardy  race,  between  2,000  and  3,000  in 
number,  allied  to  the  Eskimo  stock,  who 
subsist  chiefly  on  seals  and  fish.  There  is 
little  agriculture,  for  the  soil  is  thin  and 
poor,  and  the  vegetation  is  stunted  and 
insignificant.  The  islands,  which  form  part 
of  Alaska  and  with  that  northwestern 
peninsula  belong  to  the  United  States,  were 
discovered  early  in  the  eighteenth  century 
by  Bering,  the  Danish  navigator.  The  in- 
habitants as  a  rule  are  of  a  low  order  of 


ALEXANDER 


44 


ALEXANDER  III 


intelligence,  use  primitive  implements  in 
their  work,  and  live  in  winter  in  crude  dug- 
outs and  underground  dwellings.  They 
have  been  Christianized  by  Russian  mis- 
sionaries and  are  nominally  attached  to  the 
Greek  church.  Their  food,  in  addition  to 
the  fish  they  catch,  includes  foxes  and  rein- 
deer. The  Fox  Islands  form  the  larger  and 
more  populous  portion  of  the  archipelago, 
which  extends  along  both  sides  of  the 
parallel  of  55  north  latitude,  separating  the 
Northern  Pacific  from  the  Sea  of  Kam- 
chatka. See  ALASKA. 

Alexander.    See  EMPEROR  SEVERUS. 

Alexan'  der  the  Great,  son  of  Philip  of 
Macedon,  was  born  at  Pella,  in  356  B.  C. 
Gifted  by  nature  and  carefully  educated  by 
Aristotle,  he  early  gave  promise  of  his  great 
character.  Philip's  triumphs  saddened  him, 
and  he  once  exclaimed :  "  My  father  will 
leave 'nothing  for  me  to  do!"  When  only 
1 6,  he  took  charge  of  the  government  in  his 
father's  absence.  Two  years  later  he  showed 
such  courage  in  the  battle  of  Chaeronea  that 
his  father,  embracing  him,  said:  "My  son, 
ask  for  thyself  another  kingdom,  for  that 
which  I  leave  is  too  small  for  thee."  At 
Philip's  death,  Alexander,  not  yet  20  years 
old,  ascended  the  throne  and  prepared  to 
finish  the  conquests  which  his  father  had 
begun.  He  struck  terror  into  all  Greece  by 
razing  Thebes  to  the  ground  and  punishing 
all  who  had  revolted.  He  then  turned  to- 
ward Persia.  Crossing  the  Hellespont,  in 
334,  he  defeated  the  Persians  in  a  number 
of  battles,  overthrowing  the  son-in-law  of 
King  Darius  with  his  own  lance.  The  cities 
of  Asia  opened  their  gates  to  the  conqueror 
as  he  marched  to  meet  Darius  and  his  army 
of  500,000,  in  the  denies  of  Cilicia.  At  the 
pass  of  Gordium  was  the  famous  Gordian 
knot.  An  oracle  had  foretold  that  whoever 
should  untie  it  would  become  master  of  the 
world,  but  Alexander  boldly  cut  it  with 
his  sword.  Meeting  Darius  between  the 
mountains  and  the  sea,  the  resistless  Mace- 
donian phalanx  utterly  routed  the  dis- 
orderly masses  of  the  Persians  in  the  great 
battle  of  Issus,  333  B.  C.  The  family  of  the 
Persian  monarch  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Alexander,  and  all  Asia,  as  far  as  the 
Euphrates  was  offered  as  the  condition  of 
peace;  but  the  conqueror  proudly  refused, 
saying  that  Darius  must  regard  him  as  the 
ruler  of  all  Asia  and  the  lord  of  all  his 
people.  Alexander  now  turned  southward 
and  conquered  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. In  Egypt  he  restored  the 
religious  customs  of  the  people,  which  the 
Persian  rulers  had  changed,  and  built  the 
city  of  Alexandria.  He  visited  the  temple 
of  Jupiter  Ammon  in  the  Libyan  desert 
and  was  hailed  as  a  son  of  the  god.  In  the 
spring,  he  routed  Darius  again,  at  the  battle 
of  Arbela  (331  B.  C.).  He  marched  to  the 
interior,  entering  in  triumph  Babylon  and 
Susa.  the  storehouse  of  the  treasures  of  the 


East,  and  Persepolis,  the  capital  of  Persia. 
But  thest  successes  turned  his  head,  and  he 
began  to  lead  a  life  of  cruelty  and  dissipa- 
tion. In  a  fit  of  anger  he  killed  some  of 
his  best  friends,  and  while  drunk  burned 
the  beautiful  city  of  Persepolis.  In  320 
B.  C.,  Alexander  marched  northward  to  the 
furthest  known  limits  of  Asia  and  con- 
quered the  Scythians  on  the  banks  of  the 
Jaxartes.  Two  years  later,  he  invaded 
India.  When  a  king  named  Porus  was 
brought  to  him,  Alexander  asked  him  how 
he  would  like  to  be  treated.  "  Like  a  king," 
was  the  reply,  which  so  pleased  Alexander 
that  he  restored  him  his  kingdom,  and 
Porus  became  an  ally  and  friend.  Here  his 
favorite  horse,  Bucephalus,  which  no  one 
else  could  ride,  died  from  a  wound.  Alex- 
ander gave  the  horse  a  splendid  burial,  and 
founded  a  town,  named  Bucephala,  in  his 
honor.  Alexander  advanced  through  India, 
until  his  soldiers  refused  to  follow  him 
further.  He  sailed  down  the  Hydaspes  to 
the  Indus,  thence  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 

He  returned  to  Babylon,  receiving  on  his 
way  ambassadors  from  all  parts  of  the 
world.  Here,  while  forming  new  plans  for 
the  future,  both  of  conquest  and  civiliza- 
tion, he  was  taken  sick  at  a  banquet  and 
died  at  the  age  of  32,  after  a  reign  of  less 
than  thirteen  years,  during  which  he  had 
become  master  of  most  of  the  then  known 
world.  His  body  was  carried  to  Alexandria 
and  placed  by  Ptolemy  in  a  golden  coffin. 
The  Egyptians  and  other  nations  worshiped 
him  as  a  god.  His  vast  empire  was  divided 
among  his  generals.  When  asked  who  should 
inherit  his  throne  he  replied:  "the  worthi- 
est." 

Alexander  I,  czar  of  Russia,  was  born 
November  6,  1777,  and  ascended  the  throne 
in  1 80 1.  He  was  concerned  in  all  the  wars 
of  Napoleon,  either  as  his  enemy  or  as  his 
ally.  As  a  ruler,  he  was  able  and  humane, 
but  in  his  wars  he  was  usually  on  the  side 
opposed  to  the  cause  of  public  liberty.  He 
died  in  1825. 

Alexander  II,  czar  of  Russia,  born  in 
1818,  succeeded  his  father  Nicholas  I  as  czar 
in  1855,  during  the  Crimean  war.  By  his 

establishment  of 
schools  and  in- 
ternal improve- 
ments he  did 
more  to  build  up 
Russia  than  any 
emperor  since 
Peter  the  Great. 
He  gained  the 
name  of  "  Lib- 
erator" by  giv- 
ing freedom  to 
the  serfs.  He  was 
assassinated  i& 
1881. 

Alexander  III, 
ALEXANDER  ill  czar    of   Russia 


ALEXANDER  (POPES) 


45 


ALEXANDRIA,  VA. 


was  born  March  10,  1845.  He  succeeded  to 
the  throne  in  1881 .  He  showed  vigor  in  gov- 
ernment and  ability  in  repressing  the  Nihilists 
(see  the  latter),  who  made  several  attempts 
on  his  life,  and  who  assassinated  his  father, 
Alexander  II.  The  harsh  laws  against  the 
Jews  and  the  severe  famine  (1892),  are  among 
the  later  events  of  his  reign.  In  1866  he  mar- 
ried Princess  Dagmar  of  Denmark  (sister  of 
Alexander  queen  of  England),  whose  son, 
Nicholas  II,  succeeded  Alexander  III  on 
the  throne.  He  died  November  i,  1894. 

Alexander,  the  name  of  eight  popes. 
Alexander  VI  has  been  called  the  worst  of 
the  popes,  because  the  crimes  of  his  son, 
Caesar  Borgia,  were  attributed  to  him.  He 
was  a  profligate,  but  an  able  statesman  and 
did  much  to  advance  the  cause  of  the  papaoy. 
He  was  born  in  1431,  and  died  in  1503.  See 
BORGIA,  CAESAR. 

Alexander,  W.  J.,  born  at  Hamilton, 
Ontario.  Educated  at  Hamilton  Colle- 
giate Institute.  Matriculated  University  of 
Toronto  with  double  scholarship  ,1873.  Cana- 
dian Gilchrist  Scholar,  1874.  Student  of 
University  College,  London,  England, 
1874-7.  B.A.  University  of  London. 
Teacher  in  Prince  of  Wales  College,  Char- 
lottetown,  P.E.I.,  1877-9.  Graduate  Student, 
Scholar  and  Fellow  of  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  Baltimore,  1879-1883.  Ph.D., 
1883.  Graduate  student  in  Germany, 
1883-4.  Professor  of  English  Literature, 
Dalhousie  College,  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia, 
1884-89.  Professor  of  English,  University 
College,  Toronto,  1889 — present  time.  He 
has  written  various  books,  Introduction  to 
the  Poetry  of  Robert  Browning;  Select  Poems 
of  Shelley;  and  various  articles  in  learned 
periodicals. 

Alexan'dra,  Queen,  consort  of  the  late 
Edward  VII  of  England,  long  known  as  Prin- 
cess of  Wales, 
daughter  of 
the  late  Chris- 
tian IX,  of 
Denmark,  was 
born  at  Copen- 
hagen, Decem- 
ber i,  1844.  On 
March  10, 1863, 
she  was  mar- 
ried at  Windsor 
to  Albert  Ed- 
ward (then 
Prince  of 
Wales),  eldest 
son  of  Queen 
Victoria  and 
the  Prince  Con- 
sort. She  has 
had  six  chil- 
dren, four  of 
whom  survive. 
Her  majesty  is  widely  loved  and  admired; 
she  is  a  fine  musician,  eagerly  interested 
in  philanthropic  works  and  devoted  to 


QUEEN   ALEXANDRA 


her  family  life  of  which  she  is  the  center 
and  inspiration. 

Alexan'dria,  a  city  of  Egypt,  founded 
by  Alexander  the  Great,  333  B.  C.  Its 
site  is  near  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Nile, 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  Lake 
Mareotis.  About  a  mile  out  in  the  sea  is 
the  island  of  Pharos,  connected  with  the 
land  by  an  enormous  mole,  on  which 
Ptolemy  built  the  famous  lighthouse,  400 
feet  high,  which  was  called  one  of  the  won- 
ders of  the  world.  He  ordered  as  inscrip- 
tion on  the  lighthouse,  the  words:  "King 
Ptolemy  to  the  Gods,  the  Saviours,  for  the 
Benefit  of  Sailors."  But  the  architect, 
Sostrates,  put  another  inscription  on  the 
wall,  covenng  it  with  mortar  on  which  he 
wrote  the  words  of  the  king.  In  later  years 
the  mortar  fell  off,  and  the  hidden  inscrip- 
tion appeared:  "Sostrates,  the  Cnidian, 
son  of  Dexiphanes,  to  the  Gods,  the  Saviours, 
for  the  Benefit  of  Sailors."  The  city  was 
laid  out  in  squares,  with  the  tomb  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  in  the  center.  It  WES 
divided  into  the  quarters  of  the  Jews,  of 
the  Egyptians  and  of  the  Greeks.  In  the 
latter  were  most  of  the  beautiful  buildings 
for  which  the  city  was  famous,  the  palace 
of  the  Ptolemies,  the  greatest  of  the  libraries 
of  ancient  times,  the  museum,  the  court  of 
justice  and  the  temple  of  the  Caesars.  This 
temple  Julius  Caesar  adorned  with  the  two 
"Cleopatra's  needles,"  which  he  brought 
from  Heliopolis,  and  which  have  been  given 
to  England  (1877)  and  to  America  (1880). 
Alexandria  has  been  a  great  center  of  trade 
at  different  times  in  its  history.  The  rise  of 
Constantinople  and  the  discovery  of  the 
passage  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
took  away  its  importance;  but  the  opening 
of  the  Suez  canal  has  renewed  its  prosperity, 
and  it  is  now  growing  rapidly.  The  city  fell 
at  various  times  under  the  power  of  the 
Romans,  the  Persians,  the  Arabs  and  the 
Turks.  It  was  largely  rebuilt  under  Me- 
hemet  Ali  (who  reigned  from  1811  to  1848). 
In  1882  it  was  bombarded  and  held  for  a 
time  by  the  English.  It  is  now  under 
English  government.  The  modern  city  is 
built  on  the  ancient  mole.  The  population 
is  332,246,  made  up  of  a  large  number  of 
nationalities. 

Alexandria,  Ind.,  a  growing  city  in  Madi- 
son County,  situated  about  50  miles  north- 
east of  Indianapolis  on  two  lines  of  rail- 
way and  having  trolley  connection  with  all 
principal  towns  and  cities  in  Indiana  and 
Ohio.  With  the  discovery  of  natural  gas  in 
1889  its  growth  for  a  few  years  was  remark- 
able. On  the  failure  of  gas  it  lost  many 
industries  but  since  1908  has  enjoyed  a  healthy 
growth.  Its  manufactures  include  glass,  min- 
eral wool,  wire  and  paper  mill  products.  The 
city  owns  and  operates  its  own  waterworks. 
Population  (1910),  5,200. 

Alexandria,  Va.,  a  town,  port  of  entry 
and  railroad  center  in  Alexandria  County, 


ALEXANDRIAN  LIBRARY 


46 


ALFALFA 


of  which  it  is  the  capital,  is  situated  on 
the  right  bank  o.  the  Potomac,  six  miles 
southwest  of  Washington,  D.  C.  The  tidal 
wateis  of  the  Chesapeake  flowing  up  the 
Potomac,  afford  a  good  and  roomy  harbor, 
the  river  here  being  a  mile  wide.  It  has  a 
number  of  institutions  of  learning,  among 
them  Potomac,  Mt.  Vernon  and  St.  Mary's 
Academies,  the  Wash  ngton  High  School, 
and  the  Theological  Seminary  and  High 
School  of  the  Diocese  of  Virginia  (Episcopal). 
The  town  has  several  buildings  of  historic 
interest,  among  them  being  Christ  Church 
where  Washington  worshipped;  the  Carlyle 
House,  Brad  dock's  headquarters  in  1755; 
the  school  of  which  the  first  teacher  was 
Washington:  the  old  Town  Hall,  the  first 
story  of  which  was  used  by  the  fire  brigade 
of  which  Washington  was  a  member,  etc. 
Alexandria  has  many  factories,  mills,  ma- 
chine shops  and  other  industries.  Popula- 
tion, 15,329. 

Alexandrian  Library,  probably  the 
largest  collection  of  books  ever  gathered 
before  the  invention  of  printing.  It  was 
founded  by  Ptolemy  I  and  Ptolemy  II.  of 
Egypt,  and  contained  books  in  all  languages. 
It  was  housed  in  two  buildings,  the  Museum 
and  the  Serapeum.  The  number  of  volumes 
was  said  to  be  seven  hundred  thousand,  but 
this  would  not  amount  to  as  much  as  a 
modern  library  of  printed  books  of  the  same 
number,  because  at  that  time  all  books  were 
written,  and  each  part  of  a  book  was  called 
a  volume.  Thus  the  Iliad,  which  now 
makes  one  volume,  was  then  twenty-four 
volumes.  Students  came  to  this  library 
from  all  parts  of  the  world  to  study.  When 
Julius  Caesar  besieged  Alexandria,  a  large 
part  of  the  library  was  burned.  Mark 
Antony,  however,  presented  a  new  collec- 
tion to  Cleopatra  from  Per  gam  us,  and  the 
library  went  on  increasing  for  four  centuries, 
till  the  Serapeum  was  destroyed  by  com- 
mand of  the  Emperor  Theodosius  The 
library  was  again  re-established,  but  was 
burne'd  a  second  time,  about  640  A.  D., 
when  the  Arabs  conquered  the  city.  The 
story  is  told  that  the  Arab  caliph,  Omar, 
when  asked  to  preserve  the  library,  said: 
"If  these  writings  of  the  Greeks  agree  w'th 
the  Koran,  they  are  useless  and  need  not 
be  preserved:  if  they  disagree,  they  are 
pernicious  and  ought  tr»  ve  destroyed.  So 
they  were  used  to  hea  the  four  thousand 
baths  of  the  city,  and  ~uch  was  their  num- 
ber that  six  month  were  barely  sufficient 
to  use  up  the  precious  fuel. 

Alexiev,  Admiral  E.  S.  Born  in  Russia 
in  1844,  and  educated  for  the  navy.  During 
the  Chino- Japanese  War  in  1897,  he  was 
the  chief  of  the  eastern  fleet;  later  he  was 
the  chief  of  the  Black  Sea  fleet.  In  August, 
1903,  he  was  appointed  viceroy  of  the  Far 
East  with  supreme  command  of  the  land 
and  naval  forces.  When  the  Russo-Japanese 
War  broke  out  and  the  Ru?sians  met  re- 


verses, Alexiev  was  superseded  in  com- 
mand both  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  left 
in  charge  of  the  civil  administration  only. 
He  has  been  severely  censured  for  either 
being  ignorant  of  the  state  of  affairs  in 
Japan  prior  to  the  war  or  for  concealing 
his  knowledge  of  the  situation  from  the 
czar.  Nicholas  II.  Alexiev  belongs  to  the 
reactionary  faction  in  the  Russian  govern- 
ment. 

Alfalfa,  from  an  Arabic  word  meaning 
"the  best  fodder,"  the  Medicago  sativa  of 
botanists,  is  a  forage  plant  belonging  to  the 
botanical  family  Leguminosce,  of  which  all 
clovers,  beans  and  peas  are  examples.  It 
is  known  by  many  other  names,  of  which 
the  most  common  is  lucerne;  it  is  a  per- 
ennial, with  powers  of  indefinite  repro- 
duction from  one  seeding,  and  fields  of 
it  are  claimed  to  have  been  continuously 
productive  without  reseeding  for  from  one 
to  two  hundred  years  or  more.  It  is  a 
smooth,  upright,  branching  plant,  with 
leaves  three  parted,  arranged  alternately, 
and  netted-veined,  and  produces  many 
stems  from  one  seed  or  root.  Its  flowers 
are  purple,  and  appear  in  clusters  on  the 
stems  and  branches;  its  seed-pods  are  coiled 
spirally,  each  containing  several  seeds, 
which  are  kidney-shaped  and  olive  green 
or  bright  egg-yellow  in  color. 

Alfalfa  is  native  to  Asia,  and  was  familiar 
to  the  Egyptians,  Medes  and  Persians, 
Greeks  and  the  Romans,  who  distributed 
it  over  large  portions  of  southern  Europe. 
Early  in  the  history  of  the  western  continent 
the  Spaniards  carried  alfalfa  to  South 
America.  It  was  introduced  probably  about 
1853  into  the  United  States,  in  northern 
California,  but  attracted  no  great  attention 
until  more  recent  years.  It  is  the  richest 
forage  plant  known,  and  doubtless  destined 
to  come  into  general  use  in  most  of  the  states. 
In  fact  it  is  already  grown  successfully  in 
greater  or  less  areas  in  every  state  in  the 
Union,  whereas  a  few  years  ago  its  profitable 
production  was  thought  possible  only  in  the 
irrigated  valleys  of  the  west,  being  deemed 
adapted  only  to  certain  conditions  found  in 
the  so-called  semi-arid  section,  but  it  is 
now  produced  under  greatly  varying  condi- 
tions of  soils,  climate  and  altitude,  and  this 
adaptability  gives  its  growing  a  wide  range. 
There  are  but  two  soil  conditions  that  seem 
reliably  against  the  successful  growth  of 
alfalfa .  one  is  a  soil  generally  wet,  the  other 
is  too  much  soil  acidity.  The  latter  may  be 
remedied  by  applications  of  lime,  the  other 
requires  drainage.  Alfalfa  is  exceedingly 
rich  in  protein,  the  property  in  which  corn 
and  most  other  crops  are  deficient,  and  hence 
its  hay  serves  admirably  to  balance  the 
feeding  ration,  saving  the  purchase  of  high- 
priced  feeds,  such  as  bran,  for  ^instance, 
which,  pound  for  pound,  it  approximates  in 
value.  Its  great  value  to  the  husbandmen 
may  be  further  appreciated  by  the  fact  that 


ALFIER] 


47 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT 


it  yields  from  three  to  twelve  tons  per  acre 
per  season.  One  experiment  station  reports 
that  "one  acre  of  alfalfa  yields  as  much 
protein  as  three  acres  of  clover,  as  much  as 
nine  acres  of  timothy  and]  twelve  times  as 
much  as  an  acre  of  brome-grass."  Unless 
a  seed  crop  is  desired,  it  is  cut  regulaily 
whenever  the  first  blooms  appear,  which  in 
some  regions  is  every  month  in  the  year,  but 
three  to  five  cuttings  per  annum  would 
probably  be  an  average  range. 

It  restores  and  enriches  rather  than 
depletes  the  fertility  of  the  soil  in  which  it 
grows,  supplying  it  with  nitrogen  collected 
from  the  atmosphere  in  nodules  on  its  roots, 
in  greatest  abundance  for  other  succeeding 
crops.  Its  long  penetrating  roots,  reaching 
to  great  depths,  not  only  give  it  unusual 
powers  of  resistance  to  protracted  dry 
weather,  but  draw  from  subterranean  recesses 
large  quantities  of  mineral  elements  which 
other  crops  would  never  reach,  and  decaying 
leave  these  readily  available  for  future  crops 
of  whatever  kind.  The  action  of  its  wonder- 
ful root-system  constitutes  it  in  effect  a 
gigantic  subsoiler, '  and  humus  is  constantly 
added  to  the  soil  by  the  decay  of  its  fibrous 
roots,  continually  branching  from  the  main 
tap-root.  The  soils  on  which  alfalfa  is 
grown  are  wonderfully  changed  in  chemical 
eleme^  ts  and  physical  character,  and  it  has 
been  denominated  as  the  greatest  fertilizing 
and  soil  renovating  plant  known  to  agri- 
culture. 

Its  palatability  and  succulence  cause  live 
stock  of  all  kinds  to  eat  it  with  extreme 
relish,  uncured  or  as  hay,  and  it  is  especially 
prized  as  a  factor  in  dairy  husbandry, 
affording  at  lowest  cost  the  most  important 
ingredients  of  the  feeding  rations.  It  is  also 
used  as  pasturage,  but  ruminants  such  as 
cattle  and  sheep  are  not  safely  grazed  upon 
it,  owing  to  its  liability  to  cause  bloat 
(hoove),  often  resulting  in  speedy  death. 

No  diseases  of  alfalfa  are  as  yet  common 
in  America,  and  it  is  said  more  failures  in 
growing  it  are  caused  by  weeds  than  all  its 
other  enemies  and  pests  combined.  Well- 
prepared  seed-beds  and  the  most  favorable 
conditions  are  demanded  for  the  prosperity 
of  the  seed  and  the  young  plants  during  the 
earlier  stages  of  their  growth,  if  the  fullest 
measure  of  success  is  to  be  attained.  Where- 
eyer  extensively  grown,  alfalfa  has  revolu- 
tionized the  conditions  of  agriculture,  and 
one  of  the  most  eminent  agricultural  and 
dairy  authorities  in  the  United  States  re- 
cently declared  it  as  his  belief  that  "the 
alfalfa-growing  movement  is  the  most 
important  agricultural  event  of  the  century." 
F.  D.  COBURN. 

Alfieri  (dl-fe-a're) ,  the  founder  of  Italian 
tragedy.  He  was  born  in  Piedmont  in  1749, 
and  after  a  brief  period  of  study  at  Turin 
traveled  several  years  on  the  continent, 
spending  his  time,  however,  in  dissipation. 
A  few  chance  verses,  written  at  the  bedside 


of  a  friend,  stirred  in  him  a  passion  for 
tragedy,  and  he  turned  his  energies  to  the 
study  of  literature.  He  wrote  twenty-one 
tragedies,  besides  other  poetry,  including 
five  odes  on  the  American  Revolution.  His 
dramas,  though  simple  in  style,  held  an 
Italian  audience  spellbound.  Saul  is  his 
most  successful  tragedy.  Count  Vittorio 
Alfieri  died  at  Florence  in  1803.  His  tomb 
is  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  in  Florence, 
next  to  the  tomb  of  Michael  Angelo,  and  over 
it  stands  a  monument  by  the  sculptor 
Canova. 

Alfonso  (alfon'so),  a  name  borne  by 
twenty-two  sovereigns  in  the  Spanish  penin- 
sula. 

Alfonso  I  of  Portugal  (1110-1185)  was 
the  founder  of  the  Portuguese  kingdom.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  over  seven  feet  in 
height,  and  was  a  successful  fighter  against 
the  Moors  and  Spaniards. 

Alfonso  VI,  of  Leon  and  Castile  (1030- 
1109),  inherited  only  a  part  of  his  father's 
kingdom,  in  which  his  brother  and  sistet 
shared,  but  by  a  series  of  wars  he  conquered 
the  greater  part  of  their  territoriesl  and 
fought  the  Moors  vigorously. 

Alfonso  X,  of  Lepn  and  Castile,  was 
engaged  during  his  reign  in  putting  down 
revolts,  in  fighting  the  Moors  and  in  two 
attempts  to  make  himself  emperoi  of  Ger- 
many. Era,  1221-1284. 

Alfonso  V,  of  Aragon,  also  ruler  of 
Sicily,  Sardinia  and  Naples,  was  born  in 
1385.  His  determination  to  conquer  Naples, 
after  long  wars,  at  great  odds,  was  finally 
successful.  Alphonso  was  one  of  the  best 
kings  of  his  name.  He  was  brave,  showed 
great  generalship,  was  generous,  loved 
books,  and  gave  encouragement  to  law  and 
justice.  He  died  at  Naples  in  1458. 

Alfonso  XIII,  king  of  Spain,  is  the  son 
of  Alfonso  XII  of  Spain  and  of  Maria 
Christiia,  Archduchess  of  Austria.  Alfonso 
XIII  was  born  on  May  17,  1886,  shortly 
after  the  death  of  his  father,  and  during  his 
minority  his  mother  acted  as  regent.  Before 
he  ascended  the  throne,  there  were  serious 
uprisings  in  the  Philippine  Islands  and  in 
Cuba.  In  1898  war  broke  out  between 
the  United  States  and  Spain,  and  as  a  result 
ot  it  Spain  lost  Cuba,  Porto  Rico  and  the 
Philippines.  The  young  king  took  the  oath 
of  office  May  17,  1902,  and  shows  strong 
tendencies  towards  progressiveness  in  gov- 
ernment. In  1906,  he  married  the  Princess 
Victoria  Eugenia,  daughter  of  the  late  Prince 
Henry  of  Battenburg  and  Princess  Beatrice, 
youngest  child  of  Queen  Victoria  of  England. 
An  heir  to  the  throne  was  born  May  10, 
1907.  Another  son  was  born  June  22,  1908 

Alfred  the  Great,  king  of  the  West 
Saxons,  was  born  at  Wantage,  Berkshire, 
in  849.  The  youngest  of  four  sons,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  crown  on  the  death  of  his 
brother  Ethelred  at  the  age  of  22.  He  had 
already  given  proof  of  ability  as  a  general 


ALGAE" 


48 


ALGEBRA 


in  driving  back  the  constant  invasions  of 
the  Danes,  the  most  terrible  warriors  of 
Europe,  and  a  large  part  of  his  reign  was 
spent  in  preserving  the  liberty  of  his  coun- 
try against  these  northern  foes.  At  first 
he  was  unsuccessful,  and  by  878  the  in- 
vaders had  overrun  the  entire  kingdom 
of  the  West  Saxons,  while  Alfred  was  driven 
into  its  forests.  But  he  refused  to  be  beaten, 
and  soon  the  tide  of  fortune  turned.  Build- 
ing a  stronghold  on  an  island  in  the  wastes 
of  Somersetshire,  still  known  as  Athelney 
(the  island  of  the  nobles),  he  made  fre- 
quent sallies  against  the  enemy,  and  so^n 
found  himself  at  the  head  of  an  army  with 
which  be  totally  defeated  them.  He  then 
built  England's  first  fleet  and  soon  grew  so 
powerful,  both  by  land  and  sea,  that  he 
was  recognized  as  sovereign  of  all  England. 
During  the  years  of  peace  which  followed 
Alfred  busied  himself  in  ^  rebuilding  the 
cities  which  had  suffered  in  the  wars,  in 
training  the  people  in  the  use  of  arms  and 
in  founding  those  wise  laws  and  institutions 
which  helped  so  much  in  making  England 
great  and  happy  in  later  years.  In  an  age 
of  ignorance  he  was  a  fine  scholar,  and 
did  much  in  founding  schools  and  encour- 
aging literature.  Toward  the  close  of  his 
reign,  after  a  hard  contest  of  three  years, 
he  was  again  victorious  over  his  old  enemies, 
the  Danes.  He  died  in  901,  leaving  his 
country  in  peace  and  prosperity  as  the 
result  of  that  w:se  and  energetic  rule  which 
endeared  him  to  all  Englishmen  as  their 
best  and  greatest  ruler. 

Algae  (al'je).  One  of  the  great  divisions 
of  Thattophytes  (the  lowest  group  of  plants), 
being  distinguished  from  the  Fungi  by 
containing  the  green  coloring  matter  known 
as  chlorophyD.  Th»s  enables  them  to  manu- 
facture their  own  food  and  so  to  live  inde- 
pendently of  all  other  organisms.  They  are 
of  special  interest  as  representing  tl  e  most 
primitive  forms  of  the  plant  kingdom,  from 
which  all  other  groups  of  plants  have  prob- 
ably been  derived.  They  ate  exclusively 
water  plants,  either  living  in  the  water  or 
in  damp  places,  and  are  commonly  known 
as  "seaweeds,"  although  they  are  abundant 
in  fresh  as  well  as  in  salt  water.  Their 
bodies  are  of  various  sizes  and  degrees  of 
complexity.  Some  are  only  a  single  cell 
and  are  microscopic  in  size,  while  others 
are  very  complex  and  huge  in  size,  as  the 
giant  kelps  of  the  ocean.  There  are  four 
great  groups  of  Algae,  named  for  their  dif- 
ferences in  color.  The  Cyanophycece  or 
blue-green  algae  are  the  simplest,  and 
are  characterized  by  possessing  a  blue  pig- 
ment in  addition  to  the  green  chlorophyll, 
which  gives  them  a  bluish-green  hue.  The 
Chlorophycece  or  "green  algae"  have  no 
other  pigment  than  the  green  chlorophyll. 
These  two  groups  are  characteristic  of  fresh 
waters,  although  they  have  their  marine 
representatives.  The  two  following  groups 


are  characteristic  of  salt  waters,  but  have 
representatives  in  fresh  waters.  The  Phtz- 
ophycecB  or  brown  algae  have  a  yellow- 
ish to  brown  pigment  in  addition  to  the 
chlorophyll,  which  gives  their  bodies  various 
shades  from  olive  to  yellow  and  brown. 
They  include  the  common  large  and  coarser 
seaweeds  cast  up  by  the  waves.  The  Rho- 
dophycecB  or  red  algae  have  a  red  pig- 
ment in  addition  to  the  chlorophyll,  and 
their  graceful  and  often  very  delicate  bodies, 
beautifully  tinted  with  various  shades  of 
red,  are  among  the  most  attractive  plants 
of  the  seashore.  For  a  further  account  see 
under  the  names  of  the  four  groups. 

JOHN  M.  COULTER. 

Al'gebra  is  a  branch  of  mathematics 
which  deals  chiefly  with  "functions"  or 
general  values  instead  of  special  values  as 
in  arithmetic.  The  ancient  Egyptians  prac- 
tised simple  equations,  an  example  being 
this:  "Its  whole  added  to  its  seventh  gives 
19,  how  much  is  it?"  In  other  words,  they 

solved  the  equation  — +x  =19.    The  Greeks 

added  something  to  algebra;  thus  Euclid, 
about  300  B.  C.,  knew  that  (a-ffc)2=aa 
-J-62-j-2a&.  Other  steps  in  advance  were 
made  in  Alexandria  and  Persia.  But 
algebra  was  only  used  as  a  help  to  arith- 
metic until  Vie'te  or  Vieta,  a  Frenchman, 
in  1591  made  of  it  an  independent  science. 
As  to  the  usefulness  of  algebra,  it  can  only 
be  said  that  it  is  needful  to  all  advanced 
work  in  mathematics.  Its  value  to  the 
professional  man  or  workman  may  not  be 
great,  except  that  it  is  well  for  every  man 
to  know  a  little  of  each  of  the  branches  of 
truth. 

The  teaching  of  algebra  might  well  follow 
the  historical  order;  and  begin  with  simple 
equations  as  did  the  Egyptians.  For  here 
algebra  is  of  obvious  use  in  making  the 
problems  of  arithmetic  more  simple.  Let 
one  ask  the  following  "catch"  question: 
"A  goose  weighs  six  pounds  and  half  its 
own  weight,  what  is  the  weight  of  the 
goose?"  The  answer  is  seldom  given 
rightly  without  setting  x  for  the  weight  of 
the  goose,  thus :  x-6  +  Z.  which  gives  the 

answer  12  pounds.  It  is  better  to  begin, 
however,  with  practical  questions.  The 
most  important  modern  change  in  the 
teaching  of  algebra  has  been  brought  about 
by  Professor  Chrystal,  who  has  called 
attention  to  the  nature  of  general  func- 
tions as  the  real  object  of  study  in  this 
science.  A  knowledge  of  general  functions, 
such  as  the  following  for  a  quadratic  equa- 
tion, ax*  +  bx  +  c—d,  has  always  been  im- 
plied in  the  teaching  of  algebra;  but  it  has 
only  lately  been  insisted  upon.  It  has 
been  usual  to  teach  the  use  of  root  signs 
and  signs  for  brackets  as  if  they  formed 
a  part  of  algebra;  but  in  reality  these 
operations  belong  to  pure  ^arithmetic. 


ALGECIRAS 


ALGERIA 


Algeciras  ( al'je-s&ras )  International 
Conference,  on  Morocco  matters,  held  at 
Algeciras,  Spain  (opposite  Gibraltar),  in 
January,  1906.  The  Conference,  after  a 
period  of  extreme  diplomatic  tension  be- 
tween the  European  powers,  caused  by  the 
exception  taken  by  Germany  to  the  trade 
control  of  Moro  co  by  the  Franco-British- 
. Spanish  agreement,  settled  matters  more 
agreeably  to  Germany  and  signed  a  "Gen- 
eral Act"  embodying  a  concession  for  a 
state  bank  at  Tangier,  the  suppression  of 
the  illicit  traffic  in  arms,  the  control  of  the 
police,  together  with  provision  for  an  open 
door  as  regards  trade  and  the  exactions 
of  the  Customs.  Later  in  the  year,  Morocco 
was  disturbed  by  serious  tribal  disputes  in 
the  Mogador  district,  and  by  much  unrest 
in  the  southern  Franco- Moroccan  frontier. 

Alger  ( al'jer ),  Russell  Alexander, 
American  general,  politician  and  ex-secre- 
tary of  war  in  President  McKinley's  admin- 
istration, was  born  in  Lafayette,  Ohio, 
February  27,  1836,  and  was  educated  at 
Richfield  Academy,  Ohio,  studied  law,  and 
was  called  to  the  bar.  Removing  to  Mich- 
igan, he  entered  the  army  as  captain  in 
the  Second  Michigan  Cavalry  (1861),  and 
two  years  later  became  colonel  of  the  Fifth 
Michigan  Cavalry,  and  subsequently  reached 
the  rank  of  brevet  major-general  of  volun- 
teers. He  was  severely  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Boonsboro,  Md.,  July  8,  1863, 
and  performed  meritorious  s  rvice  at  Gettys- 
burg and  in  the  Shenandoah  valley.  After 
the  war  he  became  interested  in  the  lumber 
business  in  Detroit,  and  owner  of  extensive 
timber  tracts.  In  1885-6,  he  was  governor 
of  Michigan,  and  on  March  5,  1897,  was 
appointed  United  States  secretary  of  war. 
In  1901  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
senate,  where  he  served  until  his  death, 
January  24,  1907. 

Alge'  ria,  a  French  colony  in  northern 
Africa,  fronting  on  the  Mediterranean,  and 
comprising  besides  Northern  Algeria,  with 
17  arrondisements  and  350  communes, 
South  Algeria,  which  extends  far  to  the 
south  and  west,  and  embraces  the  vast 
Saharan  oases  organized  into  four  terri- 
tories in  1905.  The  area  of  the  Algerian 
Sahara  effectively  occupied  is  estimated 
at  about  193,000  square  miles,  including 
the  zones,  in  the  southwest,  with  a  popu- 
lation numbering  about  62,000.  The  two 
regions  (North  Algeria  has  an  area  of 
184,474  square  miles),  have  a  total  area 
of  about  343,500  square  miles,  with  an 
aggregate  population  in  1911  of  5,563,828, 
all  but  795,522  Europeans  being  natives 
— Arabs,  Berbers,  Tunisians,  Moroccans  and 
Musulmans.  The  extent  of  French  posses- 
sions in  Africa  is  very  large,  its  area  ex- 
tending from  the  Mediterranean,  and  in- 
cluding the  region  of  Tunis,  in  the  north, 
to  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  in  the  south,  to- 
gether with  the  French  Congo  district, 


to  the  southeastward,  and  covering  also 
all  of  French  West  Africa  and  the  Sahara 
to  the  Atlantic,  including  French  Guinea, 
the  Ivory  Coast,  Dahomey,  Upper  Sene- 
gal and  the  Niger  region,  besides  French 
Somaliland  on  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Red  Sea. 

Government.  The  government  and  ad- 
ministration of  Algeria  are  centralized  at 
Algiers  under  a  governor-genera)1.,  who 
represents  the  authority  of  the  French 
Republic  throughout  Algerian  territory. 
He  is  assisted  in  his  duties  by  a  council; 
while  each  department  sends  one  senator 
and  two  deputies  to  the  French  National 
Assembly.  The  revenue,  estimated  for  1911, 
of  the  Algerian  colony  was  144,549,940 
francs,  with  an  expenditure  of  140,546,551; 
that  of  the  southern  territory,  for  the  same 
year,  was  5,615,244  francs,  with  an  ex- 
penditure of  6,891  francs  below  the  total 
revenue.  The  military  force  of  France 
in  the  colony  was,  in  1911,  about  56,000 
of  all  ranks,  of  whom  two-thirds  were 
Europeans.  The  debt  of  Algeria  (Decem- 
ber, 1909),  amounted  to  close  upon  57! 
million  francs  in  capital  and  114  million 
francs  in  annuities,  interest,  etc. 

Commerce  and  Resources.  Its  annual 
commerce  aggregates  1,078  million  francs, 
565  million  representing  imports  and  513 
representing  exports.  The  chief  items  of 
the  latter  are  living  animals,  wool,  hides, 
cereals,  wines,  cork,  tobacco,  fruits,  olive 
oil,  phosphates  and  some  iron  and  zinc 
ore,  besides  fish  and  various  shell-fish. 
The  chief  cereals  raised  are  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  maize  and  beans.  In  Algeria  the 
animal  stock  is  considerable,  embracing 
in  1909,  233,243  horses,  187,339  mules, 
278,250  asses,  205,106  camels,  4,006,913 
goats,  9,066,916  sheep,  besides  110,700 
pigs  and  over  1,100,000  cattle. 

Transportation.  The  railways  of  the 
colony,  which  receive  state  aid,  were  in 
1910,  2,035  English  miles  in  extent,  besides 
200  miles  of  tramway.  In  addition  there 
are  a  considerable  system  of  telegraphy  and 
a  fair  postal  service  and  a  sound  system 
of  banking.  Algiers,  the  capital,  and 
chief  seaport,  has  a  population  of  about 
110,000. 

History.  Algeria  is  an  old  country.  Its 
prince  was  an  ally  of  Hannibal,  and  it  be- 
came a  Roman  province  under  the  Caesars. 
It  was  successfully  conquered  by  the  Van- 
dals, by  Belisarius,  by  the  Saracens,  the 
Morabites  (an  Arabian  religious  sect),  the 
Spaniards  and  the  Turks,  who  taught  Alge- 
rines  to  be  the  dreaded  pirates  they  were. 
Many  thousand  Europeans  were  captured 
and  enslaved  by  them.  This  piracy  grew 
so  unbearable  that  the  English,  Dutch 
and  French  sent  fleets  at  different  times 
to  suppress  it.  The  French,  at  last,  in 
1830,  conquered  Algiers,  but  there  were 
numerous  revolts,  especially  that  of  Abd-el- 


ALGIERS 


ALKALI 


Kadir,  before  France  became  fully  mas- 
ter of  the  country  and  the  life  of  a  French- 
man was  safe  outside  the  walls  of  the  capi- 
tal. 

Algiers  (al-jeerzf},  capital  of  Algeria, 
is  divided  into  two  parts.  The  newer  por- 
tion, along  the  harbor,  is  European;  the 
older,  on  the  hillside  above,  is  Arab.  It  is 
an  important  French  coaling  station  on  the 
Mediterranean.  Population  (1906),  138,240. 

Algo'ma,  one  of  the  northern  districts 
of  the  province  of  Ontario,  offers  great 
attractions  for  settlers.  Contains  millions 
of  acres  of  productive  land  easily  reached, 
very  suitable  for  live  stock  and  dairying. 
Bounded  by  the  district  of  Nipissing  on 
the  east.  It  includes  the  Temiskaming 
settlement.  Its  northern  boundary  is  that 
of  the  province  itself,  viz. :  Hudson  Bay 
and  the  Albany  River.  These  two  dis- 
tricts of  Algoma  and  Nipissing  taken  to- 
gether have  an  area  larger  than  that  of  any 
European  c  untry  except  Russia.  These 
districts  are  in  that  belt  of  the  world  which 
has"  ever  been  the  most  famous  for  the  pro- 
duction of  grasses,  vegetables,  fruits  and 
cereals.  The  important  industrial  center 
of  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  only  193  miles  north 
from  the  latitude  of  Toronto  (population 
13,000),  is  in  Algoma.  The  timber  and 
mineral  wealth  of  the  district  is  immense. 
The  richest  and  most  extensive  nickel  belt 
in  the  whole  world  is  in  Algoma. 

Algon'  quins,  one  of  the  two  great  families 
of  Indians  that  formerly  occupied  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  and  the  regions  east  of  it. 
The  Indians  of  New  England  were  Algon- 
quins.  The  largest  tribe  left  is  the  Chip- 
pewas. 

Algon'quin  National  Park.  In  north- 
ern part  of  the  province  of  Ontario  (from 
1,500  to  2,000  feet  above  sea  level).  On 
the  Ottawa  division  of  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway,  which  extends  into  the  park  itself, 
only  200  miles  north  of  Toronto  (quickly 
ana  comfortably  reached),  and  175  miles 
west  of  Ottawa,  the  capital  city  of  Canada. 
Most  attractive  to  travelers  and  tourists. 
A  magnificent  preserve  set  apart  by  the 
province  for  a  park;  beautiful  lakes  and 
rivers,  1,200  in  number;  abundance  offish. 
Wild  forests  of  heavy  timber  and  pure, 
health-restoring  air;  a  total  area  of  1,800,000 
acres  of  forest,  lake  and  stream;  called 
Lakeland.  Red  deer  and  moose  (hunt- 
ing not  allowed  in  the  park)  plentiful  and 
increasing  in  number.  The  highest  sum- 
mer resort  in  eastern  Canada.  The  rail- 
way stations  are  located  on  picturesque 
lakes.  Teeming  with  fish  (speckled,  gray 
and  salmon  trout).  A  paradise  for  campers. 
The  Naganetawan  River  takes  its  rise  in 
the  park. 

Amambra  (dl-h&m'br£),  the  ancient  for- 
tress and  residence  of  the  Moorish  monarchs 
of  Granada,  situated  on  a  hill  overlooking  the 
city  of  Granada,  Spain.  This  famous  palace 


was  built  between  1248  and  1354,  and  though 
greatly  marred  by  its  Spanish  conquerors  *n 
succeeding  ages  still  contains  marvels  of 
beauty,  taste  and  ingenuity.  The  surround- 
ing gardens,  with  their  wat  rfalls,  fountains 
and  shady  ravines,  caused  the  Arab  poet  to 
liken  the  whole  effect  to  "a  pearl  set  around 
with  emeralds."  It  is  divided  into  count- 
less apartments,  vast  halls,  ranges  of  bed- 
rooms and  summer  rooms,  whispering  gal 
leries,  a  labyrinth  and  vaulted  tombs.  Pas 
sages  from  the  Koran  adorn  the  various  walla. 
Among  the  most  famous  courts  are  the  Hall 
of  Ambassadors,  with  its  splendid  throne  of 
the  sultan,  and  the  Court  of  the  Lions,  with 
its  magnificent  fountain,  supported  by  twelv«r 
marble  lions.  A  famous  description  of  tbii 
palace  is  to  be  foun»_  in  Washington  Irving's 
Alhambra. 

Alicante  (d'L-kdn'ta),  Spain,  a  province 
of  the  Spanish  kingdom,  area  2,185  square 
miles,  with  a  population  (1910)  of  483,986; 
also  a  strongly  fortified  town  and  seaport 
on  the  Mediterranean,  situated  north  of  Car- 
tagena and  south  of  Valencia,  population 
(1910)  51,165.  Here,  on  an  eminence  over- 
looking the  sea,  is  the  castle  of  Santa  Bar- 
bara. The  town,  which  is  a  delightful  sea- 
side resort,  is  picturesquely  situated,  and 
has  a  picture  gallery,  library,  several  parish 
churches,  two  nunneries  and  a  number  of 
fine  squares  and  promenades.  Being  the 
port  of  its  own  and  the  Valencia  province,  its 
export  trade  is  considerable,  chiefly  of  wine, 
oil,  tobacco,  silk  and  grain.  There  is  a  resi- 
dent United  States  consul  in  the  town. 

Alison  (dVi-son),  Sir  Archibald  (born 
1792,  died  1867),  an  English  historian.  His 
work,  the  History  of  Europe,  covers  the  period 
from  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Peace  of 
1815.  It  was  in  its  day  very  popular  and 
had  a  sale  of  over  five  hundred  thousand  vol- 
umes. It,  however,  is  not  of  the  highest 
authority,  because  of  its  author's  partisan- 
ship and  its  many  inaccuracies. 

Al'  kali,  an  old  chemical  term  used  to  de- 
note soluble  caustic  hydroxides.  The  alka- 
lies proper  are  potash,  soda,  lithia,  rubidium 
and  caesium  hydroxides  and  ammonia. 
Potash  is  called  the  vegetable  alkali,  soda  the 
mineral  alkali  and  ammonia  the  volatile 
alkali.  Lime,  magnesia,  baryta  and  stron- 
tia  are  called  alkaline  earths,  because  they 
have  some  of  the  properties  of  alkalies.  That 
which  especially  distinguishes  an  alkaline 
substance  is  the  power  it  has  of  turning  a 
vegetable  blue,  green;  or  a  vegetable  yellow, 
reddish  brown.  Alkalies  belong  to  a  general 
class  of  substances  called  bases,  which  are 
oxides  of  metals  (usually  combined  with 
water),  or  compounds  containing  carbon  and 
nitrogen  called  organic  bases,  all  of  which 
unite  with  acids  to  form  salts.  Alkalies 
and  acids  neutralize  each  other,  and  the 
usual  caustic  or  bitter  taste  of  the  alkali 
and  the  sour  taste  of  the  acid  usually  dis- 
appear when  a  salt  is  formed.  A  familiar 


ALKALOIDS 


ALLEN 


example  is  the  addition  of  soda  (alkali)  to 
sour  milk  (acid),  which  neutralizes  the  acid, 
or  destroys  the  sour  taste.  An  alkali  also 
unites  with  oil  or  fat  to  make  soap. 

Al'  kaloids,  a  class  of  substances  that  occur 
in  plants,  some  of  which  are  very  poisonous, 
and  many  are  very  valuable  medicines.  All 
of  them  are  bases,  that  is,  they  unite  with 
acids  to  form  salts,  and  in  many  cases  the 
salts  are  used  medicinally.  All  alkaloids 
contain  carbon,  nitrogen  and  hydrogen  and 
usually  oxygen  also.  Some  of  the  most  im- 
portant alkaloids  are  theine  of  coffee  and  tea, 
nicotine  of  tobacco,  morphine  from  opium, 
quinine  from  Peruvian  bark,  as  well  as  strych- 
nine, atropine,  cocaine  etc. 

Allahabad  (d-ld-ha-bdd'),  capital  of  the 
northwestern  provinces  of  India.  The 
name  of  the  place  means  "City  of  God." 
It  is  built  at  the  junction  of  the  Ganges  and 
Jumna  Rivers.  Its  fort  is  strong  and  com- 
mands both  rivers.  Within  the  fort  are  the 
remains  of  a  splendid  palace  of  the  Emperor 
Akbar.  Many  Hindus  make  pilgrimages 
to  Allahabad  because  of  its  sacred  rivers. 
It  also  forms  the  junction  of  the  great  rail- 
way system  that  unites  Bengal  with  Central 
India  and  Bombay.  Population  about 
172,000. 

Allan,  Hon.  George  W.,  born  in  Toronto 
in  1822.  Educated  at  Upper  Canada  Col- 
lege. Called  to  the  bar  in  1846.  Was 
Chancellor  of  Trinity  College.  Toronto;  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Geological  Society 
(England);  was  mayor  of  Toronto  in  1855; 
a  legislative  councillor  from  1858  to  1867; 
called  to  the  Senate  of  Canada  in  1867; 
speaker  of  the  Senate  from  1888  to  1891.  He 
died  in  1901. 

Allan,  Sir  Hugh,  born  in  Ayrshire,  Scot- 
land, 1 8 10.  His  father  was  a  ship  master; 
entered  a  counting  house  at  the  age  of  13, 
went  to  Canada  in  1826.  In  1851,  the 
firm  of  which  he  was  a  member  began  to 
build  iron  screw-steamships,  and  their  first 
boat,  "The Canadian, "  made  its  first  trip  in 
1853.  In  ^54  the  mail  service  was  begun. 
It  has  continued  ever  since.  The  history  of 
the  Allan  firm  is  that  of  Canadian  maritime 
commerce.  Their  fleet  has  long  been  one  of 
the  first  in  point  of  general  merit  in  the 
world.  Their  steamers  have  been  used  as 
transport  ships  by  the  British  Government. 
A  director  of  several  important  industrial 
concerns;  received  knighthood  in  recogni- 
tion of  his  great  services  to  foreign  and  do- 
mestic commerce;  died  December  8,  1892. 

Alleghany  (al'e-ga'ni)  or  Appalachian 
Mountains,  the  great  range  of  mountains 
which  extend  from  Canada  to  the  northern 
part  of  Alabama.  The  greatest  width  of  the 
main  range  is  in  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland, 
about  100  miles  in  extent,  and  its  length  is 
1,300  miles.  While  varying  little  in  height, 
the  ridges  follow  a  remarkably  straight 
course,  sometimes  keeping  an  almost  straight 
line  for  50  or  60  miles.  Included  in  this 


range  are  the  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont, 
the  Highlands  of  the  Hudson,  the  Catskuls, 
the  Blue  Ridge  and  west  of  it  the  Alle- 
ghanies  proper.  Nowhere  do  these  moun- 
tains reach  the  snow  line.  Mitchell's  Peak, 
in  North  Carolina,  6,688  feet,  is  the  highest 

S)int,     while     Mt.     Washington,     in     New 
ampshire,    6,293    ^eet   high,   is  the  most 
famous  peak.     The  Alleghanies  are  one  of 
the  great  sources  of  supply  for  the  whole 
country  of  iron  and  coal. 

Allegheny,  formerly  a  separate  city  at  the 
junction  of  the  Allegheny  and  Monongahela 
Rivers  opposite  Pittsburgh  (q.  v.)  was  united 
in  1907  with  Pittsburgh,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  numerous  bridges  and  electric 
lines.  Surrounding  the  main  business  section 
is  City  Park  of  100  acres  and  farther  out  River- 
view  Park  (219  acres),  in  which  is  the  Allegheny 
Astronomical  Observatory.  The  Carnegie 
Library  and  three  theological  seminaries,  the 
Presbyterian,  United  Presbyterian  and  Re- 
formed Presbyterian,  are  located  here.  Alle- 
gheny, as  a  separate  corporation,  had  a 
flourishing  and  efficient  public  school  system 
which  is  now  a  part  of  that  of  Greater  Pitts- 
burgh. The  University  of  Pittsburgh,  origi- 
nally the  Western  University  of  Pennsylvania 
and  located  in  Allegheny,  is  now  in  Pittsburgh. 
On  the  hills  are  the  beautiful  homes  of  wealthy 
men  and  the  city  is  noted  for  its  numerous  and 
handsome  churches.  Its  manufacturing  in- 
terests extend  for  miles  along  the  river  front 
and  include  slaughtering  and  meat-packing, 
rolling  mills,  foundries  and  machine-shops, 
preparation  of  pickles,  preserves  and  sauces, 
works  for  making  locomotives  and  railroad 
equipment,  structural  iron  and  plumbers' 
supplies.  Vast  quantities  of  coal  are  shipped 
down  the  Ohio.  A  curious  and  interesting  fact 
in  the  history  of  Allegheny  is  that  it  suffered 
severely  in  1874  from  a  fire  started  by  a  boy's 
firecracker  on  July  4.  Its  public  institutions 
include  the  Riverside  State  Penitentiary, 
hospitals,  homes  for  orphans  and  the  friend- 
less, and  an  industrial  school. 

Allegheny  River  rises  in  Potter  County, 
Pa.,  and  flows  northwest  into  New  York, 
then  south-southwest,  and,  after  a  course  of 
400  miles.unites  at  Pittsburg  with  the  Monon- 
gahela to  form  the  Ohio.  It  is  navigable 
for  small  boats  for  a  short  distance. 

Allen,  Charles  Grant,  a  Canadian  natur- 
alist and  story-teller,  of  Scotch  parentage, 
who  won  fame  in  England  as  an  ex- 
ponent of  evolution,  a  popular  writer 
on  scientific  subjects  and  a  psychological 
novelist.  He  was.  perhaps,  most  at  home 
in  the  popular  essay,  in  the  field  of  aesthetics 
and  semi-science.  He  has  written  delight- 
fully on  flowers,  birds  and  insects  as  well 
as  in  the  realm  of  fiction.  His  best 
known  works  are,  in  novels,  The  Tents  of 
Shem  and  The  Woman  Who  Did,  and  in 
popular  science,  The  Evolutionist  at  Large, 
Vignettes  front  Nature  and  Science  in  Arcady. 


ALLEN,  ETHAN 


ALLISON 


ETHAN   ALLEN 


As  a  disciple  of  the  great  evolutionist  of  the 
age,  he  wrote  a  sympathetic  Life  of  Darwin 
for  the  series  of  "English  Worthies." 

Al'len,  Ethan  (born  1737,  died  1789),  a 
brigadier-general  in  the  American  revolu- 
tionary army.  In  1775,  after  the  battle  of 
Lexington,  he  gathered  a  small  company  of 
his  "Green  Mountain  Boys"  and  marched 
against  the  fortresses  of  Ticonderoga  and 
Crown  Point.  Land- 
ing with  93  men,  just 
before  daybreak,  he 
surprised  the  fort, 
getting  inside  and 
forming  his  men  on 
the  parade  ground 
where  they  awoke 
the  sleeping  garri- 
son with  a  shout  of 
victory.  The  Brit- 
ish commander 
rushed  out  in  his 
night  clothes  and 
asked :  "  What  does 
this  mean?"  He  was 
ordered  to  surren- 
der. "  In  whose  name?  "  he  asked.  "  In  the 
name  of  the  Great  Jehovah  and  the  Conti- 
nental Congress,"  replied  Allen,  and  the  fort 
was  surrendered.  In  the  attempt  to  take 
Montreal,  at  the  head  of  a  small  body  of 
troops,  he  was  captured  after  a  sharp 
engagement  and  sent  to  England.  After  his 
release  and  return  to  America,  he  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  Vermont  state 
militia. 

Allen,  James  Lane,  American  litterateur 
and  novelist,  hails  from  the  Blue  Grass  region 
of  Kentucky,  having  been  born  near  Lexing- 
ton, Ky.,  in  1849.  After  graduating  at 
Transylvania  University,  he  taught  Latin 
and  the  higher  English  branches  at  Bethany 
College,  West  Virginia,  though,  since  1885,  he 
has  devoted  himself  entirely  to  literature.  He 
is  a  delightful  and  realistic  writer,  and  in  all 
his  books  he  shows  himself  to  be  an  ardent 
lover  of  nature.  His  early  work  consisted 
of  sketches  and  studies,  dealing  thoughtfully 
and  freshly  with  Kentucky  life,  contributed 
to  Harper  s  Magazine  and  The  Century.  His 
novels,  most  of  which  have  an  historic  back- 
ground in  his  loved  Kentucky  state,  include 
A  Kentucky  Cardinal,  The  Choir  Invisible, 
Two  Gentlemen  of  Kentucky,  Aftermath,  Flute 
and  Violin  and  The  Reign  of  Law. 

Allentown,  Pa.,  the  county  seat  of  Lehigh 
County,  was  incorporated  as  a  borough  in 
1826.  It  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the 
Lehigh  and  Little  Lehigh  Rivers.  It  has 
excellent  natural  drainage  and  is  located  in  a 
rich  agricultural  district.  It  originally  was 
known  as  Northampton.  It  was  named 
Allentown  in  honor  of  James  Allen,  who  at 
one  time  owned  the  greater  part  of  the  land 
on  which  it  is  built.  There  are  several 
beautiful  springs  near  Allentown,  which  are 
justly  admired  by  all  who  have  seen  them. 


Allentown  has  excellent  railroad  facilities, 
and  its  trolley  lines,  radiating  in  every  direc- 
tion, make  it  easy  of  approach  from  all 
sides.  Its  proximity  to  the  cement  and  slate 
regions  of  the  county  furnishes  employment 
to  many  of  its  people,  Owing  to  the  depre- 
ciation of  blast  furnaces  in  the  east,  these 
have  been  supplanted  by  the  wire  mill,  furni- 
ture and  shoe  factories,  silk  and  jute  mills 
and  other  industries.  It  has  a  school  popu- 
lation of  over  10,000,  and  is  also  the  seat  of 
Muhlenburg  College  and  the  Allentown 
College  for  Women.  It  has  a  population 
of  61,901. 

Alli'ance,  a  city  of  Stark  County,  Ohio, 
situated  on  the  Mahoning  River,  56  miles 
from  Cleveland.  It  is  in  a  fine  agricultural 
region  and  has  importance  as  a  manufactur- 
ing city.  Among  its  products  are  agricul- 
tural implements,  terra-cotta  ware,  white 
lead;  and  its  steel  works  manufacture  boil- 
ers, cranes,  steam  hammers,  drop  forgings 
and  structural  iron.  Alliance  was  incorpo- 
rated as  a  city  in  1 8  5  4 ,  and  its»most  important 
school,  Mount  Union  College,  was  established 
in  1850,  when  the  settlement  was  called 
Freedom.  It  has  the  service  of  several 
railroads,  and  the  population  is  i5>°83- 

Al'ligator,  a  large  reptile  found  in  the 
rivers  and  swamps  of  the  southern  United 
States,  and  also  in  South  America.  It  is 
closely  related  to  the  crocodile  of  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere,  and  is  commonly  confused  with 
it,  but  differs  in  having  a  broader  head,  a 
blunter  snout,  more  teeth  and  other  small 
peculiarities.  The  adults  rarely  attain  la 
feet  in  length.  Its  back  and  sides  are  cov- 
ered with  very  hard  plates,  but  it  is  easily 
wounded  in  the  belly.  Its  natural  food  is 
fish,  muskrats,  etc.,  and  it  is  extremely  fond 
of  dog-meat.  The  female  alligator  lays  from 
50  to  60  eggs  and  buries  them  in  sand,  where 
the  heat  of  the  sun  hatches  them.  As  soon 
as  hatched  the  young  seek  the  water.  Man  y 
doubtful  stones  are  in  circulation  re- 
garding the  habits  of  both  adults  and  the 
young. 

Al'lison,  William  B.,  an  American 
statesman,  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1829.  He 
went  to  Iowa  and 
was  on  the  gov- 
ernor 's  staff, 
helping  to  enlist 
volunteers  at  the 
outbreak  of  the 
war.  He  was 
elected  to  Con- 
gress in  1862 
and  served  four 
terms  in  the 
house.  In  1873 
he  was  made 
United  States 
senator,  and  was 

WILLIAM   B.  ALLISON         re-elected    in 
1878,  1884, 1890, 
1896,  1903  and  1908.     He  died  Aug.  4, 1908. 


ALLITERATION 


Al'litera'tion  is  the  frequent  rtcurrence, 
met  with  often  hi  English  poetry  and  occa- 
sionally in  prose  composition,  of  the  same 
letter  or  sound  at  the  beginning  of  recurring 
words.  "Alliteration's  artful  aid"  is  a 
familiar  example.  Instances  of  it  are  often 
met  with  in  the  Elizabethan  writers  and  in 
those  of  early  Anglo-Saxon  times,  chiefly  in 
the  poets.  Examples  are  occasionally  found 
in  prose,  where,  when  skilfully  used  and 
combined  with  assonance,  alliteration 
heightens  the  effect  of  what  is  written  or 
said;  but  its  use,  in  both  prose  and  verse,  is 
often  more  of  a  trick  in  a  writer,  and  should 
therefore  be  sparingly  indulged  in.  In 
Shakespeare  it  is  often  met  with,  as  in  the 
phrase  occurring  in  the  song  in  The  Tempest, 
"full  fathom  five  thy  father  lies";  it  is  also 
frequently  found  in  Spenser,  and  in  Lang- 
land's  Piers  Plowman,  as  well  as  in  the 
modern  German  writers,  such  as  Goethe  and 
Heine,  where  it  is  occasionally  used  with 
pleasing  effect.  Fine  examples  are  also  to 
be  found  in  Tennyson  and  Swinburne. 
Among  other  modern  English  authors 
Coleridge,  moreover,  uses  it  as  an  embelish- 
ment  of  his  verse,  thus : 
"  The  fair  breeze  blew,  the  white  foam  new, 

The  furrow  followed  free," 
How  much  the  use  of  alliteration  is  the  mere 
trick  of  a  writer  may  be  seen  in  the  C9uplet : 
"  Cossack  commanders  cannonading  come, 

Dealing  destruction's  devastating  doom." 
Much  of  alliteration's  use  will  moreover  be 
familiar  to  many  in  the  proverbs  and  phrases 
in  current  speech,  as  in  "life  and  limb," 
"out  of  house  and  home,"  "the  bonnie 
bairn,"  "with  peril  and  pain,"  "warring 
words,"  "the  scum  of  the  streets,"  "a  vile 
varlet,"  "a  dainty  dame,"  "zeal,  zest,"  "a 
rascally  rogue,"  "the  merry  month  of  May," 
etc  See  Guest's  English  Rhythms. 

Allotropy  (al-lot'ro-py)  or  Allotropism, 
a  chemical  term  to  explain  a  conversion  or 
change  in  physical  property,  but  not  in 
substance,  in  certain  bodies.  More  ex- 
plicitly, it  is  the  property  or  capability  which 
certain  bodies  show  of  assuming  different 
forms  and  qualities  under  a  premaned 
diversity  of  molecular  arrangement.  Exam- 
ples of  allotropic  conditions  are  seen  in 
carbon,  sulphur,  phosphorus  and  oxygen; 
practical  instances  are  carbon  (i)  in  its  soft 
state,  as  in  plumbago,  black  lead  and 
charcoal  and  (2)  (hard  and  crystallized)  as 
in  the  diamond.  Phosphorus  is  another 
instance  of  this  dual  property:  (i)  as  a 
colorless  wax-like  solid,  poisonous  and 
dangerously  imflammable  and  (2)  as  a  red 
powder  with  neither  of  these  destructive 
qualities.  Similar  contrasts  are  seen  in 
oxygen  and  ozone. 

Alloy',  a  mixture  of  two  or  more  metals 
melted  together.  Some  of  the  metals,  when 
combined  with  other  metals,  are  rendered 
more  serviceable  for  certain  uses.  ^'i'hus 
copper  alone  is  not  fit  for  castings,  and  is  too 


53  ALMA 

tough  to  be  easily  worked  by  tools,  but  when 
alloyed  with  zinc,  forming  brass,  it  can  be 
cast,  rolled  or  turned.  Gold  and  silver,  also, 
when  pure  are  very  soft  and  easily  worn  out. 
They  are  hardened  by  alloying  them  with 
other  metals  in  different  proportions.  The 
silver  coins  of  the  United  States  are  made  ap 
of  nine  parts  of  silver  and  one  of  copper, 
while  the  gold  coins  consist  of  nine  parts  gold 
and  the  other  part  is  divided  into  one-quarter 
silver  and  three-quarters  copper.  Allovi  are 
generally  harder  and  much  more  fusible  than 
would  be  indicated  by  the  hardness  and  fusi- 
bility of  the  component  metals.  Besides  the 
alloys  that  have  been  mentioned,  some  im- 
portant ones  are  bell-metal  and  bronze 
consisting  of  copper  and  tin;  type-metal, 
containing  lead  and  antimony  and  some- 
times tin  also;  German-silver,  composed  of 
copper,  nickel  andj  zinc;  and  solder,  which 
is  ordinarily  made  of  lead  and  tin.  Alloys 
of  which  one  metal  is  mercury  are  called 
amalgams. 

Allston  (awl'stori),  Washington  (born 
1779,  died  1843),  an  American  historical 

painter  and 
poet.  A  native 
of  South  Caro- 
lina, he  was 
graduated  a  t 
Harvard  in 
1800.  He  pur- 
sued the  study 
of  his  art  in 
Charleston , 
London,  Paris 
and  Rome. 
During  his 
studies  he 
formed  a  close 
friendship  with 
the  great  paint- 
er, Benjamin 

WASHINGTON  ALLSTON  w'est>   ^  algo 

with  Coleridge  and  Thorwaldsen.  He  prac- 
tised his  profession  mainly  at  Boston  and 
Cambridge.  Allston  was  of  a  deeply  re- 
ligious nature,  and  many  of  his  pictures 
are  scenes  from  the  Bible.  As  a  writer,  he 
was  also  eminent.  His  friend  Coleridge  says 
of  him  that  he  was  surpassed  by  no  man  of 
his  age  in  artistic  and  poetic  genius. 

Allu'vium,  the  name  given  to  the  masses 
of  sand,  earth  and  gravel  brought  down  by 
currents  of  water  and  spread  over  plains, 
forming  what  is  called  alluvial  land.  Thus 
the  Ganges,  the  Nile,  the  Amazon  and  the 
Mississippi  have  formed  their  deltas.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  Mississippi  every  yeai 
carries  down  enough  sediment  to  cover  268 
square  miles  of  land  with  a  layer  of  earth 
one  foot  deep.  The  so-called  bottom  lands 
are  those  formed  by  alluvial  deposits.  Along 
rivers  it  is  sometimes  formed  into  terraces 
by  the  rising  of  floods  to  different  heigira*. 

Alma  (al'ma),  a  small  river  in  the  Crimea. 
Here  was  fought  an  important  battle  in  the 


ALMAGRO,  DIEGO  D' 


54 


ALPENA 


Crimean  War,  between  the  Russians  (36,000 
men  and  122  guns),  and  the  jEnglish,  French 
and  Turks  (62,000  men  and  128  guns).  The 
Russians,  though  intrenched,  were  defeated, 
and  the  road  to  Sebastopol  was  opened. 

Almagro,  Diego  D*  (al-ma'grd,  de-d'gd) 
(born  1464,  died  1538),  one  of  Pizarro's 
officers  during  the  conquest  of  Peru.  He 
was  named  from  the  Spanish  town  where  he 
was  picked  up  as  a  foundling.  In  Peru  he 
became  famous  and  wealthy,  though  he 
could  neither  read  nor  write.  After  Peru 
had  been  conquered,  he  began  the  conquest 
of  Chile,  but,  recalled  by  a  Peruvian  rebellion, 
subdued  it  and  captured  Cuzco.  He  quarreled 
with  Pizarro,  was  attacked,  defeated  and  im- 
prisoned by  him,  and  put  to  death  by  his  order. 
Almanacs  (al'ma-naks) ,  or  books  in  which 
information  is  given  about  the  seasons,  the 
sun  and  moon,  eclipses  and  other  phenomena 
of  astronomy,  are  at  least  as  old  as  the  fifth 
century  after  Christ,  when  they  were  in  use 
jn  Alexandria.  They  may  be  much  older, 
and  of  Asiatic  origin.  With  the  invention 
of  printing  they  became  common  in  Europe. 
They  generally  contained  predictions,  the 
most  famous  of  which  was  one  that  hap- 
pened to  be  correct,  in  which  Nostradamus 
foretold  the  death  of  Henry  II  of  France.  In 
America  the  best  known  almanac  was  that 
of  Franklin,  called  Poor  Richard's,  and 
begun  in  1732.  Until  1828,  when  the  So- 
ciety for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge 
issued  a  valuable  English  almanac,  most  of 
those  which  were  sold  were  either  useless  for 
practical  purposes  or  else  full  of  coarse  and 
superstitious  remarks.  Since  that  date, 
however,  almanacs  have  either  been  pub- 
lished for  their  practical  utility  or  else  for 
advertisement.  In  the  former  class  may  be 
mentioned  firstly  the  Nautical  Almanac, 
published  by  the  British  Government  since 
1767,  which  is  quite  necessary  to  navigators; 
secondly,  the  French  Connaissance  des 
Temps;  thirdly,  the  German  Astronomisches 
Jahrbuch;  and  finally  the  United  States 

American  Ephe- 
meris  and  Nau- 
tical Almanac. 
Very  good  alma- 
nacs are  pub- 
lished yearly  by 
some  of  the  great 
American  news- 
papers; such  as 
the  World  and 
the  Tribune;  and 
in  these  may 
often  be  found 
the  exact  date  of 
events  which  are 
remote  enough 

LAWRENCE  ALMA-TADEMA     to  be    forgotten, 

but  too  recent  to  be  readily  found  in  books 
of  reference. 

Alma=Tadema  (al'md-tdd'd-ma),  Sir  Law- 
rence   a    distinguished     British   artist,    was 


ALMOND 


born  at  Dronryp,  in  the  Netherlands,  Jan 
uary  8,  1836.  He  settled  in  England  in  187-? 
where  he  was  given  knighthood  and  made  a 
Royal  Academician.  His  paintings  chiefly 
deal  with  classical  subjects,  and  are  distin- 
guished for  their  careful  composition  and 
accuracy  and  for  the  beauty  and  finish  of  their 
coloring.  In  1905  he  received  the  Order  of 
Merit.  Entrance  to  a  Roman  Theater  and  The 
Vintage,  are  two  of  his  works.  His  later  paint- 
ings include  The  Way  to  the  Temple,  A  Reading 
from  Homer,  Sappho,  A  Roman  Emperor  and 
The  Triumph  of  Titus.  He  died  June  24, 
1912. 

Al'mond  (d-muncT).  A  species  of  Prunus, 
a  genus  of  the  rose  family.  The  almond  is 
very  old  in  culti- 
vation, and  is 
probably  a  native 
of  the  Mediterra- 
nean region.  The 
two  races  of  al- 
monds are  known 
as  the  "bitter"  and 
the  "sweet,"  the 
kernel  of  the  form- 
er being  used  in 
the  manufacture  of 
flavoring  extracts 
and  ofprussic 
acid.  The  sweet 
almonds,  with 
their  edible  kernels,  are  grouped  under  two 
heads:  those  with  hard  shells  and  those  with 
soft  shells.  The  almond  of  commerce  be- 
longs to  the  soft-shelled  group,  and  those 
with  the  thinnest  shells  are  known  as  "paper 
shells. "  The  commercial  cultivation  of  the 
almond  in  the  United  States  is  confined  to 
the  west,  chiefly  California.  A  large  part 
of  the  almonds  used  in  this  country  comes 
from  Italy,  France  and  Spain.  A  native 
almond  is  found  in  southern  California, 
a  low  bushy  shrub  with  a  small,  smooth  nut 
Both  the  almond  and  the  dwarf  almond  of 
southern  Russia  are  used  as  ornamental 
trees,  planted  in  places  not  favorable  for  the 
production  of  the  nut. 

Alpaca  (al-pak'a\  an  animal  native  to  the 
lofty  tablelands  and  mountains  of  the  Andes 
in  Peru.  It  is  related  to  the  camels  of  the 
old  world,  and  is  kept  as  a  beast  of  burden  by 
the  Peruvian  Indians.  The  wool  is  of  fine 
quality,  usually  pale  brown  in  color;  but 
gray  and  even  black  varieties  are  common. 
The  wool  grows  about  eight  inches  long, 
when  shorn  regularly  every  year,  but  grows 
longer  when  not  clipped.  As  soon  as  the 
animal  is  shorn  its  resemblance  to  a  small 
camel  without  a  hump  is  evident. 

Alpena,  Mich.,  county  seat  of  Alpena 
County,  situated  at  the  head  of  Thunder  Bay, 
Lake  Huron,  about  half-way  between  Saginaw 
Bay  and  the  S traits  ^  of  Mackinac.  It  has  a 
commodious  harbor  and  extensive  shipping 
facilities  by  boat,  and  two  railroads.  The  city 
has  a  variety  of  industries  such  as  paper  from 


ALPS 


55 


ALTOONA 


wood  pulp,  excelsior  and  veneer  mills,  woolen 
and  knitting  works,  iron  foundries,  tanneries, 
flouring  mills,  etc.  It  has  two  of  the  largest 
limestone  quarries  and  cement  factories  in  the 
United  States.  It  has  many  public  and  paro- 
chial schools  and  churches  and  a  public  library; 
it  maintains  its  own  water  works  and  electric 
lighting  system;  has  many  miles  of  paved 
streets  and  cement  walks,  a  beautiful  park 
system.  Population  13,700. 

Alps,  the  largest  and  highest  mountains  in 
Europe.  The  average  height  of  the  central 
chain  is  7,700  feet,  a  region  where  snow  never 
melts,  while  several  hundred  peaks  rise  still 
higher.  From  these  snow-capped  mountains 
the  avalanches  rush  down,  sweeping  along 
snow,  rocks,  forests  and  even  villages.  Here, 
also,  in  the  valleys  between  the  peaks,  gather 
the  huge  masses  of  snow  which  form  the  long 
streams  of  ice  called  glaciers  (see  GLACIERS). 
The  most  beautiful  of  these  glaciers  _  is  the 
Mer  de  Glace.  The  highest  peak  is  Mt. 
Blanc,  15,732  feet  in  height:  though  Monte 
Rosa,  the  Matterhorn  and  several  others  are 
almost  as  high.  There  are  some  sixteen  great 
passes  over  the  Alps.  Famous  marches  have 
been  made  over  them  by  large  armies :  Han- 
nibal's  march  was  through  the  Little  St. 
Bernard  Pass  and  Napoleon's  through  the 
Great  St.  Bernard.  Bridges  terraces  and 
long  galleries  have  been  built  of  stone  to  give 
protection  against  avalanches  and  whirl- 
winds. Places  of  shelter  from  storms,  called 
hospices,  have  also  been  erected,  where  huge 
St.  Bernard  dogs  are  kept  to  help  in  search- 
ing for  unfortunate  wanderers  who  may  be 
lost  in  the  snow.  The  Alps  are  now  pierced 
by  four  railroad  tunnels,  the  Aiiberg,  Mt. 
Cenis,  Mt.  St.  Gothard  and  Simplon.  The 
scenery  of  the  Alps  is  famous  for  its  grand- 
eur, and  every  season  the  mountains  are  so 
crowded  with  tourists  that  the  Alps  have 
been  called  "the  play-ground  of  Europe." 
Of  the  many  objects  of  grandeur  or  beauty, 
the  most  famous  are  Mt.  Blanc  and  the 
Valley  of  the  Chamouni.  Austria.  Switzer- 
land, Italy,  France  and  Bavaria  share  in 
the  possession  of  the  Alps. 

Al'sace-Lorraine'  (dl-sds'lor-rdn'),  an 
imperial  territory  of  the  German  empire, 
composed  of  Alsace  and  those  parts  of  Lor- 
raine conquered  from  France  in  the  war  of 
1870.  It  does  not  belong  to  any  state  of 
Germany,  but  is  subject  to  the  emperor 
directly,  who  appoints  the  governor  or 
statthaUer.  The  language  spoken  is  gen- 
erally German  in  Alsace  and  French  in 
Lorraine.  The  country  is  a  great  wine- 
producing  one,  and  is  also  engaged  in  the 
mining  of  ores  and  the  manufacture  of  cot- 
ton. The  principal  city  is  Strassburg 
(population  167,678).  Area  5,604  square 
miles;  population  of  Alsace-Lorraine  1,871,- 
702.  In  1911  there  were  in  the  Reichsland 
1303  miles  of  railway. 

Altai  (al-ti')  Mountains,  a  group  of 
mountains  in  Central  Asia  separating  the 


tablelands  of  Mongolia  from  Siberia.  The 
great  Siberian  rivers,  the  Obi,  the  Irtish  and 
Yenisei,  have  their  sources  in  these  moun- 
tains. The  highest  peaks  are  over  12,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Alternation  of  Generations.  In  all 
plant  groups  above  the  ThaUophytes,  the  life 
history  of  every  plant  is  made  up  of  two 
phases.  One  phase  bears  the  sex  organs, 
and  is  called  the  gametophyte;  the  other 
bears  no  sex  organs,  but  produces  asexual 
spores,  and  is  called  the  sporophyte. 
These  two  phases  or  generations  regularly 
alternate  with  each  other,  the  gametophyte 
by  means  of  its  sex  organs  producing  the 
sporophyte,  and  the  sporophyte  by  means 
of  its  asexual  spores  producing  the  gameto- 
phyte. For  example,  in  the  mosses  the 
ordinary  leafy  plant  is  the  gametophyte,  and 
the  so-called  fruit  is  the  sporophyte.  In 
the  ferns  the  leafy  plant  is  the  sporophyte, 
while  the  gametophyte  is  a  very  small  but 
independent  body,  which  is  never  observed 
except  by  those  who  know  of  its  presence.  In 
the  flowering  plants  the  whole  visible  body 
is  the  sporophyte;  while  the  gametophyte 
is  so  minute  that  it  is  effectually  concealed 
from  ordinary  observation.  For  a  further 
account  see  GAMETOPHYTE  and  SPOROPHVTE. 

Alton,  a  thriving  city,  railroad  cen 
ter  and  port  of  entry  in  Madison  County, 
Illinois.  It  is  situated  on  the  Mississippi,  25 
miles  above  St.  Louis  and  about  14  miles 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri.  It  is  buiit 
on  high  limestone  bluffs.  The  Mississippi 
is  here  bridged  by  the  Burlington  railroad. 
An  electric  railway  connects  Alton  with  St. 
Louis  and  with  Upper  Alton,  the  seat  of  the 
Baptist  Shurtleff  College.  The  town  has  a 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  many  other 
churches  and  schools  and  a  number  of  im- 
portant manufactories,  the  most  important 
being  the  Illinois  Glass  Works.  Population, 
17.528. 

Altoo'na  is  in  Blair  County,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  is  situated  at  the  eastern  base  of 
the  Allegheny  Mountains,  1,168  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea  The  surrounding 
country  is  noted  for  its  scenic  beauty.  A 
few  miles  west  is  the  famous  Horseshoe 
Bend;  several  miles  north  is  Wopsononoc 
Mountain,  from  whose  summit  there  is 
spread  before  the  eye  a  panoramic  view  of 
the  Blue  Juniata;  and  to  the  east  is 
Sinking  Valley,  with  its  interesting  natural 
curiosities. 

In  the  year  1849,  the  time  at  which  it  may 
be  said  Altoona  was  founded,  the  officers  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  company  selected 
the  site  of  the  city  for  the  location  of  their 
principal  workshops.  Later  the  testing 
department,  laboratories  and  offices  were 
removed  to  the  city,  and  at  present  the  car 
and  engine  manufactories  are  the  most 
extensive  of  the  kind  in  the  world.  Other 
prominent  industries  are  silk  mills  and  glass 
works.  Altoona  is  the  terminus  of  a  division 


ALUM 


AMAGAT 


of  the  main  line  of  the  Pennsylvania,  railroad, 
and  passengers  have  the  convenience  of  82 
daily  trains.  Branch  roads  extend  south 
and  southeast. 

In  the  summer  of  1858,  the  Altoona  Me- 
chanics' Library  and  Reading  Room  Asso- 
ciation was  organized.  The  high  school  has 
a  four  years'  course  of  study,  divided  into 
four  courses,  namely,  vocational,  commercial, 
general  and  industrial.  The  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  company  has  donated  to  this  school 
one  of  the  most  complete  equipments  for 
wood  working,  forge,  foundry  and  metal 
machinery  to  be  found  in  the  country,  and  the 
High  School  building  was  erected  at  a  cost  of 
half  a  million  dollars.  The  parochial  schools 
have  a  large  enrollment.  The  emphasis  on  vo- 
cational education  in  Altoona  and  the  skill  with 
which  the  system  has  been  developed  and  ap- 
plied will  make  the  reading  of  the  School  Sys- 
tem at  Gary  of  particular  interest  and  value  in 
this  connection.  Population,  52,127. 


Alum,  common  alum,  a  sulphate  of  potas- 
sium and  aluminum,  is  a  salt  used  in  the  arts 
and  in  medicine.  It  forms  colorless,  octa- 
hedral crystals  containing  much  water.  It 
is  sometimes  found  in  a  natural  state,  but  is 
usually  manufactured.  There  are  several 
kinds  of  alum,  and  the  one  containing  am- 
monium in  place  of  potassium  is  often  used 
instead  of  the  more  common  compound. 
Alum  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  calico,  in 
tanning  and  dyeing,  Mixed  in  the  milk  it 
helps  in  the  separation  of  the  butter,  and 
bakers  sometimes  use  it  to  whiten  their 
bread.  If  added  in  small  quantities  to 
turbid  water,  in  a  few  minutes  it  will  make 
it  perfectly  clear  without  any  bad  taste  or 
quality,  but  it  should  be  used  with  caution 
in  articles  of  food  and  drink  on  account  of 
its  astringent  properties. 

Alu'mmum  or  AIu min'lum,  a  white  metal 
like  tin  in  appearance.  It  is  the  most  abun- 
dant of  the  metals,  being  found  in  clay,  marl, 
feldspar,  slate,  mica  and  many  other  min- 
erals, but  it  cannot  be  cheaply  manufactured 
although  great  improvement  has  been  made 
in  this  direction.  (See  METALLURGY.)  It 
may  be  rolled  into  very  thin  foil  and  drawn 
into  very  fine  wire,  and  when  rolled  it  be- 
come* harder.  When  struck  it  gives  forth 
a  very  musical  sound,  and  hence  is  some- 
times used  for  making  bells.  It  is  a  light 
metal  of  about  the  weight  of  porcelain,  and 
for  many  purposes  is  more  convenient  than 
silver.  It  makes  useful  alloys;  with  copper 
it  makes  an  alloy  resembling  fine  brass, 
called  aluminum-bronze.  This  alloy  is  used 
in  cheap  jewelry  and  is  adapted  for  gun 
metal.  It  also  forms  a  very  useful  alloy 
with  silver.  It  is  now  used  for  cooking  utensils 
and  a  wide  variety  of  other  products. 

Alva  (al'vd),  Duke  of,  a  Spanish  general, 
was  born  in  1508.  When  a  mere  boy  he 
gained  distinction  at  the  battle  of  Pavia,  and 


at  the  age  of  29  defended  the  town  of 
Perpignan  against  the  dauphin  of  France. 
He  soon  rose  to  be  commander  of  the  Spanish 
army.  In  1567,  at  the  head  of  10,000  men, 
he  marched  into  the  Netherlands  with  un- 
limited powers  from  Philip  II  of  Spain  to 
proceed  against  the  heretics  there.  The 
Court  of  Blood,  which  he  established  here, 
soon  became  widely  known  and  feared,  and 
Alva  boasted  that  he  had  sent  18,000  men  to 
execution.  But  this  great  cruelty  led  to  the 
revolt,  which  afterward  made  the  Low  Coun- 
tries independent.  Alva  was  recalled  to 
Spain,  soon  after  imprisoned,  and,  though  set 
free  when  a  skillful  general  was  needed  to 
lead  an  army  against  Portugal,  he  never 
regained  the  confidence  of  Philip.  He  was 
able,  cruel  and  proud.  His  pride  is  shown 
by  his  reply  to  Philip's  demand  for  an  ac- 
count of  the  treasure  he  had  captured  at 
Lisbon.  "If  the  king  asks  me  for  an  ac- 
count," said  Alva,  "I  will  make  him  a 
statement  of  kingdoms  preserved  or  con- 
quered, of  signal  victories,  of  successful 
sieges  and  of  sixty  years'  service."  Noth- 
ing more  was  said  about  the  account.  He 
died  in  1582. 

Amadc'us,  a  name  very  common  in  the 
ruling  family  of  Savoy.  Those  of  the  name 
most  famous  were;  AMADEUS  V,  Count  of 
Savoy  (born  1249,  died  1323),  called  the 
Great.  His  most  celebrated  exploit  was  his 
repulse  of  the  Turks  from  the  Island  of 
Rhodes,  then  held  by  the  Knights  of  St. 
John.  In  memory  of  this  victory,  a  Maltese 
cross,  with  the  letters  F.  E.  R.  T.  (Fortitudo 
ejus  Rhodum  ienuit — "His  bravery  saved 
Rhodes,"),  was  made  the  coat  of  arms  of 
the  family.  AMADEUS  VIII,  count  and 
first  duke  of  Savoy,  was  born  1383,  and  died 
1451.  After  a  few  years  of  rule,  he  retired 
to  a  monastery,  Ripaille,  where  he  lived  a 
life  of  luxury.  In  1439,  he  was  elected  to 
succeed  Pope  Eugenius  IV,  who  had  been 
deposed,  but  after  a  few  years  he  resigned 
in  favor  of  Nicholas  V.  &s  pope,  he  was 
called  Felix  V. 

Am'adis  of  Gaul,  the  mythical  hero  of  one 
of  the  early  romances  of  chivalry;  a  model 
knight-errant,  of  whom  Don  Quixote  is  ^he 
caricature.  The  romance  was  written  by  j. 
Portuguese  courtier,  Vasco  de  Lobeira  (who 
died  hi  1403),  and  has  been  translated  into 
various  languages.  Amadis,  the  son  of  a 
king  of  Gaul,  had  a  number  of  adventures  in 
a  great  many  countries,  and  crowned  his 
exploits  by  marrying  Oriana,  daughter  of 
Lisuarte,  an  early  king  of  England.  The 
period  of  the  story  is  about  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era. 

Amagat,  Emile  Hilaire,  a  distinguished 
French  physicist,  born  at  St.  Satur  in  1841. 
He  has  enormously  extended  our  knowledge 
of  fluids,  especially  concerning  the  compres- 
sibility of  gases  at  high  pressures.  This  work 
was  done  while  he  held  the  chair  of  physics 
in  the  Facult6  Libre  des  Sciences  at  Lyons 


AMALGAM 


57 


AMBASSADOR 


Sinc£  1891  has  held  an  official  position  in 
the  Ecole  Polytechnique  at  Paris. 

Amal'gam,  an  alloy  of  metals,  one  of  which 
is  mercury.  Mercury  has  the  power  of  dis- 
solving almost  all  other  metals  and  mixing 
with  them,  and  so  is  much  used  in  separating 
gold  and  silver  from  their  ores.  (See  METAL- 
LURGY.) Amalgams  are  very  numerous,  and 
many  of  them  are  used  largely  in  the  arts. 
Tin  amalgam  is  used  for  silvering  mirrors; 
gold  and  silver  amalgam  in  gilding  and  re- 
silvering;  cadmium  and  copper  amalgam  in 
dentistry;  and  zinc  and  tin  amalgam  for  the 
rubbers  of  electrical  machines.  Amalgams 
are  variously  made;  some  by  merely  rubbing 
together  the  two  metals,  others  by  the  aid  of 
an  electric  current.  Some  amalgams  are 
solid,  while  others  are  liquid.  The  mercury 
can  be  distilled  off  from  most  amalgams  by 
heating  them  in  retorts.  This  is  tne  way  in 
which  gold  and  silver  are  recovered  from 
their  amalgams. 

Am'aranth  (meaning  unfading),  a  class  of 
plants  of  which  the  flowers  are  composed  of 
dry,  colored  scales,  and  which  retain  their 
colors  for  a  long  time  after  they  are  plucked. 
Because  of  this  fact  the  flowers  are  made 
emblems  of  immortality,  and  are  frequently 
so  used  in  poetry.  The  cockscomb,  prince  s 
feather,  love-lies-bleeding  and  globe  am- 
aranth are  common  kinds  of  this  plant. 

Amarillo  (dm'd-ril'o),  a  city,  county  seat 
of  Potter  County,  Texas,  337  miles  northwest 
of  Ft.  Worth  and  275  miles  west  of  Okla- 
homa City.  It  is  3600  feet  above  sea  level, 
and  enjoys  a  clear  bracing  air  and  a  salubri- 
ous climate.  It  is  the  most  important  city 
of  the  Panhandle  country,  which  in  former 
years  was  devoted  to  grazing,  but  now 
wherever  cultivated  yields  profitable  crops. 
It  has  produced  Indian  corn,  sorghum, 
maize,  wheat,  oats,  rye,  besides  vegetables, 
melons,  fruit  and  in  the  southern  portion 
cotton.  Amarilllo  has  a  good  county  court 
house  and  jail,  a  handsome  city  hall,  two 
opera  houses  and  an  Elks'  Lodge,  besides 
several  fine  churches  and  good  schools.  It 
has  three  ice  factories,  marble,  concrete- 
block,  broom  and  oandy  factories,  a  flouring 
mill,  grain  elevator,  brick  works,  etc.  The 
city  has  four  banks,  water  works,  electric 
light,  street  cars  and  all  adjuncts  of  a  mod- 
ern city.  It  is  served  by  the  Santa  Fe,  the 
Fort  Worth  and  Denver  and  trie  Rock  Island 
Railroad.  The  Santa  Fe  has  yards  and 
shops  here;  the  Denver  ana  the  Rock  Island 
each  have  offices  and  round  houses.  Popu- 
lation, 19,124. 

Am'azon,  a  river  of  South  America,  flow- 
Ing  easterly  from  the  Andes  to  the  Atlantic, 
where  it  empties  below  the  equator.  It  is  the 
largest  river  on  the  globe,  but  not  the  long- 
est. Its  length  is  estimated  at  from  3,000 
to  4,000  miles;  its  width,  at  its  mouth,  is  60 
miles ;  it  is  four  miles  wide  i  ,000  miles  from 
the  sea;  and  more  than  a  mile  wide  2,000 
miles  from  the  sea.  Its  depth  for  750  miles 


is  nowhere  less  than  175  feet.  Over  350 
branches  and  lesser  tributaries  form  its  main 
trunk,  and  the  whole  system  drains  an  area 
of  2,500,000  square  miles,  or  more  than  a 
third  part  of  South  America.  While  large 
vessels  can  sail  from  the  sea  over  the  main 
river  and  its  branches,  the  volume  of  water  is 
perceptible  in  the  ocean  200  miles  from  the 
coast,  and  the  influence  of  the  tides  is  felt  400 
miles  from  its  mouth.  The  forests  are  very 
extensive,  being  so  twisted  and  matted  and 
interlaced  with  trees,  vines  and  shrubs,  as 
to  present  an  almost  impassable  barrier. 
This  "sea  of  verdure,"  a  traveler  says, 
"extends  in  an  unbroken,  evergreen  circle 
of  1,100  miles  in  diameter."  The  mouth  of 
the  Amazon  was  discovered  by  Pinzon  in 
1500.  It  was  not  ascended  until  forty  years 
later.  It  is  navigable  for  over  2,000  miles, 
and  with  its  branches  it  affords  16,000  miles 
of  navigable  waters. 

Am'azons,  in  Greek  legend,  a  war-like 
race  of  women  living  in  Isia  Minor  near  the 
shore  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  mythical  town 
of  Themiscyra,  on  the  river  Thermodon,  was 
the  capital  of  their  state.  Their  name  prob- 
ably came  from  a  Greek  word,  meaning 
breastless,  and  referred  to  their  habit  of 
cutting  off  the  right  breast  to  give  them 
greater  freedom  in  the  use  of  the  bow.  The 
Greeks  told  a  number  of  stories  of  their 
contests  with  these  women.  The  heroes, 
Bellerophon  and  Hercules,  defeated  them, 
and  Theseus  of  Athens  captured  their 
princess  Antiope.  In  revenge  they  invaded 
Attica  and  were  defeated.  They  also  fought 
in  the  Trojan  War  against  the  Greeks,  and 
Achilles  engaged  in  single  combat  and  slew 
their  queen,  Penthesilea.  They  are  repre- 
sented in  Greek  sculpture  armed  with  a 
bow,  spear  and  axe,  and  carrying  a  half- 
shield. 

Ambas'sador,  an  accredited  diplomat 
of  note  and  eminence  sent  by  one  nation, 
country  or  state  to  represent  his  country  at 
a  foreign  court,  nation  or  capital,  and  be 
the  chief  medium  of  diplomatic  intercourse 
between  them.  In  this  high  representa- 
tive capacity  the  ambassador  has  right  of 
audience  with  the  sovereign  or  chief  of  the 
nation  to  which  he  is  accredited,  besides 
possessing  or  being  accorded  certain  other 
privileges  and  immunities,  including  pre- 
cedence on  ceremonial  occasions  and  at  state 
functions  over  all  save  princes  of  the  blood. 

In  its  early  history,  the  United  States 
withheld  for  long  the  rank  and  title  of 
ambassador  to  its  accredited  representa- 
tives abroad  at  foreign  courts;  but  in  1893 
Congress,  when  acting  on  the  diplomatic 
or  consular  appropriation  bill  of  that  year, 
empowered  the  President  to  raise  American 
plenipotentiaries  and  ministers  at  foreign 
courts  and  capitals  of  note  to  the  rank  of 
ambassadors,  especially  where  these  foreign 
courts  and  nations  were  represented  at 
Washington  by  a  plenipotentiary  of  equal 


AMBER 


AMERICA 


rank.     This  was   done,   and  the  rule   and 
practice  are  still  in  force. 

Am'ber  is  a  hard,  brittle,  yellow  sub- 
stance. It  is  found  in  large  and  small 
Sieces;  the  largest  are  in  the  museum  at 
erlin,  weighing  eighteen  pounds.  It  is 
found  mostly  clinging  to  seaweed  along 
the  shores  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  where  divers 
dive  for  it  and  dredgers  throw  it  up  on  the 
shore  for  women  and  children  to  gather 
and  pick  over.  Some  is  found  in  New  Jer- 
sey, Massachusetts  and  Maryland.  When 
amber  is  rubbed,  it  develops  electricity, 
and  attracts  light  substances.  This  quality 
very  much  astonished  the  ancients,  and 
they  gave  it  the  name  "electron,"  from 
which  we  have  the  word  "electricity."  It 
is  used  mostly  for  beads,  ornaments  and 
mouthpieces  for  tobacco  pipes,  though 
large  amber  dishes  have  been  found,  show- 
ing that  people  long  ago  used  it  for  manu- 
facturing. The  ancients  valued  amber 
highly,  both  as  ornament  and  charm,  amber 
necklaces  being  worn  in  the  belief  that  the 
wearer  would  thereby  be  protected  from 
witches,  poisons  and  other  evil. 

Ambrose,  Saint,  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent of  the  bishops  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian church.  He  was  born  in  Gaul 
about  340  A.  D.,  and  was  educated  for  the 

grofession  of  law.  He  was  appointed  pre- 
;ct  of  Liguria  and  ^Emilia,  and  chose  Milan 
as  his  residence.  When  the  bishop  of  Milan 
died  in  374,  there  was  a  great  struggle  be- 
tween the  orthodox  and  the  Arian  Chris- 
tians in  regard  to  the  succession.  Finally, 
Ambrose  was  unanimously  elected,  although 
he  was  not  a  priest.  He  accepted  the 
office  reluctantly,  disposed  of  his  property, 
and  at  once  devoted  himself  to  those  studies 
which  would  prepare  him  for  his  office. 
His  life  was  one  of  struggle  as  he  opposed 
those  in  Rome,  who  wished  to  restore  the 
worship  of  heathen  gods,  also  the  Arian 
sect  which  denied  the  divinity  of  Christ; 
and  he  even  went  on  embassies  to  the  north- 
ern tribes,  which  were  planning  to  attack 
Italy.  When  the  emperor,  Theodosius, 
ordered  the  massacre  of  the  Thessalonians  in 
390,  Ambrose  compelled  him  to  perform 
penance  for  eight  months,  and  exacted  the 
promise  that  thereafter  a  period  of  thirty 
days  should. intervene  before  any  sentence 
of  death  was  executed.  Ambrose  left  a 
large  number  of  writings  whose  object  was 
to  defend  and  extend  the  Christian  re- 
ligion. It  was  through  his  preaching  that 
Augustine  was  converted.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  kind  of  singing  called  the  Am- 
brosian  chant.  He  died  in  397. 

Am'bulance,  a  name  applied  to  the  cov- 
ered wagons  used  in  our  large  cities  to  convey 
the  wounded  and  sick  to  the  hospitals. 
Strictly,  it  means  a  movable  hospital  at- 
tached to  an  army  in  the  field,  to  afford 
early  help  to  the  wounded  in  battle.  It 
was  introduced  by  the  surgeon  Larrey. 


into  the  French  army  in  1792.  Before  that, 
wounded  soldiers  were  either  carried  to  the 
rear  by  their  comrades,  or  left  uncared  for, 
sometimes  ixntil  a  day  after  the  battle.  The 
usual  working  of  an  ambulance  during  a 
battle  is  as  follows:  The  field  station  is 
usually  just  in  rear  of  the  troops,  and  there- 
fore under  fire;  the  wounded  are  there 
treated  hastily,  then  carried  on  stretchers 
to  the  transfer  station,  which  is  out  of  rifle 
range.  Here  they  are  put  into  ambulance 
wagons  and  driven  to  the  dressing  station, 
out  of  artillery  range,  where  the  wounds 
are  dressed,  and  the  sufferers  are  finally 
taken  to  the  field-hospital. 

Am'ent.  The 
characteristic 
flower  cluster  of 
birches,  alders, 
willows,  etc.  See 
INFLORESCENCE. 

America  (a-mer'i' 
kd).  One  of  the 
five  continents  of 
the  globe,  has  an 
area  of  16,000,000 
square  miles,  and 
is  larger  than 


AMENTUM 

(Willow,  male  and  female, 
with  separate  flowers.) 


Europe  and  Africa  together.  Its  extreme 
length  from  the  northern  limit  of  Alaska  to 
the  south  end  of  Patagonia  is  8,700  miles, 
or,  including  the  Arctic  Islands  on  the  north 
and  Tierra  del  Fuego  on  the  south,  9,600 
miles.  Its  greatest  width  is  over  3,000 
miles.  The  isthmus  of  Panama,  but  twenty- 
eight  miles  wide  at  its  narrowest  point, 
separates  the  continent  into  North  America 
and  South  America,  and  each  of  these  is 
known  as  a  continent. 

These  two  continents  are  similar  in  phy- 
sical characteristics.  Each  is  a  triangle, 
broadest  at  the  north,  and  the  trend  of  the 
western  coast  of  each  is  directly  southeast. 
Each  has  a  vast  mountain  range  on  the 
western  coast,  a  lower  and  less  continuous 
range  in  the  eastern  section,  with  a  wide 
central  region  of  plains.  Each  is  drained 
by  three  great  river  systems. 

NORTH  AMERICA  is  larger  than  South 
America,  having  an  area  of  8,700,000 
square  miles.  On  the  northeast  is  Hudson 
Bay,  and  on  the  eastern  coast  are  the  Gulf 
of  Saint  Lawrence,  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
Delaware  and  Chesapeake  Bays,  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  and  the  Gulf  of  Honduras,  with 
other  smaller  indentations,  affording  ample 
and  safe  harbors.  The  western  coast  has 
few  inlets,  the  most  important  being  San 
Francisco  Bay,  Puget  Sound  and  the  Gulf 
of  California. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  On  the  western  side 
is  the  great  Rocky  Mountain  range,  running 
the  whole  length  of  the  continent.  Besides 
the  main  Rocky  Mountain  range,  called 
Sierra  Madre  in  Mexico,  are  parallel  ridges, 
the  Coast,  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  ranges. 
This  vast  system  of  mountain  ranges  and 


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AMERICA  (NORTH) 


59 


AMERICA  (NORTH) 


high  plateaus  has  an  extreme  breadth  of 
1,000  miles.  Between  the  main  range  and 
the  Sierra  Nevadas,  lies  a  high  table  land 
called  the  Great  Basin,  which  includes 
Utah,  Nevada  and  parts  of  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico.  The  highest  peaks  are,  in 
Alaska,  Mount  McKinley,  20,464  feet,  Mount 
Saint  Elias,  18,024  feet,  Mount  Wrangell, 
17,524  feet;  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  range, 
Mount  Whitney,  14,898  feet;  in  the  Cas- 
cade range,  Mount  Shasta  14,510  feet, 
Mount  Rainer  or  Tacoma,  14,526  feet;  in 
Mexico,  Orizaba,  18,250  feet,  and  Popo- 
catapetl,  17,520  feet. 

On  the  east  coast  is  the  Appalachian  range, 
which  is  lower  than  the  Rockies  and  runs 
parallel  to  the  Atlantic,  but  further  from 
the  coast  line.  Appearing  first  in  the  Wot- 
cish  ridge  of  Labrador,  it  extends  to  the 
table  lands  of  Alabama.  The  White  Moun- 
tains, Adirondacks,  Allegheny  and  Blue 
Ridge  Ranges  belong  to  this  system.  Mount 
Mitchell  in  North  Carolina,  6,688  feet,  and 
Mount  Washington,  in  New  Hampshire, 
6,293  feet,  are  the  highest  peaks. 

Between  these  two  mountain  systems  is 
the  great  central  plain,  stretching  from  the 
Arctic  Sea  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
eastern  and  southern  portions  of  this  great 
plain  are,  or  originally  were,  heavily  tim- 
bered. The  central  portion  on  both  sides 
of  the  Mississippi  and  stretching  west  to  the 
higher  planes  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  sys- 
tem is  the  great  prairie  country,  level  or 
Slightly  rolling,  nearly  treeless,  with  a  deep 
and  wonderfully  fertile  soil.  East  of  the 
Appalachian  range  is  a  region  of  hills  and 
valleys,  known  as  the  Piedmont  region,  slop- 
ing down  to  a  wide  coastal  plain,  with  low, 
swampy  lands  on  some  portions  of  the  coast. 
On  the  Pacific  Coast  is  a  narrower  but  rich 
and  productive  region,  rising  to  the  western 
slopes  of  the  mountains,  and  running  through 
California,  Oregon  and  Washington  up  into 
British  Columbia. 

The  southern  end  of  the  continent  through 
Mexico  is  chiefly  a  great  tableland,  reaching 
an  elevation  of  8,000  feet,  dropping  abruptly 
on  the  east  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  slop- 
ing more  gradually  to  the  Pacific.  A  low 
level  is  reached  at  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuan- 
tepec.  The  greater  part  of  Central  America, 
including  Guatemala,  Honduras,  Salvador 
and  northern  Nicaragua,  is  mountainous, 
sinking  in  southern  Nicaragua  to  too  feet 
above  sea  level,  where  is  Lake  Nicaragua. 

Animal  and  Vegetable  Life.  The  animals 
of  North  America  possess  hardly  a  feature 
in  common  with  those  of  South  America. 
In  many  respects  they  stand  closely  related 
to  those  of  northern  Asia.  Among  dis- 
tinctly North  American  animals  are  the 
alligator,  bison  or  buffalo,  beaver,  Eskimo 
dog,  grizzly  bear,  moose,  muskox,  puma 
or  panther,  rattlesnake,  reindeer  and  white 
mountain-goat.  There  are  also  black, 
brown  and  polar  bears,  deer,  the  wolf,  fox, 


raccoon,  opossum,  prairie  dog,  otter,  mar- 
ten, lynx  badger,  and  many  other  animals, 
which  are  similar  to  those  of  Europe  and 
Asia. 

Of  birds  and  wild  fowl  more  than  2,000 
varieties  have  been  catalogued.  Among 
the  larger  kinds  are  the  eagle,  vulture, 
turkey  buzzard,  hawk,  crow,  wild  turkey, 
heron,  flamingo  crane,  wild  goose,  crane 
and  pelican. 

Specific  trees  include  the  boxwood,  cypress, 
hickory,  magnolia,  mahogany,  palmetto, 
pecan,  redwood,  sequoia.  There  are  also 
vast  forests  of  pine,  spruce,  fir,  hemlock, 
cedar,  as  well  as  oak,  ash,  maple  and  many 
other  varieties  of  hard  wood.  Of  plants 
and  vegetables,  cotton,  cactus,  maize,  or- 
chids, peppers,  pineapples,  plaintains,  pota- 
toes, sugarcane  and  yams  are  natives  of 
America,  and  here  are  the  great  grain  fields 
of  the  world. 

Climate.  Stretching  as  it  does  from  the 
arctic  to  the  tropical  zone,  North  America 
presents  every  variety  of  climate.  In  the 
extreme  north  the  ground  remains  frozen 
through  the  year,  the  short  summer  suffic- 
ing to  warm  the  surface  and  produce  a 
meager  vegetation.  The  temperate  region 
is  subject  to  wide  ranges  of  temperature, 
giving  four  seasons,  a  frigid  winter,  mild 
spring  and  autumn  and  a  hot  summer, 
while  the  southern  portion  presents  the 
usual  characteristics  of  the  tropics.  More- 
over, the  temperature  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
and  the  interior  is  more  variable  than  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  where  the  climate  is  modi- 
fied and  made  equable  by  the  warm  winds 
from  the  Pacific.  The  climate  of  the  west- 
ern coast  is  more  like  that  of  the  western 
coast  of  Europe. 

The  rainfall  is  heaviest  on  the  Gulf  coast 
and  lower  Mississippi  Valley,  where  the 
south  winds  bring  in  the  moisture-laden 
air  from  the  Gulf;  and  on  the  more  Northern 
Pacific  coast,  where  the  prevailing  winds 
are  from  the  ocean.  On  the  Atlantic  and 
westward  to  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley 
and  north  of  the  great  lakes,  the  rainfall  is 
ample  for  vegetation,  while  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  remote  from  the  Gulf, 
and  on  the  lower  Pacific  coast,  there  are 
large  semi-arid  areas. 

Minerals.  North  America  is  rich  in 
minerals.  Immense  deposits  of  gold,  silver 
and  copper  are  found  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain range,  from  Alaska,  through  Mexico, 
and  rich  but  less  extensive  fields  in  other 
parts  of  the  continent.  North  America 
stands  first  of  the  continents  in  the  pro- 
duction of  silver,  and  second  and  nearly 
equal  to  Africa  in  the  production  of  gold. 
The.  United  States  alone,  in  1906,  produced 
more  than  one  third  of  the  world's  coal, 
more  than  half  the  world's  copper  and 
almost  one  half  the  world's  iron.  Except- 
ing tin,  all  the  important  minerals  are  found 
in  abundance. 


AMERICA  (NORTH) 


60 


AMERICA  (CENTRAL) 


Inhabitants.  When  America  was  dis- 
covered by  Europeans  it  was  peopled  by  a 
savage  race,  who  were  named  Indians  be- 
cause the  land  was  then  supposed  to  be  a 
part  of  India.  In  the  north  these  were  roving 
tribes,  living  chiefly  by  hunting  and  fish- 
ing. In  Mexico  were  found  the  Aztecs, 
who  had  been  preceded  by  the  Toltecs,  and 
these  were  more  civilized  than  the  tribes 
of  the  north.  These  people  receded  before 
the  advance  of  the  white  race,  and  are  now 
few  in  number  and  confined  to  circum- 
scribed limits  or  reservations.  The  early 
emigrants  to  America  were  chiefly  English, 
who  settled  in  the  United  States,  French, 
who  entered  Canada,  and  Spanish,  who 
occupied  Mexico  and  Central  America. 
The  present  population  is  made  up  of  de- 
scendants of  these  colonists  and  of  later 
emigrants  from  every  European  nation 
and  some  from  Asia,  together  with  Negroes, 
who  were  introduced  as  slaves. 

Divisions.  The  political  divisions  of 
North  America  are  the  United  States,  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  Newfoundland,  Mexico 
and  the  Central  American  States.  Canada 
occupies  almost  the  whole  of  the  continent 
north  of  the  great  lakes  and  lat.  49°  N.  The 
territory  of  the  United  States  extends  from 
the  British  possessions  to  Mexico  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  Alaska  Territory,  be- 
longing to  the  United  States,  occupies  the 
northwest  corner  of  the  continent.  The 
republican  form  of  government  prevails 
everywhere,  except  in  the  British  dominions. 
The  areas  and  population  are  as  follows: 

Area,  sq.  miles  Pop. 
British  America  (including 

Newfoundland) 3,729,665  7,3 19,400 

United    States    (including 

Alaska) 3,617,673  92,036,622 

Mexico 767,005  15,063,207 

Central  American  States ..  207,474  4,803,487 

West  Indies 94.400  6,451,237 


8,416,217 


125,673.953 


History.  The  history  of  America  begins 
in  1492,  when  Christopher  Columbus  sighted 
the  West  Indies,  probably  Watling's  island, 
in  the  Bahamas.  We  know  that  500  years 
before  Columbus  there  were  Norse  colonies 
in  Greenland  and  on  the  continent  further 
south,  which  were  altogether  forgotten  at 
the  beginning  of  the  i6th  century.  The 
belief  that  the  natives  of  the  continent  came 
from  China  is  gaining  some  credence,  though 
little  definitely  is  really  known.  However, 
it  is  generally  held  that  the  native  peoples 
of  the  two  Americas  alike  are  all  of  one  race. 
The  natives  were  called  Indians,  as  the  con- 
tinent was  supposed  to  be  a  part  of  Asia. 
It  was  named  in  honor  of  Amerigo  Vespucci, 
a  Florentine,  who  first  sailed  for  the  western 
hemisphere,  in  1499. 

For  modern  history  of  North  America, 
its  material  development  and  civic  progress, 
see  articles  on  UNITED  STATES,  CANADA  and 


MEXICO  ;  also  articles  on  the  different  states 
and  provinces. 

CENTRAL  AMERICA.  The  southern  end 
of  North  America,  lying  between  Mexico, 
Colombia,  the  Caribbean  Sea  tend  the  Pacific. 
In  geological  formation,  it  differs  from  North 
and  South  America,  and  appears  to  belong 
to  a  different  system,  related  to  the  West 
Indies,  the  mountain  folds  having  an  east 
and  west  trend,  and  apparently  having  no 
connection  or  relation  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain and  Andean  systems  of  North  and  South 
America.  Its  length  is  1,280  miles  and 
maximum  breadth  315  miles,  dwindling  to 
28  miles  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  The 
area  is  207,474  square  miles,  and  the  popu- 
lation about  4,803,487,  Panama  included. 

Physical  Features.  At  Tehuantepec,  Mex., 
is  a  broad  plain.  In  northern  Guatemala  the 
mountains  begin,  close  to  the  Pacific,  extend- 
ing through  Salvador,  Honduras  and  Nicar- 
agua. Not  of  great  height,  they  consist 
of  detached  ranges  with  volcanic  peaks, 
some  of  which  are  active.  Then  comes  the 
depression  nearly  filled  by  Lake  Nicaragua, 
the  largest  inland  body  of  water  south  of 
the  great  lakes.  In  Costa  Rica  highlands 
follow.  Panama  is  a  low*  plateau.  The 
rivers  flow  mostly  into  the  Gulf  and  the 
Caribbean.  The  climate  is  tropic  and  pesti- 
lential on  the  shores  and  along  the  streams, 
but  moderate  and  healthful  on  the  uplands. 
The  rainfall  is  enormous,  200  inches  at  Pan- 
ama, and  creates  heavy  vegetation. 

Animal  and  Vegetable  Life.  The  ani- 
mals of  Central  America  are  those  of  South 
America.  There  are  heavy  forests  which 
are  rich  in  mahogany  and  other  valuable 
woods.  The  chief  products  are  fruits, 
coffee,  rubber,  sugar,  indigo  and  tobacco; 
corn,  wheat  and  rice  are  grown  to  some  ex- 
tent. Mineral  resources  are  great,  includ- 
ing gold,  silver,  platinum,  copper,  lead,  iron 
and  zinc. 

Inhabitants.  Central  America  was  the 
home  of  the  Aztecs,  and  is  rich  in  remains 
of  this  ancient  civilization.  The  present 
inhabitants  are  Creoles  or  Spanish-speak- 
ing whites,  Indians,  Negroes  and  mixed 
races. 

Political  Divisions.  These  include  Belize 
(British  Honduras),  Costa  Rica,  Guatemala, 
Honduras,  Nicaragua,  Panama  and  Salvador. 
Belize  is  a  British  possession,  the  remaining 
states  independent  republics. 

History.  The  coast  of  Central  America 
was  visited  by  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas  in  1500, 
and  by  Columbus  in  1502.  It  was  invaded 
by  Cortez  in  1524.  Guatemala  and  Salva- 
dor were  held  by  Alvarado,  second  in  com- 
mand to  Cortez.  For  three  centuries  the 
country  was  under  Spanish  rule  and  subject 
to  frequent  disturbances  and  harsh  condi- 
tions. Independence  was  achieved  in  1821. 
and  in  1823  a  republic  was  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  five  provinces.  Slavery  was 
abolished  in  1824,  but  after  dissensions  and 


NATIVES  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 

,  Eskimo  of  Labrador       2  Eskimo  Woman  of  Greenland      3  Apache     4  Navaho      5  Koskimo  Woman. 

Vancouver     6  Cheyenne     7   Mandan      8  Ute     9   Blackfoot     10  Woman  Moki  Chief 

1 1  Nez  Perce     1 2  Wichita  Woman 


NATIVES  OP  SOUTH  AMERICA 

i  Guatuso        2  Talamanoan  Woman        3  Bolivian  Indian        4  Guaykuru        5  Caraja       6  Matako 

7  Brazilian  Indian       8  Guayaqui       9  Araucanian  (Chile)       10  Tierra  del  Fuegan 

ii   Patagonian       u  Botocudo  Woman 


—    M          «          3—      J|     S       O  J    -^»      -?.- i     ^V*-       / 

~B'~<?~^"s^3l?sM ?§~O? ^vV^F  % 

-        «2  "II I  |^"IIS||  iiHll 


AMERICA  (SOUTH) 


61 


civil  war  the  republic  was  dissolved  in  1838. 
The  progress  of  the  country  has  since  been 
retarded  by  frequent  wars  and  revolutions. 
In  1907  a  meeting  of  delegates  from  all  the 
states  was  held  in  Washington,  U.  S.  A., 
and  an  agreement  was  made  that  all  differ- 
ences which  may  occur  shall  be  submitted 
to  a  peace-court  at  Costa  Rica. 

SOUTH  AMERICA.  It  is  important  to  re- 
member that  South  America  is  southeast 
of  North  America.  The  entire  southern 
continent  lies  east  of  Florida,  and  three- 
fourths  of  its  western  coast  lies  east  of  New 
York.  Its  easternmost  point  is  nearer  to 
Africa  than  is  its  northern  coast  to  New 
Orleans.  Its  length  is  4,500  miles,  greatest 
breadth  3,200  miles,  area  7,300,000  square 
miles  and  population  about  40,000,000.  It 
is  a  triangle  with  its  base  on  the  north,  and 
dwindling  to  a  point  at  Cape  Horn  on  the 
south.  Its  coast-line  is  for  the  most  part  un- 
broken, the  important  inlets  being  on  the 
north  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela,  on  the  north- 
east the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  on  the  east 
the  Bay  of  All  Saints,  Bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
the  mouth  of  the  Plata,  Bahia  Blanca, 
Gulf  of  San  Matias  and  Bay  of  San  George; 
on  the  west  line  there  is  no  important  break 
in  the  coast-line,  but  several  small  bays 
which  afford  harbors. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  A  commanding 
physical  feature  of  the  continent  is  the 
mighty  Andean  Mountain  range  which 
traverses  its  entire  length  on  the  western 
coast,  with  a  mean  height  of  12,000  feet,  a 
breadth  varying  from  40  to  over  300  miles, 
covering  more  than  one  million  square  miles, 
numbering  scores  of  active  volcanoes,  and 
towering  at  Mt.  Aconcagua  to  24,000  feet, 
the  highest  point  on  the  western  hemisphere. 
In  the  heart  of  the  continent  it  divides  into 
two  ranges,  inclosing  the  high  plateau  of 
Bolivia,  the  second  largest  and  most  elevated 
table  land  in  the  world,  with  an  elevation  of 
13,000  feet  and  an  area  of  more  than  40,000 
square  miles.  This  tremendous  mountain 
wall  dominates  the  rainfall  and  largely  in- 
fluences the  climate  and  the  productive 
value  of  almost  the  entire  area  of  the  con- 
tinent. Lower  lateral  ranges  run  through 
Venezuela  and  the  Guianas,  and  in  eastern 
Brazil  are  several  parallel  ranges  with  in- 
tervening highlands. 

Within  these  bordering  mountain  ranges 
the  center  of  the  continent  is  a  vast  region 
of  plains  and  valleys,  sloping  up  to  the 
Andes  and  stretching  down  through  the 
rich  pampas  of  Argentina  to  the  gravelly 
plains  of  Patagonia. 

The  continent  is  drained  by  three  vast 
river  systems,  the  Amazon,  the  Orinoco  and 
the  Plata.  As  drainage  systems  and  naviga- 
ble water-ways  they  have  no  parallel,  afford- 
ing over  5o,ooomilesofnavigablewaters.  The 
Amazon  discharges  more  water  than  Asia's 
eight  largest  rivers.  In  its  valley  of  2,500,000 
sq.  miles  is  a  vast,  almost  impenetrable 


forest.  It  is  connected  with  the  Orinoco 
indirectly  by  a  sometimes  navigable  channel. 
The  Plata  system,  in  its  northernmost 
feeders,  lies  but  three  miles  from  southern 
tributaries  of  the  Amazon,  and  a  canal 
would  provide  unbroken  inland  navigation 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Plata.  Another,  around  rapids  in 
the  Orinoco,  would  pass  boats  from  Vene- 
zuela to  Uruguay.  These  rivers  form  nature's 
highroads  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Andes. 
The  great  lake  is  Titicaca  in  Bolivia,  12,645 
feet  above  tidewater  and  about  1,800  miles 
in  area. 

Climate  and  Rainfall.  South  America 
experiences  less  variation  in  temperature 
than  North  America.  Three  fourths  of  its 
area,  including  the  most  fertile  districts, 
lie  within  the  tropics,  about  one  fourth  in 
the  temperate  zone.  The  tropic  regions 
east  of  the  Andes  receive  heavy  rains  in  the 
long  wet  season,  and  have  high  temperatures, 
but  the  western  coast  between  Panama  and 
Chile  is  a  burning  desert.  The  Andes  on 
their  sunset  slopes  make  climates  of  their 
own,  differences  in  altitudes,  even  in  the 
tropics,  creating  warm,  temperate  and  frigid 
zones. 

It  is  important  to  note  that  while  in  North 
America  the  heaviest  rainfall  is  on  and  near 
the  sea  coast,  in  South  America  it  is  heaviest 
in  the  interior  of  the  continent,  remote  from 
the  sea.  The  trade  winds  carry  the  warm 
moisture-laden  air  inland  from  the  Atlantic, 
until,  cooled  by  contact  with  the  foot-hills 
of  the  Andes,  heavy  precipitation  occurs, 
and,  passing  on,  the  remaining  vapor  falls 
in  snow  on  the  summits  of  the  range,  the 
winds  falling  on  the  western  slope  cool  and 
dry.  Thus  the  western  coast-line  north  of 
latitude  30°  is  practically  rainless,  there 
being  points  where  no  rain  has  fallen  for 
many  years,  while  on  the  eastern  slopes  of 
the  Andes  the  rains  are  tremendous.  The 
rivers  of  the  western  coast  are  small  shallow 
streams,  while  east  of  the  Andes  the  rivers 
become  streams  of  great  volume  near  their 
source,  and  furnish  commercial  highways 
thousands  of  miles  inland  from  the  sea. 

Animal  and  Vegetable  Life.  The  varia- 
tions in  elevation  and  rainfall  result  in  a 
wide  range  of  products.  In  the  tropical 
valleys,  under  the  influence  of  heat  and 
moisture,  vegetation  is  riotously  luxuriant. 
Forests,  especially  in  the  Amazon  valley, 
are  so  dense  as  to  be  almost  impenetrable. 
A  scientist  who  camped  in  this  region  re- 
lates that  he  found  it  necessary  to  have  the 
areaj  about  his  hut  cut  over  at  frequent  in- 
tervjals,  to  escape  being  enveloped  in  the 
rank,  upspringing  vegetation.  The  forests 
are  I  rich  in  rubber  and  ornamental  woods, 
including  rosewood,  satinwood,  cedar  and 
mahogany;  besides  valuable  dye-woods. 
Cotfn,  potatoes  and  tobacco  are  indigenous, 
as  /are  agave,  arrowroot,  cinchona,  cocoa, 
pineapple  and  tapioca.  The  forests  teem 


AMERICA  (SOUTH) 


62 


AMERICA  CUP 


with  animal  life.  Four  fifths  of  the  mam- 
mals and  birds  are  elsewhere  unknown. 
Among  them  are  the  jaguar,  gigantic  boas, 
blood-sucking  bats,  the  llama,  the  vicuna, 
guanaco,  the  alpaca,  the  tapir  and  the 
condor. 

Resources.  South  America  is  rich  in 
mineral,  forest  and  agricultural  resources, 
yet  none  of  ther.e  have  been  developed  so 
as  to  give  an  adequate  measure  of  their 
possibilities.  Gold  and  silver  are  exported 
from  nearly  all  of  the  republics.  The  mines 
of  Peru  and  Bolivia  are  famous,  and  those 
of  Brazil,  Chile,  Colombia  and  Guiana  are 
important.  Large  deposits  of  iron  and  dia- 
monds are  found  in  Brazil.  (See  BRAZIL.)  The 
forests  have  an  inexhaustible  store  of  rub- 
ber and  valuable  woods.  Brazil  furnishes 
65%  of  the  world's  coffee  and  more  than 
half  the  world's  rubber;  the  wheat  of  Ar- 
gentina is  a  large  item  in  the  world's  com- 
merce. 

Inhabitants.  These  belong  to  the  white, 
red  and  black  races,  and  include  hybrid 
races.  The  white  inhabitants  consist  in 
large  part  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Creoles, 
American  descendants  of  European  settlers, 
though  the  British,  Dutch  and  French  are 
present.  Argentina  and  Brazil  have  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  German,  Italian  and 
Polish  colonists.  The  red  men  or  Indians 
are  the  aborigines,  and  the  ancestors  of 
some  of  these  originated  native  civiliza- 
tions. The  blacks  are  the  descendants  of 
slaves  imported  from  Africa,  but  slavery 
has  nominally  ceased.  Chinese  and  Hindu 
coolies  are  present  in  considerable  num- 
bers. 

Political  Divisions.  South  America  com- 
prises the  republics  of  Colombia,  Ecuador, 
Venezuela,  Peru,  Bolivia,  Chile,  Argentina, 
Brazil,  Paraguay  and  Uruguay,  besides  the 
colonies  of  British,  French  and  Dutch  Guiana 
and  the  Falkland  Islands  (British).  The 
areas  and  populations  are  as  follows: 


Area,  sq.  m 

Argentina 1,139,979 

Bolivia 708,195 

Brazil 3.218,130 


Chile . 

Columbia 

Ecuador 

Paraguay 

Peru 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

British  Guiana.  . 
French  Guiana.  . 
Dutch  Guiana.  . . 
Falkland  Islands. 


291,500 
438,436 
116,000 
171,815 
679,600 
72,210 
393,976 
90,277 
30,500 
46,258 
5,300 


Pop. 

6.989,023 

2,267,935 

20,515,000 

3,500,000 

5,072,604 

1,500,000 

800,000 

4,500,000 

1,042,686 

2,713,703 

296,041 

27,000 

85,094 

2,272 


7,402,176      49,311,358 

History.  The  history  of  the  continent 
falls  into  two  eras — that  before  and  ithat 
since  Columbus  discovered  South  America 
(1498).  The  Peruvian  or  Inca  Indiansjhad 
advanced  far  in  culture  and  empire-building, 
but  Pizarrp  (1531)  conquered  and  destroyed 
their  civilization.  The  history  during! the 


and  invasion.  As  early  as  1550  the  contour 
of  the  continent  was  determined,  the  coun- 
try penetrated  to  the  core  and  European 
power  established.  Spanish  activity  in- 
cluded far  the  greater  part  of  the  habitable 
area,  Portuguese  colonization  confining  itself 
to  Brazil.  Portugal  and  Spain  for  three 
centuries  failed  to  treat  their  possessions 
sagaciously  or  generously,  exploiting  the 
colonists  as  badly  as  the  natives  and  the 
resources.  Between  1605  and  1767  the 
Jesuits  civilized  the  Indians  of  Paraguay. 
During  1776-1811  colonial  loyalty  to  Spain 
was  everywhere  weakened.  In  1810  -25 
came  the  heroic  age.  Bolivar,  San  Martin 
and  Sucre'  freed  Buenos  Aires,  Chile,  New 
Granada  (now  Colombia),  Quito  (now 
Ecuador),  Paraguay  and  Peru,  while  Brazil 
became  independent  peacefully.  Monroe, 
in  1823,  enunciated  the  doctrine  that  Europe 
should  in  no  way  attempt  to  control  the 
destiny  of  South  America.  During  1825-75 
the  Spanish  Americans  suffered  greatly,  the 
Brazilians  slightly,  from  civil  and  foreign 
wars,  but  about  1877  an  era  °f  progress 
opened.  Our  Centennial  and  Columbian 
Expositions  fostered  aspirations  for  peace 
and  prosperity.  Secretary  Blaine,  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  and  Secretary  Root  strength- 
ened political  friendship  between  Latin 
America  and  the  United  States — the  first 
(1881  and  1889)  by  Pan-American  con- 
gresses, the  second  (1896)  by  forcing  Britain 
to  arbitrate  the  Guiana  disagreement  with 
Venezuela,  the  third  (1907)  by  visiting  the 
southern  republics.  They  participated  hon- 
orably in  the  Hague  peace-conferences  of 
1899  and  1907.  Argentina,  Brazil  and 
Chile  have  progressed  materially. 

The  Panama  canal,  which  Saavedra  sug- 
gested in  1520,  will  immeasurably  benefit 
South  American  as  well  as  North  American 
countries.* 

America,  the  popular  name  of  the  tune 
to  which  the  words  "My  Country,  'Tis  of 
Thee"  are  commonly  sung.  The  national 
song  of  England,  "God  Save  the  King,"  is 
adapted  to  the  same  music.  We  also  find 
it  in  use  in  Denmark,  Switzerland,  Germany 
and  other  countries  as  a  national  song.  Its 
origin  has  been  ascribed  to  Lully,  to  the 
Scotch,  to  Purcell,  to  Dr.  Arne,  to  Henry 
Carey  and  to  Dr.  John  Bull.  The  words, "My 
Country,  'Tis  of  Thee,"  were  written  by 
Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  F.  Smith,  and  first  used 
at  a  children's  celebration  in  Park  Street 
Church,  in  Boston,  July  4,  1832.  (See  GOD 
SAVE  THE  KING.) 

America  Cup,  The,  is  a  trophy  offered  for 
the  first  time  at  the  London  international 
exhibition  of  1851  by  the  Royal  Yacht 
Squadron;  and  now  held  subject  to  annual 
challenges  by  the  New  York  Yacht  Club. 
Its  name  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  cup  was 
won  in  1851  by  the  U.-S.-built  yacht, 
America.  The  yacht  America  was  the  first 
vessel  to  be  built  upon  anything  like  modem 


sixteenth  century  AS  a  record  of  exploration 

*"Our  southern  neighbors  in  this  Hemisphere,!'  says  Director  General  Barrett  of  the  Pan  American  Union, 
"will  enjoy,  because  of  the  opening  of  the  Panama  canal,  the  greatest  material,  commercial,  and  economic 
development  which  any  group  of  nations  has  even  experienced  in  the  history  of  the  world." 


AMERICAN  INDIANS 


AMHERST 


racing  lines  and  to  have  a  long  bow  and  flat 
sails.  Ever  since  the  victory  of  the  America, 
the  cup  has  exercised  a  great  influence  upon 
yacht-builders.  The  deep,  narrow  knife- 
blade  hull  was  popular  until  1891,  when  the 
Gloriana  won  all  her  races,  and  showed  the 
advantage  of  "overhangs."  While  Ameri- 
can builders  have  aimed  chiefly  at  racers, 
British  builders  have  tried  to  combine  the 
racer  with  the  cruiser,  but  it  would  seem 
that  the  easy  defeat  of  Sir  Thomas  Lipton's 
challenger  Shamrock  III  by  the  Reliance, 
in  1903,  shows  that  no  vessel  fitted  for  cruis- 
ing is  fitted  for  racing  also. 

American  Indians.     See  INDIANS. 

American  Institution,  an  institution 
founded  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  in  1891,  with 
the  design  of  providing  advanced  instruc- 
tion for  graduates  of  other  colleges,  and 
subsequently  placed  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  with  John 
F,  Hurst,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  as  its  first  chan- 
cellor. Its  working  organization  is  as  yet 
hardly  planned  out,  though  its  purposed 
scope  is  large  and  important  as  a  post  grad- 
uate university  and  of  coeducational  char- 
acter. 

American  Lion.     See  PUMA. 

American  Literature.      See  LITERATURE. 

American  School  at  Athens,  The. 
The  American  School  of  Classical  Litera- 
ture, Art  and  Antiquities,  in  Athens,  was 
founded  in  1881  at  the  suggestion  of  Pro- 
fessor Charles  Eliot  Norton.  It  is  supported 
partly  by  endowment  and  partly  by  con- 
tributions from  American  colleges  and  uni- 
versities. It  affords  opportunities  for  ad- 
vanced study  of  ancient  Greek  civilization, 
and  carries  on  archaeological  investigations. 
It  has  made  important  excavations  in  Ar- 
gos,  Crete  and  other  places.  The  results 
of  the  studies  and  excavations  are  reported 
in  the  American  Journal  of  Archeology. 

American  School  in  Rome.  This  school 
was  founded  in  1895  by  the  Archaeological 
Institute  of  America,  and  is  supported  by  a 
number  of  American  colleges  and  universi- 
ties and  by  private  gifts.  In  1906,  it  had  an 
endowment  fund  of  nearly  $100,000.  The 
school  is  under  the  immediate  superintend- 
ence of  a  resident  professor,  the  director, 
who  is  assisted  by  a  faculty  of  four 
specialists.  The  object  of  the  school  is 
'  to  promote  the  study  of  classical  litera- 
ture in  its  bearing  upon  antiquities  and 
history;  of  classical,  Etruscan  and  Italic 
art  and  archaeology,  including  topography, 
palaeography  and  epigraphy;  and  of  the 
art  and  archaeology  of  the  early  Christian, 
the  mediaeval,  and  the  renaissance  periods 
within  the  boundaries  of  Italy.  The 
school  year  extends  from  October  to  July. 
Part  of  this  time  is  usually  spent  in  study 
in  Greece. 

American  University,  founded  in  1893 
at  Harriman,  Tenn.,  under  the  denomina- 
tional auspices  of  the  Christian  Church. 


Its  president  was  James  A.  Tate,  M.  C.,  and 
it  had  a  teaching  faculty  of  1 2  professors,  with 
a  student  attendance,  in  1906  of  317.  It  had  a 
small  library  of  about  2,500  volumes.  It  has 
since  been  discontinued. 

Amer'icus  Vespu'cius  or  Amerigo  Ves- 
pucci (ves-poot'che)  (1451-1512),  an  Italian 
navigator,  who  in  the  era  of  Columbus, 
about  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
made  several  voyages  to  the  northern  coast 
of  South  America,  and,  it  is  alleged,  made 
one  voyage  to  North  America,  sailing  along 
the  coast  of  Florida  as  far  north  as  Chesa- 
peake Bay.  There  is  doubt  cast  upon  some 
of  these  voyages,  though  it  is  said  that  at 
least  one  of  them  was  made  in  company  with 
Columbus,  while  Vespucius  wrote  and  pub- 
lished in  his  day  narratives  of  all  of  them. 
What  at  least  is  certain  is  that  the  new- 
found continent  came  to  bear  the  Floren- 
tine navigator's  name,  though  this  was  not 
by  his  own  seeking  nor  from  any  wish  on 
Vespucius's  part  to  detract  from  the  honor 
due  to  Columbus  in  naming  the  New  World 
America.  What  otherwise  is  known  of 
Vespucius  is  that  he  was  for  a  time  in  the 
commercial  office  of  the  Medici  in  Florence, 
and  later  on  became  a  merchant  at  Seville, 
whose  business  it  was  to  furnish  supplies 
and  to  fit  out  vessels  engaged  in  foreign 
trade.  See  Fiske's  Discovery  of  America, 
Thatcher's  Continent  of  America  and  Har- 
risse's  Discovery  of  North  America. 

Ames  (amz),  Fisher  (born  1758,  died 
1808),  an  American  orator,  statesman  and 
political  writer.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  at  the  age  of  16,  and  after  a  few  years 
entered  the  law.  At  the  same  time  his 
essays  in  the  Boston  newspapers  under  the 
names  "Camillus"  and  "Brutus,"  made  him 
well  known.  He  was  a  membeir  of  the 
Massachusetts  convention  which  ratified  the 
Constitution  in  1788,  and  was  the  first  rep- 
resentative in  Congress  from  his  district, 
which  then  included  Boston.  He  was  es- 
pecially famous  for  his  energy  and  eloquence 
in  debate. 

Amesbury  (dmz'ber  T),  Mass.,  a  town  in 
Essex  County,  on  the  Merrimac  River,  27 
miles  from  Salem  and  45  from  Boston.  It 
has  manufactories  of  cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  machinery,  carriages,  boots  and 
shoes,  hats,  etc.  From  1836  it  was  for 
many  years  the  residence  of  the  poet  Whit- 
tier.  Population,  9,849. 

Am'ethyst  (am'ethtsf),  a  purple  variety 
of  rock  crystal  or  quartz.  Its  name  comes 
from  the  Greek,  meaning  "to  prevent  intoxi- 
cation," and  was  given  it  because  of  the  idea 
held  by  the  ancients  that  liquor  drunk  from  a 
cup  made  of  amethyst  would  not  intoxicate. 
It  is  found  in  Brazil,  Ceylon,  India  and 
many  other  places,  and  is  much  worn  in  the 
form  of  rings,  seals,  etc.  The  oriental  ame- 
thyst is  a  variety  of  the  sapphire. 

Amherst  (dm' erst},  a  town  of  Massachu- 
setts, about  82  miles  west  of  Boston.  It  is 


AMI 


AMCEBA 


known  as  the  seat  of  Amherst  College,  a 
Congregational  institution  founded  in  1821. 
The  original  purpose  of  the  college  was  to 
educate  young  men  for  the  ministry.  There 
are  now  5°  instructors  and  502  students, 
with  an  art  gallery,  a  library  of  52,000  vol- 


AMHERST   COLLEGE   CHAPEL   AND   DORMITORIES 

umes,  memorial  chapel,  gymnasium,  obser- 
vatory and  rare  museum  of  Indian  relics 
Nineveh  antiquities,  minerals  and  tracks 
in  stone.  It  has  a  fine  collection  of  casts 
from  famous  statuary,  a  park  of  twenty- 
six  acres,  with  ball  and  tennis  grounds. 
Near  the  town  is  the  Massachusetts  Agri- 
cultural College,  considered  one  of  the  best 
agricultural  schools  in  America.  Popula- 
tion, 5,112. 

Ami(a'wee),HenryM.,M.A.,D.Sc.,F.G.S. 
and  F.  R.  S.  of  Canada,  was  born  at  Belle 
Riviere,  near  Montreal,  Nov.  23,  1858.  He 
is  the  son  of  the  late  Rev.  Marc  Ami  of 
Geneva,  Switzerland.  He  was  educated  in 
the  Ottawa  public  and  grammar  schools  and 
at  McGill  University,  where  he  took  high 
honors,  and  in  1903  was  awarded  the  Bigsby 
medal  by  the  Geological  society  of  London, 
Eng.  He  has  been  the  paleontologist  of  the 
geological  survey  of  Canada  since  1882,  and 
is  the  author  of  many  papers  on  the  paleon- 
tology and  chronological  geology  of  Canada. 
His  home  is  in  Ottawa,  and  there  he  edited 
the  Naturalist,  from  1895  to  1900. 

Amiens  (a'me-an'},  a  manufacturing  city 
of  France,  formerly  the  most  important  in 
Picardy.  It  possesses  a  venerable  and  fa- 
mous cathedral.  Population,  93,207.  The 
well-known  treaty  of  Amiens,  which  ended  a 
war  that  had  lasted  ten  years,  was  made  by 
Great  Britain  with  France,  Holland  and 
Spain  in  1802.  England  gave  up  all  of  its 
conquests  of  the  war,  except  Ceylon  and 
Trinidad.  France  gave  up  Naples,  and 
Egypt  was  restored  to  Turkey.  In  the 
Franco-German  War,  Amiens  fell  for  a  time 
into  the  hands  of  the  Germans  (November 
1870),  while  the  latter  gained  a  great  victory 
over  the  French  Army  of  the  Loire. 

Am'men,  Daniel,  was  born  May  15,  1820, 
in  Ohio,  and  entered  the  navy  as  midship- 
man in  1836.  During  the  Civil  War  he  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Port  Royal,  and  in  the 
attacks  on  Fort  Fisher  and  Fort  Sumter. 


He  became  commodore  and  afterward  rear- 
admiral,  retiring  in  1878.  He  died  July 
ii,  1898. 

Am'mon,  an  Egyptian  god,  connected  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  with  Zeus  or  Jupiter. 
The  Egyptians  called  him  Amen,  the  hidden 
god,  and  in  the  earliest  times  repre- 
sented him  as  a  man,  but  in  later 
times  as  a  ram  or  a  man  with  a 
ram's  head.  He  had  famous  tem- 
ples in  Thebes,  Egypt,  and  on  the 
oasis  of  Ammon  in  the  Libyan  des- 
ert and  in  many  other  places. 

Ammo'nia,  a  gas  (NHS),  which  is 
dissolved  by  water  with  great  avidity, 
making  an  alkaline  liquid  called  am- 
monia-water or,  by  chemists,  ammo- 
nium hydroxide,   which   is  the  com- 
mon form  in  which  it  is  used.     The 
name    is  probably  derived  from  the 
temple    of   Ammon   in   the    Libyan 
desert,    where    ammonia    was    pro- 
duced.    The  name  hartshorn  is  also  used, 
because   the   shavings   of  horns  have  been 
used  to  prepare  it.     It  is  composed  of  nitro- 
gen and  hydrogen,  and  is  obtained  chiefly 
from    the   waste   liquors   of  the    manufac- 
tories of  illuminating  gas.     Ammonia    gas 
may  be  changed  to  a  liquid  or  solid  by  cold 
and  pressure.     An  important  use  of  liquid 
ammonia  is  in  the  manufacture  of  ice.       (See 
ICE.)     Ammonia  unites  with  acids  to  form 
ammonium  salts.     The  carbonate  is  much 
used  for  smelling  salts,  the  chloride  is  used 
in  soldering  and  in  medicine,  and  the  sul- 
phate and  other  salts   are  valuable    ferti- 
lizers. 

Amoe'ba,  one  of   the  lowest  microscopic 
animal  organisms,  extensively  used  in  labor- 
atory work  in  biology.     The  amoeba  is  a 
single  cell  (see  CELL  DOCTRINE)  ;  its  body  is 
a  mass  of  protoplasm. 
Therefore,     when     we 
make  observations 
upon  it  we  are  observ- 
ing  protoplasm  at  first 
hand    and    can   deter- 
mine its  properties  and 
behavior.      Within   its 
AMOSBOID  CELLS        bO(jy  au  the  physiolog- 
ical  acts  take  place  in  a  simplified  form.    It 
is,  therefore,  of  unusual  interest  to  biologists, 
for  the  physiological  processes  are  so  com- 
plex in  higher  animals  that  one  must  have 
them  reduced  to  their  simplest  expression 
in   order  to   comprehend   them.     The   soft 

frotoplasm  of  its  body  is  always  moving, 
t  flows  into  finger-like  processes  (pseudo- 
podia),  and  changes  its  position  from  place 
to  place.  It  also  flows  about  food  particles 
and  thereby  engulfs  them  into  its  substance. 
The  amceba  is  found  in  stagnant  water,  moist 
moss,  etc.  The  living  substance  of  its 
body  is  contractile,  like  muscles;  irritable, 
like  nervous  tissue;  receptive,  assimilative, 
respiratory,  reproductive,  etc. — the  germs 
of  activities  that  are  more  developed  and 


AMOOR 


AMSTERDAM 


perfected  in  higher  animals.  See  PROTO- 
ZOA. 

Amoor'  or  Amur,  a  river  of  eastern  Asia, 
i, 800  miles  long.  It  forms  a  part  of  the 
boundary  between  Siberia  and  China,  and 
flows  into  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  Length  of 
river,  including  its  chief  tributary,  the  Argun, 
2,800  miles,  of  which  over  2,000  are  naviga- 
ble. In  1858,  Russia  had  ceded  to  her  the 
whole  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Amur;  since 
then,  in  taking  possession  of  the  Amur 
Valley,  she  has  occupied  much  also  of  the 
right  bank  of  the  river.  Amur  is  also  a 
Russian  province  in  Siberia,  area  172,826 
square  miles;  population,  119,909. 

A'mos,  one  of  the  minor  Hebrew  prophets, 
lived  about  800  B.  C.  He  was  a  herdsman 
and  a  dresser  of  sycamore  trees  in  the  region 
of  Tekoa,  a  fortified  town  south  of  Judah. 
He  vigorously  denounced  the  idolatry  of  the 
Jews,  and  prophesied  the  anger  of  God 
against  idolatrous  nations.  His  language 
is  remarkable  for  its  simplicity  and  clear- 
ness. 

Ampere  (an' par1}.  The  "practical  unit" 
in  which  electric  currents  are  measured.  The 
numerical  value  of  the  ampere,  as  established 
by  the  International  Electrical  Congress, 
held  at  Chicago  in  1893,  is  "the  practical 
equivalent  of  the  unvarying  current  which, 
when  passed  through  a  solution  of  stiver  ni- 
trate in  water,  in  accordance  with  standard 
specifications,  deposits  silver  at  the  rate  of 
0.001118  grams  per  second." 

This  definition,  having  been  ratified  by- 
Congress,  now  defines  the  "legal  ampere. 

The  logical  definition  of  the  ampere,  and 
the  one  which  the  legal  unit  approximates  as 
nearly  as  possible,  is  "a  current  equal  to 
one-tenth  of  the  absolute  unit  of  current." 
See  ELECTRICITY. 

Ampere  (dn-per/),  Andre-Marie  (born 
1775,  died  1836).  A  distinguished  French 
physicist  and  mathematician.  Most  of  his 
working  life  was  spent  at  the  Ecole  Poly- 
technique,  the  great  military  school  of  Paris. 

Ampere's  most  important  contributions 
to  knowledge  are,  perhaps,  the  three  fol- 
lowing : 

First:  His  clear  analysis  and  mathemati- 
cal description  of  the  work  of  Oersted.  It 
was  in  the  autumn  of  1820  that  Oersted 
discovered  the  effect  of  an  electric  current 
upon  a  magnetic  needle.  In  less  than  one 
week  after  learning  of  this  discovery,  Am- 
pere had  extended  the  results  by  experiment 
and  had  reduced  the  description  to  a  mathe- 
matical formula. 

Second:  The  discovery  that  electric  cur- 
rents produce  a  magnetic  effect  upon  each 
other:  so  that  when  the  currents  in  two 
wires  are  flowing  in  parallel  directions,  they 
attract  each  other;  but,  when  flowing  in 
opposite  directions,  repel  each  other. 

Third:  Ampere  introduced  the  very  fruit- 
ful hypothesis  that  magnetic  substances  are 
made  up  of  molecules  in  which  electric  cur- 


rents circulate  but  meet  no  resistance.  These 
currents  are  therefore  permanent. 

According  to  this  view,  a  body  is  mag- 
netized when  its  molecules  are  made  to  face 
more  or  less  one  way. 

Amphibia  (am-fio'e-a),  a  natural  class  of 
vertebrate  animals  including  frogs,  toads, 
salamanders,  newts,  etc.  The  peculiarity 
about  the  amphibia  is  that  they  pass  through 
a  tadpole  state.  They  are  at  first  adapted 
to  living  in  the  water  and  breathe  by  gills 
and  have  no  legs;  but  they  gradually 
change;  usually  the  gills  disappear,  and 
lungs  and  _  legs  are  developed.  They  are 
in  a  way  intermediate  between  fishes  and 
land  animals.  Sometimes  the  gills  are 
retained  throughout  life,  as  in  the  mud- 
puppy  (Necturus)  and  Mexican  axolott. 
These  forms  have  both  lungs  and  gills.  The 
salamanders  are  like  lizards  in  form  but  are 
different  in  structure  and  development, 
Fossil  amphibia  are  found  imbedded  in  the 
rocks  with  a  body  as  large  as  an  ox.  See 
FROG,  TOAD,  SALAMANDER,  etc. 

Amphithe'ater.     See  COLOSSEUM. 

Am'sterdam  or  Amsteldam,  the  capital 
and  largest  city  of  the  Netherlands.  The 
city  is  built  on  an  arm  of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  in 
the  shape  of  a  half-moon,  and  as  the  site  is  a 
marsh  it  is  founded  on  piles  driven  deep  into 
the  mud.  Dikes  guard  it  against  the  tides, 
which  rise  higher  than  the  city's  level.  A 
system  of  canals  with  the  river  Amstel  di- 
vides the  city  into  about  ninety  islands,  with 
nearly  290  bridges;  hence  the  name  of  the 
city,  Amsterdam,  meaning  "the  dam  or 
dike  of  the  Amstel."  There  are  many  fine 
public  buildings,  the  finest  being  the  palace, 
built  in  1648.  There  are  several  public 
societies,  such  as  the  Society  of  Public  Wel- 
fare, whose  object  is  to  promote  education 
and  the  improvement  of  all  classes,  and 
which  has  branches  in  nearly  every  town 
and  village  of  Holland.  From  a  small  fish- 
ing village  in  the  i3th  century,  Amsterdam 
became,  by  the  close  of  the  r  7th  century,  the 
first  commercial  city  of  Exirope.  After  years 
of  decline,  it  has  again  risen  into  commercial 
prominence.  The  Amstet  dam  canal,  uniting 
the  city  (17  miles  distant)  with  the  North 
Sea,  has  recently  been  greatly  enlarged  and 
deepened,  tidal  locks  being  affixed  at  either 
end — the  Zuyder  Zee  end  and  the  North 
Sea  entrance.  Population  568,130. 

Amsterdam,  a  city  of  Montgomery 
County,  New  York,  33  miles  from  Albany. 
It  is  an  important  manufacturing  city, 
among  its  products  being  pearl  buttons,  car- 
pets, rugs,  knit-goods,  wagon-springs,  paper, 
paper-boxes,  silks  and  brooms.  Besides,  it  has 
foundries  and  machine  shops.  Amsterdam 
is  located  on  the  Mohawk  River  and  Erie 
'&  Barge  Canal,  and  the  West  Shore  and  the 
New  York  Central  railroads.  The  first  settle- 
ment was  made  in  1778  and  was  known  as 
Veedersberg  until  1804.  The  present  city  was 
incorporated  in  1885,  and  has  all  the  adjuncts 


AMUNDSEN 


66 


ANESTHETIC 


of  a  progressive  city.  Population    at  present 
is  35,000. 
Amundsen,    (d'-mtind-se'ri)    Capt.    Roald. 

For  nine  months  of  the  year  no  stranger 
comes  to  the  mining  camp  of  Eagle  City, 
Alaska.  It  is  on  the  Arctic  circle,  and  its  one 
street  of  log  houses  fronts  on  the  frozen  flood 
of  the  Yukon.  When,  therefore,  one  short, 
dark  day  in  December,  1905,  a  dog-sledge 
dashed  into  town  over  the  ice  of  the  river, 
not  from  the  coast  150  miles  to  the  west, 
but  from  the  north,  down  the  slope  of  the 
Canadian  Rockies,  everyone  was  amazed. 
The  stranger  was  of  powerful  build  and  had 
the  sea-blue  eyes  and  blond  coloring  of  a 
Norse  viking.  He  was  clothed  in  yellow 
seal-skins,  and  his  dogs  were  of  Esquimaux 
breed,  unlike  Alaskan  huskies 

"Captain  Roald  Amundsen  of  the  Sloop 
Gjoa,  Christiania,  Norway,"  is  the  way  in 
which  he  registered  in  the  log  hotel.  It  was 
the  Norwegian  explorer,  whose  little  ship  had 
been  reported  crushed  in  the  ice  six  months 
before.  He  had  sailed  from  Greenland  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  River,  through  the 
Northwest  Passage  that  had  been  sought  for 
very  nearly  four  hundred  years — from  the 
time  Sebastian  Cabot  coasted  along  Labrador, 
in  1497.  He  had  spent  two  long  years  on  King 
William's  Land,  where  Sir  John  Franklin  had 
perished  sixty  years  before;  had  determined 
the  position  of  the  north  magnetic  pole  in 
King  William's  Land;  and  had  brought  his 
gallant  little  craft  and  crew  of  six  men  through 
unharmed. 

Roald  Amundsen  was  born  of  Norwegian 
parents  in  the  city  of  Christiania,  Norway. 
in  1872.  After  completing  a  common  school 
education  he  became  a  sailor.  At  25  years 
of  age  he  joined  a  south  polar  expedition. 
Returning,  he  sought  the  friendship  of  Dr. 
Nansen,  the  Arctic  explorer,  for  he  had  de- 
cided to  try  to  locate  the  magnetic  pole  and 
to  make  the  Northwest  Passage,  both  of 
which  Sir  John  Franklin's  expedition  had 
determined  to  lie  in  the  neighborhood  of 
King  William's  Land  and  Boothia.  He 
fitted  out  a  73  foot,  60  ton  sloop  to  be  pro- 
pelled by  a  petroleum  engine  and  manned 
by  six  Norse  sailors.  He  left  Christiania 
in  June,  1903,  got  dogs  and  supplies  at 
Godhaven,  Greenland,  and  disappeared.  He 
reached  Herschell  Island,  Mackenzie  River, 
in  Oct.,  1905.  Here  he  was  frozen  in,  made 
his  way  overland  to  Alaska  and  returning 
in  the  spring  took  the  Gjoa  around  through 
Behring  Straits  to  San  Francisco. 

But  Amundsen's  crowning  achievement 
was  the  discovery  of  the  South  Pole.  He 
sailed  from  Norway  in  Nansen's  vessel,  the 
Fram,  in  1910.  Early  in  1911  he  reached 
Whales  Bay,  where  he  went  into  winter 
quarters.  In  Feb.  he  pushed  south  with 
food  supplies  and  established  depots  as  far 
as  82  south  latitude,  returning  to  winter 
quarters.  The  sun  disappeared  April  22 
and  reappeared  Aug.  24.  On  Sept.  8  he 


started  for  the  pole,  but,  finding  the  date 
too  early,  he  returned  to  winter  quarters. 
On  Oct.  20  with  4  men,  4  sledges,  52  dogs 
and  four  months'  provision  he  made  his 
final  start  for  the  goal.  On  Nov.  17  he 
reached  the  great  ice  barrier,  latitude  85°, 
and  climbed  to  the  top  of  the  polar  plateau, 
to  a  height  of  10,000  feet.  Here  he  killed 
24  dogs,  and  with  18  dogs  and  three  sledges 
pushed  on  over  a  vast  plateau  clad  in  snow 
and  glacier  ice,  reaching  the  pole  Dec.  14. 
Here  he  remained  three  days,  taking  obser- 
vations, and  located  the  pole  in  a  vast  plain, 
which  he  named  King  Haakon  VII  Plateau. 
Returning  he  reached  his  winter  quarters 
Jan.  25,  and  on  March  7  he  cabled  to  Chris- 
tiania, Norway:  "Pole  attained  fourteenth- 
seventeenth  December,  1911.  All  well." 

Anaconda  (dn'a-kon'da) ,  a  large  serpent 
allied  to  the  boa-constrictor,  is  found 
in  South  America,  especially  in  Brazil  and 
in  Guiana.  It  sometimes  grows  to  the 
length  of  forty  feet,  and  is  the  largest  ser- 
pent in  America.  It  passes  much  of  the 
time  in  the  water,  choosing  the  shallow 
parts  of  a  lake  or  stream.  It  is  not  poison- 
ous. 

Anacon'da,  Montana,  a  city,  the  county 
seat  of  Deer  Lodge  County,  situated  about 
28  miles  west  by  north  of  Butte,  and 
reached  by  the  Northern  Pacific,  the  Great 
Northern  and  the  Butte,  Anaconda  and 
Pacific  Railway.  Its  chief  industry  is 
popper-smelting,  the  works  of  which  employ 
usually  about  3,000  men.  The  town  is 
growing  rapidly,  and  has  some  fine  public 
buildings,  including  the  Hearst  Free  Library, 
several  banks,  opera  houses,  schools,  etc. 
It  has  also  a  system  of  public  parks.  Its  in- 
dustries include  foundries,  railway  and 
machine  shops,  brick  works  and  copper 
smelting.  A  gold  mining  district  20  miles 
west  is  reached  by  an  extension  of  the  B.  A. 
&  P.  Population  12,000. 

An'  aesthet'  ic,  the  name  applied  to  any 
agency  which  causes  either  partial  or  com- 
plete insensibility  to  pain.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  anaesthetics:  those  called  local 
anaesthetics,  which  affect  only  a  limited 
area;  and  those  called  general  anaesthetics, 
which  cause  temporary  insensibility  of  the 
whole  body.  Anaesthetics  of  various  kinds 
were  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  by 
the  Chinese  as  early  as  the  third  century 
A.  D.  When  men  began  to  study  chem- 
istry systematically,  toward  the  close  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  various  anaesthetics 
were  discovered,  but  it  was  some  time  be- 
fore they  came  into  common  use.  In  1844 
Dr.  Horace  Wells  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  used 
nitrous  oxide  gas  to  render  the  extraction 
of  teeth  painless.  In  1846  Dr.  Morton  of 
Boston  employed  the  vapor  of  sulphuric 
ether  for  the  same  purpose,  and  afterwards 
applied  it  in  cases  requiring  surgery.  In 
1847  Sir  James  J.  Simpson  of  Edinborough 
announced  the  discovery  of  chloroform. 


ANAM 


ANATOMY 


and  suggested  its  use  instead  of  ether. 
These  three  anaesthetics  are  taken  into  the 
system  by  inhalation.  Local  anaesthesia 
is  produced  by  chilling  with  ice  or  by  the 
evaporation  of  some  volatile  substance  like 
ether  or  rhigoline.  Cocaine  is  also  used 
extensively  for  this  purpose. 

Anarn'.     See  COCHIN  CHINA. 

Anarchism,  a  communistic  and  revolu- 
tionary theory  adverse  to  social  order,  law 
and  government,  and  manifesting  in  its 
votaries — generally  men  of  grandiose  ideas 
lacking  in  mental  equilibrium — an  unnatural 
aversion  to  their  kind,  especially  if  well- 
to-do  and  influential,  and  an  implacable 
fanaticism.  The  leaders  of  the  movement 
have  been  men  of  prominence  in  various 
countries,  acting  under  the  impulse  given 
it  by  such  eminent  writers  as  Karl  Marx 
of  Germany  (1818-83),  Pierre  J.  Proud- 
lion  (1809-65),  the  French  socialist, William 
Godwin,  the  English  political  writer  (1756- 
1836)  and  author  of  the  famous  Enquiry 
Concerning  Political  Justice,  Elisee  Reclus, 
the  French  republicanist,  and  Prince 
Krapotkin,  the  Russian  nihilist  and  revo- 
lutionist (1842)  and  propagandist  of  social 
reform.  Some  of  these  men  are  idealists 
rather  than  revolutionists,  and  are  opposed 
to  assassination  and  violent  measures  in 
ridding  the  world  of  tyrannical  rulers  and 
bureaucratic  administration.  Others  of 
them,  however,  including  many  of  their 
more  hasty  and  hotheaded  followers,  are 
eager  for  the  overthrow  of  the  existing 
social  order,  and  are  fanatical  in  their  de- 
sire to  overturn  society  and  give  rein  to  ex- 
treme individualistic  theories,  including 
resistance  by  force  to  all  repressive,  orderly 
authority.  Hence  have  come  the  bomb- 
throwing  and  the  anarchical  assassinations 
which  have  been  the  terror  of  the  time, 
including  revolutionary  conspiracy. 

Anat'omy.  It  is  a  common  mistake 
to  suppose  that  anatomy  applies  only  to  the 
bones;  on  the  contrary,  it  includes  the 
structure  of  both  animals  and  plants.  Just 
as  the  architecture  of  a  house  shows  its 
plan  of  construction,  so  anatomy,  or  the 
architecture  of  animals  and  plants,  shows 
how  they  are  constructed,  and  with  the 
higher  animals  this  is  a  very  complex  thing. 
The  physicians  and  medical  men  were  the 
first  to  take  an  interest  in  the  anatomy  of 
the  human  body,  because  a  knowledge  of 
it  is  necessary  for  medicine,  and  it  thus 
happens  that  the  earliest  observations  in 
this  line  were  directed  toward  making  known 
the  structure  of  the  human  body  and  of 
animals  rather  closely  related  to  man  in 
points  of  structure.  Anatomical  study, 
therefore,  began  with  the  most  complex 
animals  instead  of  with  the  simpler  ones, 
and  this  led  to  many  misunderstandings. 
It  was  so  difficult  in  the  early  days  to  get 
an  opportunity  to  study  the  human  body 
that  the  pioneer  anatomists  were  obliged  to 


gain  their  knowledge  by  dissections  of 
animals  like  the  dog  and  occasionally  of  a 
monkey.  Aristotle  (B.  C.  384-322)  and 
other  ancients  learned  a  great  deal  about 
anatomy  in  this  way. 

About  B.  C.  300,  the  dissection  of  the 
human  body  was  legalized  in  the  Alexan- 
drian school,  the  bodies  of  condemned 
criminals  being  devoted  to  that  purpose. 
But  this  did  not  become  general,  and  anat- 
omy continued  to  be  studied  mainly  from 
brute  animals. 

Finally,  in  the  early  part  of  the  Christian 
era,  Galen  (130-200  A.  D.),  became  ac- 
cepted as  authority,  from  the  2d  century, 
in  which  he  lived,  to  the  revival  of  anatomy 
in  the  i6th  century.  During  the  decline 
ot  intellectual  life,  in  the  dark  ages,  there 
\vas  no  progress.  In  the  i4th  century, 
ooservations  were  renewed,  but  no  par- 
tic  alar  advance  was  made  for  about  two 
centuries.  Then  a  highly-gifted  man  of 
great  intellectual  power  —  Vesalius  (1514- 
1564) — was  born,  who  gave  himself  to  the 
study  of  anatomy.  Under  his  hands  the 
science  underwent  a  revival,  and  his  work 
marks  an  epoch.  In  1543,  at  the  age  of 
29,  he  published  a  book  (De  Corporis  Hu- 
mani  Fabrica),  most  beautifully  illustrated, 
which  is  accepted  as  laying  the  foundations 
of  modern  anatomy.  In  this  book  he  cor- 
rected many  errors  of  Galen,  and  claimed 
that  the  knowledge  of  that  anatomist  had 
been  gained  from  the  bodies  of  apes  and 
other  brute  animals,  and  not  from  man. 
Vesalius  had  with  great  difficulty  pro- 
cured the  bodies  of  some  criminals  for  his 
studies,  and  he  reaped  the  displeasure  of 
the  authorities  and  of  the  Inquisition,  by 
whom  he  was  threatened.  He  found  him- 
self in  controversy  with  his  teachers  and 
contemporaries,  most  of  whom  defended 
the  authority  of  Galen,  but  in  due  course 
of  time  his  position  was  triumphantly  estab- 
lished and  the  authority  of  Galen  over- 
thrown. 

Anatomy  began  now  to  assume  more  im- 
portance, and  there  arose  famous  teachers 
of  the  subject.  The  Italians  were  at  this 
time  in  the  lead — the  prejudices  against 
dissection  in  Germany,  France  and  Britain 
prevented  the  development  of  the  subject 
in  those  countries.  The  school  at  Padua 
became  deservedly  famous,  and  students 
were  attracted  to  it  from  all  over  Europe  and 
Britain.  From  England,  William  Harvey 
(1578-1657)  found  his  way  to  Padua  as  a 
medical  student.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
1 7th  century,  he  made  an  epoch  in  both 
anatomy  and  physiology  by  the  demon- 
stration (1628)  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood.  Among  the  famous  Italian  teachers 
of  the  period  were  the  leaders  in  anatomy: 
Vesalius,  Fallopius  and  Eustachius  (from 
whom  is  named  the  Eustachian  tube). 
Thus  in  the  i6th  century  human  anatomy 
was  well  established. 


ANATOMY 


68 


ANATOMY 


The  subject  became  broadened.  Natural- 
ists began  to  take  more  interest  in  animals 
and  plants,  and  there  gradually  grew  up 
those  who  compared  the  structure  of  higher 
animals  with  the  simpler  ones.  These 
comparisons  brought  out  so  many  resem- 
blances and  so  many  remarkable  facts  as 
regards  construction,  that  anatomy,  which 
seems  at  first  a  dry  subject,  became  endued 
with  great  interest.  Presently  it  was  dis- 
covered that  insects  have  a  most  beautifully 
constructed  organization;  that  they  have 
delicately  formed  organs  for  digesting  their 
food,  with  fine  salivary  glands,  a  remarka- 
bly beautiful  nervous  system,  breathing 
tubes,  etc.  Thus  there  was  opened  a  new 
world  to  anatomists.  These  .studies  in 
minute  anatomy  fascinated  all  who  under- 
took them;  and  well  they  might,  for  there 
are  no  more  beautiful  illustrations  in  nature 
of  delicate  structures  nicely  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  life.  Malpighi  the  Italian  and 
two  Dutchmen,  Swammerdam  and  Leeu- 
wenhoek,  were  the  leaders  in  this  field,  and 
the  sketches  with  which  they  illustrated 
their  studies  excite  our  admiration  even 
to-day.  Malpighi  and  Leeuwenhoek  also 
began  to  apply  the  microscope  to  anatom- 
ical study,  and  a  new  line  of  advance  was 
started,  involving  minute  or  microscopic 
anatomy.  The  same  kind  of  architectural 
study  was  extended  to  the  other  groups  of 
lower  animals,  and  a  great  fund  of  new 
knowledge  was  acquired. 

At  the  same  period  Malpighi,  Grew  and 
others  laid  the  foundations  of  the  knowledge 
of  the  minute  structure  of  plants. 

The  interest  of  naturalists  kept  deepening, 
and  finally,  just  at  the  beginning  of  the 
igth  century,  the  great  Cuvier  (1769-1832) 
founded  the  science  of  comparative  anat- 
omy. The  men  who  have  followed  in  his 
footsteps  and  made  the  work,  in  this  par- 
ticular line,  more  modern,  are  Meckel,  J. 
Miiller,  Rathke  and  Gegenbaur  in  Ger- 
many; Richard  Owen,  Goodsir  and  Huxley 
in  England;  and  Joseph  Leidy  and  E.  D. 
Cope  in  America. 

Simultaneous  with  the  work  of  Cuvier 
came  that  of  his  equally  distinguished  con- 
temporary Bichat  (1771-1802),  who,  while 
Cuvier  was  studying  principally  the  organs, 
directed  his  attention  to  the  tissues  of  which 
the  organs  are  composed.  Bichat  took  a 
step  further  than  Cuvier.  He  founded  the 
Department  of  Histology  or  Microscopic 
Anatomy  of  organs.  This  line  of  analysis 
was,  in  1839-40,  carried  still  further  by 
Schwann  and  Schleiden,  who  showed  that 
the  tissues  are  composed  of  cells.  All 
anatomy  since  1840  has  been  greatly  modi- 
fied and  influenced  by  this  cell  theory. 

Having  gained  some  knowledge  of  the 
construction  of  animals  and  plants,  it  is 
natural  that  the  next  step  should  relate  to 
the  process  of  building.  Since  it  is  known 
that  all  animals  and  plants  start  in  a  rela- 


tively simple  microscopic  rudiment — a  seed 
or  an  egg — we  wish  to  know,  further,  some- 
thing about  the  series  of  steps  by  which 
this  simple  rudiment  is  converted  into  the 
highly  complex  organism.  This  line  of 
study  is  called  Embryology  or  Develop- 
ment. As  early  as  1769,  Wolff  showed  the 
true  nature  of  development,  viz.,  that  it  is 
an  actual  process  of  construction,  and 
not  simply  the  expansion  of  a  preformed 
miniature,  as  was  quite  generally  believed 
in  his  time.  But  Von  Baer  (1792-1876), 
is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  modern 
ideas  of  development.  He  showed  that 
all  the  organs  and  tissues  in  the  bodies  of 
animals  proceed  from  three  first-formed 
layers  of  cells  or  the  germ-layers  and  that 
corresponding  tissues  come  from  the  same 
one  of  the  three  layers  in  all  animals  above 
the  very  lowest.  The  facts  of  develop- 
ment, taken  in  connection  with  the  doctrine 
of  organic  evolution,  have  greatly  influenced 
the  progress  of  anatomy.  Comparative 
anatomy,  especially,  has  been  the  gainer. 
The  comparative  structure  of  animals  as- 
sumes new  meaning  when  we  understand 
that  the  higher  animals  are  connected  by 
a  series  of  gradations  with  the  lower  ones, 
and  that  the  higher  animals  present  many 
fundamental  features  of  resemblance  to  the 
lower  ones  in  very  early  stages  of  their  de- 
velopment. 

This  is,  briefly,  the  story  of  the  rise  of 
anatomy.  It  shows  how  the  study  began 
with  a  narrow  aim, — that  of  making  known 
the  structure  of  the  human  body  for  the 
use  of  medical  men;  then,  after  various 
vicissitudes,  how  it  was  broadened  and 
deepened  to  include  the  structure  of  all  liv- 
ing beings;  and  how,  finally,  the  story  of 
the  development  of  life  was  added  to  that 
of  its  structure.  Anatomy  has  thus  come 
to  be  an  important  department  of  biology. 

Let  us  now  see  what  are  its  principal  sub- 
divisions: We  must,  of  course,  have  de- 
scriptive and  surgical  anatomy  for  medical 
men.  We  must  also  have  physiological 
anatomy  to  understand  the  workings  of 
the  organs.  We  must  have  microscopical 
anatomy  in  health,  which  is  called  histology, 
and  in  disease,  which  is  called  pathology. 

The  study  of  comparative  anatomy  is 
important  to  the  zoologist  and  botanist. 
In  these  connections,  it  is  usually  called 
morphology,  a  name  contrasted  with  physi- 
ology. In  the  broad  sense,  this  includes 
the  construction  of  all  plants  and  animals 
from  the  simplest  to  the  highest.  Finally, 
we  have  anatomy  for  artists. 

But  it  is  all  too  large  a  field  to  be  even 
systematically  outlined  here.  For  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  facts  of  anatomy  one  must  con- 
sult special  books.  Gray  s  and  Quain's 
Anatomies  are  the  ones  most  used  at  present 
by  medical  students.  For  comparative 
anatomy  of  vertebrates,  the  manuals  of 
Gegenbaur  and  Weidersheim  are  recom- 


ANAXAGORAS 


ANDERSEN 


mended.  For  general  morphology,  Thomp- 
son's Zoology  and  Parker  and  Haswell's 
Text-book  of  Zoology  are  among  the  best. 
For  comparative  anatomy  of  invertebrates, 
see  Lang's  Text-book  of  Comparative  Anat- 
omy. WM.  A.  LOCY. 

Anaxagoras  (an-aks-ag1 'o-ras) ,  a  Greek 
philosopher  of  Clazomenae,  in  Ionia,  born 
about  500  B.  C.  At  Athens  he  had  for  his 
pupils  Pericles,  Thucydides,  Euripides  and 
Socrates.  He  is  spoken  of  as  the  first  theist 
among  philosophers,  since  he  deemed  reason 
the  source  of  truth  and  matter  the  creation 
of  an  eternal  Being,  which  he  called  vovs 
(Intelligence).  His  atomic  theory  was 
thought  at  the  time  to  be  a  slur  on  the  gods, 
and  for  that  he  was  banished,  proceeding 
to  Lampsacus,  Mysia,  where  he  taught  until 
his  death  about  428  B.  C. 

Anchises  (an-kl'sez),  in  Greek  legend, 
the  son  of  Capys  and  father,  by  Aphrodite, 
of  JEneas,  the  Trojan  hero.  At  the  burn- 
ing of  Troy,  JEneas  rescued  him  and  bore  him 
on  his  shoulders  out  of  the  city  and  made 
him  the  companion  of  his  voyage  to  Italy. 
On  the  way  thither,  Anchises  died  in  Sicily. 

Ancho'vy,  a  small  fish  related  to  the  her- 
ring, much  used  as  a  relish  and  for  sauces, 
etc.  They  abound  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  and  on  the  southern  shores  of  Europe. 
Anchovies  are  also  found  on  the  coasts  of 
the  United  States. 

An'cient  Mar'iner,  The,  a  romantic 
poem  written  by  Samuel  T.  Coleridge  in 
1797,  first  appeared  in  the  famous  volume 
of  Lyrical  Ballads,  by  Wordsworth  and 
Coleridge  which  appeared  in  1798.  Words- 
worth appears  to  have  suggested  some  of 
the  incidents  of  the  story,  for  instance,  the 
suggestion  of  a  spectral  persecution  for  a 
crime  and  the  incident  of  the  albatross. 
But  the  imagination  and  melodious  beauty 
of  the  poem  belong  to  Coleridge  alone. 
The  story  is  of  an  ancient  mariner,  who 
holds  one  of  three  wedding  guests  by  the 
weird  influence  of  his  story  and  the  glitter 
of  his  eye.  He  tells  of  a  voyage  to  the 
South  Seas,  of  heat  and  fog  and  mist,  of 
the  slaying  of  the  bird  that  was  thought  to 
have  caused  it  and  of  the  punishment  of 
the  crew  who  perished  and  himself  who. 
lived  in  the  clutches  of  the  "Nightmare 
life-in-death."  The  rime  concludes  with 
the  moral: 

"He  prayeth  best  who  loveth  best 
All  things  both  great  and  small} 
For  the  dear  God  who  loveth  us, 
He  made  and  loveth  all." 

The  ancient  mariner  had  indeed  broken 
the  spell  of  evil  about  him,  at  least  in  part, 
by  the  love  that  gushed  out  of  his  breast 
towards  the  beauteous  water-snakes  that  were 
playing  about  his  stricken  ship.  Yet  it  is 
better  to  regard  this  poem  as  a  perfect  work 
of  imagination  than  a  too  severe  parable. 

Anco'na,  a  city  of  Italy  on  the  Adriatic 
Sea.  It  was  one  of  the  chief  naval  stations 


of  the  Romans.  At  that  time  its  citizens 
made  a  famous  purple  dye,  used  in  coloring 
the  cloaks  worn  by  kings  and  emperors.  On 
its  mole  stands  a  triumphal  arch  in  honor 
of  the  Emperor  Trajan,  which  is  said  to  be 
the  finest  marble  arch  in  the  world.  Ancona 
has  a  fine  harbor;  it  is  to-day  the  chief  sea- 
port between  Venice  and  Brindisi.  Popu- 
lation 63,145.  The  province  of  the  same 
name  has  an  area  of  748  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  318,683. 

Andalusia  (an' da-loo' sht-d),  the  most 
southern  district  of  Spain.  It  is  crossed  by 
the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  and  is  watered 
by  the  Guadalquivir  River.  Here  the 
Moors  set  up  their  famous  kingdom  and 
threatened  to  overrun  Europe.  The  An- 
dalusian  towns,  Seville,  Cordova,  Jaen  and 
Granada  were  the  Moorish  capitals.  The 
present  Andalusians  are  like  the  Moors  in 
looks  and  manners,  but  are  a  mixed  race, 
descended  from  Africans,  Carthaginians, 
Romans,  Goths  and  Vandals  as  well  as 
Moors.  The  climate  of  Andalusia  is  de- 
lightful, and  the  country  is  rich  in  grains 
and  fruit.  It  has  also  considerable  mineral 
wealth.  Its  area  is  34,000  square  miles. 
Population  of  the  eight  provinces  included 
in  the  area,  3,562,606. 

An'dersen,  Hans  Christian,  a  Danish 
poet,  novelist  and  writer  of  children's 
stories.  He  was  born  in  Odense  in  1805, 
the  son  of  a  shoemaker,  who  died  when  his 
son  was  nine  years  old.  After  a  scanty 
education  and  various  attempts  at  work, 
his  mother  wished  to  make  a  tailor  of  him, 
but  Hans,  having  a  fair  voice,  preferred  to 
go  to  Copenhagen  for  training.  There  he 
tried  to  get  work  at  a  theater,  but  was 
laughed  at  for  his  ignorance  and  awkward- 
ness. A  struggle  of  a  few  years,  during 
which  he  wrote  several  tragedies,  ended  by 
his  admission,  through  the  influence  of  a 
benevolent  man,  into  one  of  the  government 
schools.  This  was  the  turning  point  in  his 
life.  He  soon  entered  the  Royal  College 
of  Copenhagen,  and  while  there  produced 
his  first  work  in  print,  A  Journey  on  Foot 
to  Amak,  a  humorous  work,  which  gained 
him  much  favor.  Having  received  a  gift 
of  money  from  the 
king,  he  traveled 
through  the  south 
of  Europe,  describ- 
ing its  beautiful 
scenery  in  his 
great  novel,  The 
Improvisatore. 
After  his  return 
to  Denmark,  he 
was  given  an 
a  n  n  u  i  t  y  by  the 
government,  until 
his  death,  which 
occurred  Aug.  4, 
1875.  Among  his 
HANS  ANDERSEN  works  are  Only  a 


ANDERSON 


70- 


ANDRfi 


Fiddler,  A  Poet's  Bazar,  Fairy  Tales 
Wonder  Stories  and  Picture  Books  With- 
out Pictures.  His  books  have  been  trans- 
lated into  all  the  languages  of  Europe, 
and  also  into  Chinese  and  Japanese. 
Hans  Andersen  was  tall  and  thin  and  wore 
old-fashioned  clothes,  but  as  he  walked  the 
streets  of  Copenhagen  the  children  flocked 
around  him  and  the  boys  and  girls  saluted 
him.  When  he  died,  flowers  were  sent  from 
many  countries,  and,  later  on,  all  were  glad 
by  their  subscriptions  to  help  to  erect  a 
monument  to  his  memory. 

An'derson,  a  city  and  county  seat  of 
Madison  County,  Indiana,  on  White  River, 
36  miles  from  Indianapolis.  It  lies  in  the 
center  of  an  agricultural  region,  and  besides 
has  extensive  manufacturing  interests.  It 
manufactures  glass,  wire  fence,  steel  springs, 
shovels,  files,  automobiles,  carriages,  nails, 
shovel  handles,  carriage  and  buggy  mate- 
rials, tools  and  tool-workers  supplies, 
encaustic  tiles,  tin  plates,  etc.  The  city 
has  an  admirable  system  of  public  schools, 
substantial  buildings,  a  fine  library  and 
churches.  It  has  the  service  of  four  rail- 
roads, and  is  the  center  of  the  traction  lines 
for  northern  and  central  Indiana,  and 
located  here  is  the  largest  power-house  in 
the  state.  Anderson  has  aU  the  adjuncts 
of  a  modern  city,  and  while  the  natural- 
gas  flow  is  somewhat  diminished  since 
its  discovery  in  1887,  the  supply  is  suffi- 
cient for  heating  and  some  manufactur- 
ing. Anderson  town  was  settled  in  1822, 
became  a  county  seat  in  1828,  and  the 
city  incorporated  in  1865.  Population. 
30,000. 

An'derson,  Mary,  an  American  actress, 
was  born  at  Sacramento,  California,  July 
28,  1859.  When  only  13  years  old  she  de- 
cided to  become  an  actress.  Soon  after  she 
met  the  great  Charlotte  Cushman,  and  at 
once  went  to  New  York  to  study.  Here, 
when  but  16  years  old,  she  made  her  first 
appearance  on  the  stage  as  "Juliet,"  with 
complete  success.  She  was  soon  acknowl- 
edged to  be  the  leading  actress  of  the  United 
States  and  became  very  popular,  being 
known  everywhere  as  Our  Mary."  A 
beautiful,  frank,  pure-hearted  girl,  she  did 
much  toward  convincing  Americans  that 
stage  life  may  be  pure.  She  has  not  ap- 
peared on  the  stage  since  her  marriage,  in 
1889,  to  Mr.  Navarro,  a  wealthy  New 
Yorker.  In  1896  she  issued  a  volume  of 
reminiscences  under  the  title  of  A  Few 
Memories. 

Anderson,  Robert,  General  (born  "1805, 
died  1 87^1),  was  a  West  Point  graduate, 
serving  in  the  Black  Hawk  and  Mexican 
Wars,  and  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of 
Molino  del  Rey.  As  major  of  artillery  he 
had  charge  of  the  defenses  in  Charleston 
harbor  in  1860.  On  the  night  of  December 
26,  expecting  an  attack  from  the  South 
Carolinians,  he  moved  bis  small  garrison 


ROBERT  ANDERSON 


from  Fort 
MoultrietoPort 
Sumter,  as  be- 
ing more  easily 
defended.  On 
April  14,  he 
evacuated  the 
fort  after  a 
bombardment 
of  t  hi  r  t  y-six 
hours,  march- 
ing out  with  the 
honors  of  war. 
This  was  the 
first  engage- 
ment of  the 
Civil  War.  He 
was  appointed 
brigadier  -  gen- 
eral, but  his  health  prevented  his  engaging 
in  much  active  service. 

An'dersonville,  a  village  in  Sumter 
County,  Georgia,  noted  as  the  site  of  a  Con- 
federate military  prison  during  the  Civil 
War.  Here  12,296  Federal  prisoners  died 
in  fourteen  months,  largely  the  result  of 
exposure  and  lack  of  food  and  sanitation. 
The  superintendent,  Henry  Wirz,  was  tried 
by  a  military  court,  found  guilty  of  cruelty  to 
prisoners,  and  hanged  November  to,  1865. 

An'dover,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  on 
the  Merrhnac  River.  It  is  chiefly  known  by 
its  educational  institutions.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Phillips  Academy,  founded  in  1780  as  a 
school  for  preparing  boys  for  college.  This 
school  has  a  large  endowment  and  is  well 
fitted  in  every  way  for  carrying  on  its  work. 
Here,  also  in  1808,  under  the  same  trustees, 
was  founded  Andover  Theological  Seminaryv 
(recently  removed  to  Harvard  University), 
which  has  sent  forth  3,000  Congregational 
ministers.  It  has  a  library  of  50,000  vol- 
umes. Among  its  buildings  stands  the 
house  in  which  Elizabeth  Stuart  Phelps 
wrote  Gates  Ajar.  Andover  is  also  the  seat 
of  the  Abbot  Female  Seminary.  Popula- 
tion, 7,301. 

Andrassy  (on'drd-she),  Julius,  Count,  a 
Hungarian  statesman,  of  an  ancient  and 
noble  family,  was  born  in  1823.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  Revolution  of  1848, 
leading  the  militia  against  the  Austrians 
and  going  as  ambassador  to  Constantinople. 
He  was  an  exile  +or  several,  years  in  France 
and  England.  He  was  several  times  a 
member  of  the  national  assembly,  and  in 
1 86 1  its  vice-president.  He  was  Hungarian 
prime  minister  of  the  consolidated  Aturtro- 
Hungarian  empire  in  1867-68,  minister  of 
national  defense,  foreign  minister  and 
advocate  of  many  reforms.  He  died  Feb- 
ruary *8,  1890. 

.  Andre  (arfdrffl.  John,  Major,  a  British 
officer  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  hanged 
as  a  spy  at  Tappan,  N.  Y.,  October  2,  1780. 
He  was  born  in  London  in  1751  and  came 
to  America  at  the  age  of  23.  He  became. 


ANDREW 


ANEMOMETER 


aide-de-camp  to  General  Grey  and  after- 
ward to  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  who  promoted 
him  to  the  rank  of  major  and  made  him 
adjutant-general  of  the  British  army  in 
North  America.  He  soon  entered  into 
correspondence  with  General  Benedict 
Arnold,  with  the  object  of  betraying  the 
American  cause  to  Clinton.  In  August, 
1780,  Arnold  took  command  of  West  Point, 
on  the  Hudson  River,  then  the  strongest 
and  most  important  post  in  the  United 
States.  He  proposed  to  begin  his  treason 
by  giving  up  this  fortress  to  the  British. 
He  asked  for  a  personal  interview  with 
Andre1,  who  went  up  the  Hudson  and  landed 
one  dark  night  from  the  war  sloop  Vulture, 
about  six  miles  below  Stony  Point.  Here 
he  met  Arnold,  who  gave  him  a  passport 
under  the  name  of  John  Anderson,  which 
allowed  him  to  pass  the  American  lines,  and 
also  six  papers  in  his  own  handwriting 
directing  the  attack  on  West  Point.  These 
papers  Andre"  concealed  in  his  stockings, 
and  then  started  in  disguise  to  ride  to  New 
York,  for  the  sloop  had  been  forced  to 
return  down  the  Hudson.  At  Tarry  town 
he  was  stopped  by  three  armed  men,  to 
whom  he  declared  himself  a  British  officer, 
supposing  them  to  be  Tories.  They  be- 
longed to  the  American  side,  however,  and 
immediately  searched  him  and  iound  his 
secret  papers.  He  offered  bribes,  but  they 
were  refused,  and  he  was  taken  to  Tappan, 
the  headquarters  of  the  American  army, 
where  he  was  condemned  to  be  hanged  as 
a  spy.  Every  effort  was  made  to  save  him, 
but  the  rules  of  war  demanded  his  death. 
He  was  hanged  in  the  full  uniform  of  a 
British  officer,  calling  upon  the  crowd  to 
witness  that  he  died  like  a  brave  man.  His 
talents  and  the  sunshine  of  his  disposition 
caused  him  to  be  mourned  by  both  British 
and  Americans. 

Andrew.    See  APOSTLES. 

Andrew,  John  Albion,  was  born  at 
Windham,  Maine,  May  31,  1818.  He  was 
elected  governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1860, 
and  four  times  was  his  own  successor.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  "war 
governors."  Within  a  week  after  the 
President's  call  for  volunteers,  he  dis- 
patched five  regiments.  His  speeches, 
messages  and  especially  his  devotion  to 
the  welfare  of  tne  soldiers  made  him  very 
popular.  He  died  October  30,  1867. 

Andrews,  Elisha  Benjamin,  an  Amer- 
ican educator,  formerly  president  of  Brown 
University  and  later  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Nebraska,  at  Lincoln,  was 
born  at  Hinsdale,  N.  H.,  January  10,  1844. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  served  in  the 
army,  and  lost  an  eye  at  Petersburg  in 
August,  1864.  Graduating  subsequently  at 
Brown  University,  Providence,  R.  I.,  he 
became  principal  of  the  Connecticut  Literary 
Institute  at  Suffield,  Conn.,  and  later  on 
was  professor  of  history  and  political  econ- 


omy at  Cornell,  and  president  of  Brown 
University,  his  alma  "mater.  Owing  to 
criticism  by  trustees  of  the  University  of  his 
belief  in  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  President 
Andrews  resigned,  though  the  resignation 
for  a  time  was  recalled  and  not  acquiesced 
in.  He  subsequently  accepted  the  super- 
intendency  of  the  Chicago  schools.  This 
position  he  resigned  in  1900,  and  accepted 
the  presidency  of  Nebraska  University. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  standard 
text-books  on  history,  constitutional  and 
general,  and  on  economics.  He  died  in  1917. 

Andromache  (an-drom'a-ke),  the  wife  of 
Hector,  and  one  of  the  most  celebrated  and 
beautiful  of  the  women  of  Troy.  She  lost 
her  husband  and  seven  brothers  in  the 
Trojan  War,  became  the  captive  of  Pyrrhus, 
the  son  of  Achilles,  and  finally  the  wife  of 
Helenus,  a  son  of  Priam.  She  is  the  subject 
of  Andromache,  the  tragedy  of  Euripides. 

Andromeda  (an-drom'e-dd),  in  Greek 
mythology  the  daughter  of  Cassiopeia  and 
Cepheus,  king  of  Ethiopia.  Boasting  that 
she  was  more  beautiful  than  Juno,  the 
latter's  brother,  Neptune,  sent  a  sea  monster 
to  threaten  her  life  and  ravage  the  country. 
From  this  peril  and  being  chained  to  a 
rock,  Andromeda  was  rescued  by  Perseus, 
and  after  death  was  transformed  into  a 
constellation.  The  constellation,  with  its 
satellites,  is  represented  by  a  woman  in 
chains. 

An'dros,  Sir  Edmund  (born  1637,  died 
1714),  was  governor  of  the  colony  of  New 
York  for  eight  years,  beginning  in  1674; 
subsequently  he  was  governor  of  New 
England  for  three  years.  He  was  deposed 
by  the  colonies  and  then  was  made  governor 
of  Virginia  for  six  years.  He  was  harsh,  and 
ruled  without  any  regard  to  the  wishes  of 
the  colonists.  This  made  him  disliked,  in 
spite  of  his  acknowledged  honesty  and  up- 
rightness. His  demand  for  the  charter  of 
Connecticut  is  famous.  To  get  it,  he 
went  to  Hartford  with  a  band  of  soldiers. 
The  general  assembly  kept  him  talking  in 
their  hall  until  night,  when  candles  were 
lighted  and  the  charter  brought  in  a  box 
and  laid  on  the  table.  Suddenly  the  lights 
were  blown  out.  They  were  quickly  lighted 
again,  but  the  charter  was  gone.  For  three 
years  no  one  knew  where  it  was,  but  in 
1789,  when  the  new  king,  William  III,  had 
recalled  Andros,  the  charter  was  carefully 
taken  from  the  hollow  of  an  oak  tree, 
where  it  had  been  hastily  put  on  the  night 
it  disappeared.  This  tree  was  known  as 
the  "Charter  oak." 

Androscog'gin,  a  river  which  rises  in 
New  Hampshire,  flows  through  part  of 
Maine,  and  enters  the  Kennebec  River  near 
Bath.  Length,  145  miles. 

Anemom'eter,  an  instrument  for  measur- 
ing the  rate  and  pressure  of  the  wind.  There 
are  several  instruments  for  this  purpose;  the 
simplest  and  the  one  most  used  was  Jn 


ANEMONE 


72 


vented  in  1846  by  Dr.  Robinson,  It  con- 
sists of  four  hollow  cups  fastened  to  the  ends 
of  two  hori- 
zontal  iron 
rods  which 
cross  each 
other  at  right 
angles,  and 
which  are  sup- 
ported on  a 

vertical    rod  ANEMOMETER 

which     turns 

freely.  It  looks  like  four  spokes  of  a  wheel,  at 
right  angles  to  each  other,  each  having  a  cup 
on  the  end  to  catch  the  wind,  and  the  axle  in 
which  they  are  fitted  being  set  up  on  end. 
This  axle  or  rod  is  connected  with  a  set  of 
wheels,  which  record  the  number  of  revolu- 
tions. It  was  found  that  the  cups  whirl 
round  with  about  a  third  of  the  velocity  of 
the  wind,  and  so,  from  the  number  of  the 
revolutions,  it  is  easy  to  calculate  the  rate 
of  the  wind.  Another  kind  of  instrument 
is  the  pressure  anemometer.  The  best 
known  is  Osier  "s.  A  brass  plate  is  fastened 
by  springs  to  a  vane  in  such  a  way  that  the 
varying  pressure  of  the  wind  on  the  plate 
causes  the  springs  to  yield  in  corresponding 
degrees,  and  this  is  recorded  on  a  moving 
sheet  of  paper  by  a  pencil  fastened  to  the 
vane;  another  pencil  records  the  changes 
in  the  direction  of  the  wind,  and  usually  a 
third  pencil,  guided  by  a  rain  gauge,  shows 
the  amount  of  rain  that  has  fallen. 

Anemone  (a-nemf 5-n&) ,  called  also  the 
wind-flower,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of 
our  spring  flowers.  It  grows  wild  in  wood- 
lands and  pastures.  When  growing  in  the 
shade,  the  colors  are  pink,  rose  color  or  pur- 
ple; in  the  sun,  they  appear  white  or  slightly 
flushed  with  rose  color.  The  flowers  of  the 
wild  anemone  are  single,  but  they  can  be 
doubled  by  cultivation.  At  the  approach 
of  night  or  of  rain  they  curl  up  and  go  to 
sleep.  The  plant  is  well  fitted  to  be  an 
early  spring  blossom,  for  its  slender  stem 
bends  but  does  not  break  in  strong  blasts. 
Poetry  and  myth  give  many  stories  of  this 
flower.  The  Greeks  said  Anemos,  the  Wind, 
sent  forth  the  starry  blossoms  as  heralds  of 
spring.  It  was  believed  that  only  the  wind 
could  open  the  flower — 
"The  coy  Anemone,  that  ne'er  uncloses 
Her  lips,  until  they  're  blown  on  by  the 

wind." 

It  is  called  Windroschen  (little  wind-rose) 
by  the  Germans.  It  is  widely  distributed 
in  Asia,  prized  by  the  Chinese,  a  great  fav- 
orite in  Europe,  Canada  and  the  United 
States. 

Aneroid.     See  BAROMETER. 

Angel'ico,  Fra  (the  angelic),  A  Domini- 
can monk  and  the  most  celebrait/d  of  early 
Italian  painters,  was  so  called  because  of  the 
beauty  of  the  angels  and  saints  he  painted. 
He  never  would  take  money  for  his  pictures, 
and  always  prayed  before  commencing  a 


picture.  His  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  is  in 
the  Louvre  at  Paris.  His  era  is  1387-1455. 
Angell,  James  Burrill,  LL.  D,,  Ameri- 
can educator  and  diplomat,  was  born  at 
Scituate,  R.  I.,  Jan- 
u  a  r  y  27,  1829.  A 
graduate  of  Brown 
University,  he  after- 
ward  travel ed 
abroad  and  return- 
ed to  take  the  pro- 
fessorship of  modern 
languages  at  his  al- 
ma mater.  In  1866, 
he  became  president 
of  the  University  of 
Vermont,  and  five 
years  later  exchang- 
ed the  post  for  that 
of  president  of  the  . 

TT     •  '^          i>  if*    t   •  '* 

University  of  Michi- 
igan,  resigning  the  office  in  1909.  In  1 880-81  he 
acted  as  United  States  minister  to  China,  and 
later  he  negotiated  for  the  government  some 
important  treaties.  He  was  American  minister 
to  Turkey  and  served  on  international  com- 
missions, especially  on  those  dealing  with 
Canadian-American  fisheries  and  deep  water 
ways.  He  died  in  1916. 

Angel o,  Michael  (mifka-el  &n'ja-ld),  an 
Italian  sculptor,  painter  and  architect,  was 
born  near  Florence  in  1475.  (The  great 
painter's  name  is  frequently  written  as  one 
word — "Michelangelo";  or,  in  Italian, "Mi- 
chelagnolo  Buonarroti").  He  began  to 
draw  as  soon  as  he  could  use  his  hands,  and 
his  early  paintings  on  the  walls  of  the  house 
where  he  lived  as  a  boy  were  once  shown.  _  A 
great  merchant  prince,  Lorenzo  dei  Medici, 
opened  a  garden  in  Florence  filled  with  stat- 
ues. Here  Angelo  went  often  to  draw,  and 
his  first  piece  of  sculpture,  a  copy  in  marble 
of  a  laughing  faun,  so  pleased  Lorenzo  that 
he  took  the  boy  into  his  own  house,  treating 
him  like  a  son.  His  Sleeping  Cupid  brought 
him  to  the  notice  of  all  Italy,  and  got  him 
an  invitation  to  come  to  Rome.  Here, 
besides  other  statues,  he  carved  his  Pieta. 
the  mourning  Mary  with  the  dead  Christ 
in  her  lap,  now  in  a  chapel  of  St.  Peter's 
From  now  on  his  life  was  of  the  busiest 
A  huge  block  of  marble,  18  feet  long,  lay 
outside  the  cathedral  at  Florence.  One 
sculptor  had  hacked  at  it  and  half  spoiled 
it,  but  out  of  it  Angelo  cut  his  statue  of 
David.  The  pope  gave  him  an  order  for 
a  tomb,  and  Angelo's  design  was  so  mag- 
nificent that  it  was  decided^  to  rebuild  St. 
Peter's  as  a  fit  covering  for  it,  and  Michael 
Angelo  was  made  the  architect.  The  Sistine 
chapel  was  to  be  ornamented,  and  in  20 
months  the  great  painter  had  covered  the 
whole  ceiling  with  the  beautiful  frescoe? 
that  may  be  seen  there  today.  It  was  on 
the  walls  of  this  chapel  that  he  afterward 
painted  his  Last  Judgment.  Michael  Angelo 
was  a  poet,  ana  wrote  beautiful  sonnets 


ANOIOSPERMS 


ANILINE 


and  also  an  engineer,  and  built  the  fortifi- 
cations of  Florence.  Besides  possessing 
genius,  he  had  a  passion  for  work.  He 
carved  till  his  hands  could  no  longer  guide 
a  tool,  only  giving  up  his  work  at  the  age 
of  90,  when  he  said,  "Death  often  pulls 
me  by  the  coat  to  come  with  him."  He 
died  m  1564. 

Angiosperms  (Sn'ji-o-spermz).  One  of 
the  two  divisions  of  seed  plants,  or  Sper- 
matophytes,  the  other  being  Gymnosperms. 
It  is  the  highest  and  most  recent  great 
group  of  plants,  and  to  it  belong  almost  all 
the  plants  of  ordinary  experience.  The 
group  contains  over  100,000  described 
species,  and  at  the  present  time  furnishes 
the  chief  vegetation  of  the  earth's  surface. 
To  it  belong  all  the  true  flowering  plants, 
as  well  as"  the  plants  directly  useful  to  man. 
The  bodies  of  angipsperms  are  exceedingly 
varied  in  size,  habit  and  duration.  They 
range  in  size  from  no  larger  than  the  head 
of  a  pin  to  the  giant  redwood;  in  habit, 
from  floating  and  creeping  to  erect;  in  dura- 
tion, from  a  few  weeks  to  centuries.  The 
name  refers  to  the  fact  that  the  seeds  are 
inclosed  in  a  case,  and  are  not  freely  ex- 
posed as  in  the  Gymnosperms.  The  two 
subdivisions  of  angiosperms  are  the  Mono- 
cotyledonSi  to  which  grasses,  lilies,  palms, 
orchids,  etc.,  belong,  and  the  Dicotyledons , 
to  which  the  common  trees,  buttercups, 
roses,  mints,  sunflowers,  etc.,  belong.  For 
a  further  account  see  MONOCOTYLEDONS  and 
DICOTYLEDONS. 

Anglin,  Hon.  Timothy  Warren.  Born 
and  educated  in  Ireland.  Came  to  New 
Brunswick  in  1848  where  he  founded  the 
Morning  Freeman.  Sat  in  the  New  Bruns- 
wick Assembly  from  1861  to  1866,  opposed 
to  Confederation.  Elected  to  the  House  of 
Commons  at  Ottawa.  Elected  speaker  in 
1874.  A  very  influential  member  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  His  death  occurred 
in  1896. 

An'glo-Sax'on,  the  name  of  the  German 
tribes  that  invaded  England  just  after  the 
Romans  had  left  it.  They  came  mostly 
from  three  tribes,  the  Saxons,  Angles  and 
Jutes,  all  living  on  or  near  the  Danish 
peninsula.  They  subdued  and  overspread 
the  country,  driving  the  Britons,  who  were 
of  the  Celtic  race,  before  them.  They 
founded  the  seven  kingdoms,  Kent,  Sussex, 
Wessex,  East  Anglia,  Mercia,  Essex  and 
Northumbria,  which  were  banded  together 
for  protection  into  the  Heptarchy  or  Seven 
Kingdoms,  and  afterward  united  in  one 
nation  called  England,  from  the  Angles. 
Each  of  the  seven  divisions  had  its  king  and 
a  queen,  who  were  treated  with  great 
respect.  Next  came  the  athelings  or  high 
nobles;  then  the  thanes,  who  were  landed 
farmers.  Below  these  were  the  churls,  who 
were  retainers  of  the  thanes,  and  lowest  of 
afl  were  the  slaves,  most  of  whom  had  been 
prisoners  of  war.  The  Anglo-Saxon  lan- 


guage is  the  German  language  spoken  by 
these  tribes,  mixed  with  a  few  words  of 
Celtic  spoken  by  the  Britons  and  many 
Latin  words  introduced  by  the  monks,  who 
were  the  only  scholars  then  in  the  country. 
Although  the  English  language  grew  out 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  we  cannot  read  it  now 
without  studying  it  like  a  new  language. 

Ango'la,  a  Portuguese  colony  on  the 
west  coast  of  South  Africa,  in  lower  Guinea. 
It  has  an  area  of  484,800  square  miles; 
population,  4,119,000.  It  was  discovered 
by  the  Portuguese  in  1484,  and  is  still  in 
their  possession.  The  capital  is  St.  Paulo 
de  Loan  do.  An  army  of  5,000  men,  four 
war  vessels  and  the  cost  of  maintaining  the 
packet  service  eat  up  almost  the  entire 
revenue  of  the  colony.  The  country  has  a 
coast  line,  between  the  mouth  of  the 
Congo  and  German  Damaraland,  of  over 
1,000  miles;  the  boundaries  separating  it 
from  the  Congo  Independent  State  and 
from  French,  German  and  British  posses- 
sions in  southwestern  Africa  have  been 
adjusted  by  conventions  in  the  past  fifteen 
years.  Angola  is  divided  into  six  dis- 
tricts: Congo,  Loando,  Benguella,  Mossa- 
medes,  Huitla  and  Lunda.  It  has  a  large 
export  trade  in  coffee  and  rubber,  besides 
ivory,  cocoa  nuts,  vegetable  oils,  oxen  and 
fish.  Estimated  revenue  1910-11,  2,321,- 
373  milreis;  expenditure,  3,171,373  milreis. 
It  has  over  300  miles  of  railroad  in  operation. 
A  trunk  line  of  railway  is  projected  between 
Lobito  Bay,  near  Benguella,  on  the  coast, 
to  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  colony,  about 
900  miles,  and  work  has  begun.  In  1909 
there  were  69  telegraph  offices  with  1,940 
miles  of  line  in  operation.  The  trade  is 
largely  with  Portugal. 

Angora  Goat.     See  GOAT. 

An'gus,  Richard  B.,  of  Montreal,  capi- 
talist. Born  near  Edinburgh,  1830.  Came 
to  Canada  in  1857  and  joined  the  staff  of  the 
Bank  of  Montreal.  In  1861,  placed  in 
charge  of  the  Chicago  agency.  Later  local 
manager  at  Montreal  and  in  1869  generaj 
manager.  For  ten  years  he  achieved 
brilliant  success  in  this  position.  In  1879 
he  retired  to  take  the  position  of  general 
manager  of  the  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and 
Manitoba  Railway.  In  1880  he  was  one  of 
the  Stephen  (afterward  Lord  Mount 
Stephen)  Smith  (Lord  Strathcona)  syndi- 
cate, which  built  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way, which  was  completed  in  1885.  This 
was  the  leading  incident  in  a  phenomenally 
successful  career.  He  is  a  governor  of 
McGill  University,  president  of  the  Board 
of  the  Royal  Victoria  Hospital  and  a 
director  of  the  Bank  of  Montreal ;  possesses 
a  valuable  art  gallery;  and  is  one  of  the  most 
prominent  of  successful  Canadians. 

Aniline  (an'^-Un  or  ten),  a  colorless,  oily 
and  poisonous  liquid,  discovered  80  years 
ago  as  a  product  of  the  dry  distillation  of 
indigo,  but  now  mainly  derived  from  the 


ANIMALCULA 


?4 


ANNAPOLIS 


benzene  of  coal-tar.  It  is  largely  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  dyes,  now  an  extensive 
industry  since  the  development  by  chemists 
of  the  variety  of  aniline  and  coal-tar  colors  and 
their  application  in  dyeing  and  calico  print- 
ing. On  exposure  to  air  and  light  aniline  takes 
on  a  dark  red  color,  and  it  boils  at  183°  C. 
United  with  acids,  it  forms  crystallized  salt. 

Animal'cula.     See  PROTOZOA. 

Animal  Kingdom,  the  name  applied  to 
the  group  containing  all  animals,  separat- 
ing them  from  the  vegetable  and  mineral 
kingdom,  respectively.  It  is  a  very  old 
arrangement  to  divide  all  nature  into  three 
kingdoms — animal,  vegetable  and  mineral. 
Cuvier  named  one  of  his  most  famous 
books,  the  Animal  Kingdom  (Rdgne  Animal), 
and  in  it  divided  animals  into  four  divisions, 
based  on  their  plan  of  construction,  as 
follows:  vertebrata,  the  backboned  animals; 
mollusca,  the  soft-bodied  animals,  such  as 
snails,  clams,  etc.;  articulata,  all  jointed 
animals,  thus  including  lobsters  and  cray- 
fishes with  the  worms;  radiata,  animals 
like  the  starfishes,  sea  anemones,  etc.,  hav- 
ing a  radial  arrangement  of  parts.  These 
divisions  have  long  been  out  of  use,  for 
the  reason  that  they  do  not  represent  the 
real  state  of  the  case.  The  animal  king- 
dom is  now  divided  into  a  larger  number 
of  branches,  called  sub-kingdoms.  While 
there  is  a  tendency  to  increase  the  number, 
the  following  eight  sub-kingdoms  represent 
a  modern  arrangement.  I.  Protozoa,  the 
simplest  animals,  microscopic  and  single 
celled.  All  animals  above  the  protozoa  are 
many-celled,  and  are  spoken  of  collectively 
as  metazoa.  2.  Porifera,  the  sponges.  3. 
Ccelenterata — the  jellyfishes,  hydroids,  sea 
anemones,  coral  animals,  etc.  4.  Vermes, 
the  worms,  a  very  large  and  complex  group, 
including  the  jointed  worms,  leeches,  earth 
worms,  the  smooth  worms,  the  shelled 
worms,  like  brachiopod  shells,  etc.  5. 
Echinodermata,  animals  with  spiny  skins, 
like  starfishes,  sea  urchins,  sea  cucumbers, 
etc.  6.  Arthropoda,  the  articulated  animals, 
with  jointed  limbs — spiders,  insects,  myria- 
pods,  Crustacea.  7.  Mollusca  —  snails, 
oysters,  clams,  cuttle-fish,  etc.  8.  Verte- 
brata: this  group  includes  some  of  the 
animals  formerly  classed  with  the  worms 
and  mollusca.  The  majority  of  them  have 
a  backbone  composed  of  vertebrae,  but  not 
all  of  them.  The  sub-kingdoms  are  co- 
ordinate divisions;  in  other  words,  equiv- 
alent groups.  They  are  further  divided 
into  Classes,  the  classes  into  Orders,  the 
orders  into  Families  and  smaller  divisions. 
On  account  of  the  importance  of  the  Ver- 
tebrata, the  five  Classes  are  named :  Fishes, 
Amphibia,  Reptiles,  Birds  and  Mammals. 
See  the  different  sub-kingdoms  under  their 
respective  headings. 

Anjou  (dn-zhod'),  an  ancient  province  in 
the  northwest  of  France,  area  about  3,000 
square  miles.  In  the  lath  and  J3th  cent- 


uries it  was  a  possession  of  the  English 
kings,  and  from  it  came  Godfrey,  Count  of 
Anjou,  who,  in  1127,  married  Matilda, 
daughter  of  Henry  I  of  England,  and  so 
became  the  ancestor  of  the  Plantagenet 
kings.  In  1480  it  reverted  finally  to  France, 
in  the  reign  of  Louis  XI. 

Anam',  a  country,  forming  part  of  the 
peninsula  of  Indo-China,  bordering  on  the 
China  Sea,  and  lying  between  the  Gulf  of 
Siam  and  the  Gulf  of  Tonquin.  It  is  flanked 
on  the  west  by  Siam  and  on  the  north  by 
China.  Today,  it  forms,  with  Cambodia, 
Tonquin  and  Cochin-China,  the  chief 
Asiatic  possession  of  France.  It  has  an 
estimated  population  of  6,124,000,  and  an. 
area  of  52,100  square  miles.  It  was  acquired 
by  France  in  1884,  and  the  affairs  of  the 
protectorate  are  under  the  control  of  the 
French  government.  Three  of  its  ports  are 
open  to  European  and  American  commerce. 
Its  exports  include,  besides  rice  and  raw 
silk,  sugar,  cinnamon  and  medicinal  plants. 
Hue*  is  the  capital  with  a  population  of 
50,000.  See  COCHIN  CHINA. 

Annap'olis,  a  picturesque  old  seaport  is 
the  capital  of  Maryland,  and  the  seat  of 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy.  The 
city  is  on  the  Severn  River,  two  miles 
from  Chesapeake  Bay.  It  was  first  set- 
tled in  1649  as  Providence;  it  became  the 
state  capital  in  1694;  and  in  1708  the  town 
was  renamed  in  honor  of  Queen  Anne. 
In  colonial  days  Annapolis  was  one  of 
the  foremost  of  American  cities,  and  be- 
came known  as  "The  Athens  of  America." 
The  Continental  Congress  sat  there  from 
November,  1783,  to  June,  1784;  General 
Washington  there  resigned  his  commission 
as  commander-in-chief  of  the  Continental 
Army,  December,  1783;  and  in  September, 
1786,  representatives  of  five  of  the  states 
assembled  in  the  Annapolis  Convention 
for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  commer- 
cial interests  of  America.  This  conven- 
tion recommended  the  calling  of  another, 
and  the  recommendation  resulted  in  the 
Constitutional  Convention  of  1787,  which 
devised  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States.  The  United  States  Naval  Academy, 
founded  in  1845,  has  been  located  at  An- 
napolis since  its  organization.  The  city  is 
also  the  seat  of  St.  John's  College,  estab- 
lished in  1789,  and  St.  Mary's  Seminary. 
Population,  8,609. 

Annapolis  or  Annapolis  Royal,  formerly 
Port  Royal,  is  the  county  seat  of  Annapolis 
County,  Nova  Scotia,  situated  on  Annap- 
olis Basin,  opening  from,  the  Bay  of  Fundy. 
It  is  the  oldest  European  settlement  in 
America  to  the  north  of  Florida,  having 
been  founded  by  De  Monts  and  Champlain 
in  1604.  It  has  an  estimated  population 
of  1,105  the  county  containing  about  20,- 
ooo  souls.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  fortress, 
still  imperial  property,  are  of  interest,  but. 
there  are  no  remaining  proofs  of  the  early 


•frHIIIIIIIIIIIIBIIIIIIIIIIIinilllllllllllHIIIIIIIIIIIOMIIIIIIIOIIIIIIlim 

3  3 

LENGTH  OF  LIFE  AMONG  ANIMALS 


=        GOOSE  8O  YRS 


One   of  the  most  interesting   things  in  the  study   of   animals  is   the   length   of  life   of  which  they      3 
are  capable.     A   May  fly,  for  example,   born   at   1   o'clock,   is   approaching   old   age  by   4,   and  by  5 
has  passed  away;   while  a  whale  who  saw  Columbus  discover  America  might  still  have  been  spouting 
=      until  near  the   end  of  the  20th   Century.     Insects,   fortunately,   are   short  lived ;    otherwise,   life  would      = 
=       be  pretty  hard  for  all  the  rest  of  us.     But  other  small  creatures,   you  notice,  are  quite  long  lived.     A      || 
=       saucy  little  sparrow,  for  instance — if  nothing  happens  to  him — could  keep  chattering  at  you  off  and  on      5 
=      from  the  time  you  learned  your  first  baby  words  until  you   reached  middle  age. 

*iiiiiiiiiiioi!iiiiiiiioimuiiiioiiiiiiiiiii:]iiiiiiiiiiii:]iiiiiiiiii!OiM 


ANN  ARBOR 


75 


ANT 


French  occupancy.  It  was  named  from 
Queen  Anne  on  its  capture  by  the  British 
in  1710,  and  was  ceded  to  the  British  Crown 
in  1713.  See  NOVA  SCOTIA. 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich,,  an  important  town 
and  railroad  center,  the  county  seat  of 
Washtenaw  County,  situated  midway  be- 
tween Detroit  and  Jackson  on  the 
Huron  River.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  University  School  of 
Music  and  the  Ann  Arbor  High  School. 
This  latter  institution  supplements  or  pre- 
pares its  students  for  the  University  and 
its  enrollment  embraces  pupils  from  all 
parts  of  Michigan  and  of  the  United  States 
as  well  as  foreign  countries.  It  has  many 
important  manufacturing  concerns,  mills, 
machine  shops,  etc.  Population,  14,817. 

Anne,  queen  of  England  from  1702  to 
1714.  She  was  born  near  London  in  1665, 
was  the  daughter 
of  James  II,  and 
married  Prince 
George  of  Den- 
mark. She  came 
to  the  throne  at 
the  death  of  her 
brother  -  in  -  law, 
William  III. 
During  her  reign 
occurred  the  War 
of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  in 
which  the  Duke 
of  Marlborough 

QUEEN   ANNE  won    his    famOUS 

victories.  The  union  of  England  and  Scot- 
land under  the  name  of  Great  Britain  was 
made  while  she  was  queen.  Her  reign  is 
known  as  the  Queen  Anne  age  of  literature, 
because  of  the  many  illustrious  writers  of 
the  period :  Addison,  Pope,  Dryden,  Swift, 
Defoe  and  the  great  scientist,  Isaac  Newton. 
Though  the  mother  of  17  children,  Queen 
Anne  left  no  heirs,  and  was  the  last  sov- 
ereign of  the  house  of  Stuart. 

Anne  Boleyn.     See  BOLEYN,  ANNE. 

Anneal'ing,  the  process  of  tempering 
certain  metals  and  glass  to  increase  their 
tenacity  and  render  them  less  brittle  by 
cooling  them  slowly  after  they  have  been 
submitted  to  a  high  temperature  of  heat. 
Badly  annealed  glass,  it  is  well  known, 
will  break  with  a  sudden  change  of  tem- 
perature, and  to  obviate  this  glass  vessels 
are  annealed  in  trays  in  a  long  oven,  one 
end  of  which  is  hotter  than  the  other — 
the  process  of  annealing  being  to  draw  the 
trays  slowly  into  cooler  and  cooler  por- 
tions of  the  oven.  Cast  iron  is  similarly 
annealed  for  tinning;  while  steel  and  other 
metals  are  tempered  after  much  the  same 
process  is  undergone.  The  annealing  of 
the  softer  metals  is  done  by  immersion  in 
boiling  ^water,  which  is  then  slowly  cooled. 

An'niston,  Aia.,  a  progressive  city,  the 
county  seat  of  Calhoua  County,  situated 


in  the  Blue  Ridge  chain  of  mountains.  It 
is  located  on  the  Southern,  Louisville  and 
Nashville  and  Seaboard  Air  Line  railroads 
about  62  miles  east  by  north  of  Birmingham. 
Its  exports  include  coal,  iron,  cotton  and  lum- 
ber; and  its  industries,  coal  and  iron  mining 
and  the  manufacture  of  soil  pipe,  cotton  yarn 
and  cloth,  table  linen,  hosiery,  frogs  and 
switches,  car  wheels  and  locomotives.  Its 
educational  institutions  include  excellent  pub- 
lic schools,  an  Episcopal  school  for  girls,  a 
Presbyterian  College  and  Barber  Seminary  for 
colored  girls.  Its  many  beautiful  churches  in- 
clude the  noted  St.  Michael  and  All  Angels. 
Population  15,256. 

An'nuals.  Plants  which  endure  only  a 
single  growing  season  See  DURATION. 

An'nulus.  A  structure  developed  in  the 
wall  of  the  spore-case  (sporangium)  of  the 
ordinary  ferns  to  assist  in  discharging  the 
spores.  See  FILICALES. 

An'selm,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was 
born  in  Piedmont  in  1033.  He  studied  at 
Bee  in  Normandy  and  became  renowned 
for  his  learning.  He  was  elected  abbot  of 
Bee  in  1078,  and  in  1093  was  chosen  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  England.  Anselm 
quarreled  so  fiercely  with  the  king,  William 
Rufus,  in  regard  to  the  relation  of  church 
and  state  that  he  was  exiled  from  England. 
He  was  recalled  by  Henry  I  with  whom 
the  quarrel  was  continued.  The  contro- 
versy was  finally  settled  by  a  compromise. 
The  king  permitted  the  bishops  to  be 
elected,  though  the  election  was  to  take 
place  at  his  court.  The  rights  of  the  crown 
were  secured  by  the  act  of  homage  on  the 
part  of  the  bishops  when  they  received 
their  lands;  the  spiritual  rights  of  the 
church  were  recognized  by  the  anointing 
of  the  bishops  by  the  archbishop  and  their 
investiture  with  ring  and  crozier  at  his 
hands.  Papal  jurisdiction  was  not  ex- 
cluded, but  no  papal  legate  could  come  into 
England  without  the  king's  permission. 
Anselm  was  the  author  of  many  books  on 
theology  and  philosophy.  He  died  in  Canter- 
bury in  1109,  and  was  buried  there. 

Anso'nia,  Conn.,  a  city  of  New  Haven 
County,  on  the  Naugatuck  River,  near  the 
city  of  Derby  and  the  junction  of  the 
Naugatuck  with  the  Housatonic  River.  It 
is  on  the  line  of  the  N.  Y.,  New  Haven  & 
Hartford  railroad,  about  12  miles  west  of 
New  Haven.  It  has  a  number  of  manu- 
factories, chiefly  of  brass  and  copper 
products,  clocks,  electrical  works,  webbing 
and  knitting  goods,  carriages  and  hard- 
ware. Ansonia  was  founded  in  1844  by 
Anson  Greene  Phelps,  and  the  public  library 
of  the  city  was  erected  to  his  memory  by 
his  granddaughters.  Population  15,152. 

Ant,  an  insect  related  to  bees  and  wasps. 
More  than  two  thousand  species  have  been 
described.  One  authority  thinks  there  are 
probably  as  many  as  5,000.  All  ants  are 
social,  and  live  in  communities,  old  ones  con» 


ANT 


ANT* 


taining  hundreds  of  thousands  of  members. 
Ants  of  one  community  are  not  friendly 
with  those  of  another ;  either  they  have  noth- 
ing to  do  with  them  or  quarrel  with  them. 
The  work  of  a  community  is  wonderfully 
portioned  out.  There  are  big  workers  and 
little  workers.  In  some  species  there  is  a 
class  that  does  the  fighting,  a  soldier  class. 
In  a  colony  are  the  females,  which  are 
largest  in  size;  the  males;  and  the  workers  or 
nurses,  which  are  the  smallest. 

After  the  pairing  season  the  males  are 
allowed  to  stray  away  and  soon  die.  The 
females  and  workers  are  very  long-lived. 
The  queens  are  carefully  guarded  by  the 
workers,  but  occasionally  on«  of  them  es- 
capes and  founds  a  colony.  There  are  four 


builders  of  their  wonderful  colonies  with 
their  houses  and  streets,  by  processes  of 
mining,  masonry  and  carpentry.  The  min- 
ing ants  dig  long  galleries  in  the  clay,  remov- 
ing the  rubbish,  building  pillars  to  support 
the  work  and  covering  the  whole  with  a 
thatch  of  grass  stems.  The  red  and  yel- 
low field-ants  are  the  masons.  They  first 
raise  pillars  and  then  spring  arches  over 
them,  covering  them  with  thfc  loose  piles 
of  soil  which  we  know  as  ant-hills.  The 
carpenter  ants  bore  their  cells  in  the 
solid  timber  of  trees,  side  by  side,  with 
partitions  no  thicker  than  paper.  A  kind 
of  ant  in  Australia  builds  its  houses  of 
leaves  fastened  together  with  a  kind  of  glue. 
Ants  are  very  strong,  carrying  animals  for 


1  51 

Red  Wood  Ant.    i  Male,    a  a  and  b,  Worker  magnified.    3  Female.    4  Worker's  head.    5  Larva.    6  Shelter 
Pupae,  so-called  ant-house.     7  and  8  Pupse  magnified. 
Horse  Ant  (natural  size).     9  Worker.    10  Male.    uPe 


?emale. 


stages  in  the  life  history  of  ants :  egg,  larva, 
pupa  and  perfect  insect.  The  eggs  are  laid 
by  the  queen  and  carried  about  by  the 
workers  or  nurses,  exposed  to  the  sunlight 
during  the  day  and  protected  from  the 
dampness  at  night.  As  soon  as  the  white, 
legless  larvae  are  hatched,  they  are  treated 
in  the  same  way,  being  fed  by  a  liquid  from 
the  stomach  of  the  nurse,  until  they  reach 
the  proper  age  to  spin  their  own  cocoons 
around  them.  The  cocoons  represent  the 
pupa  stage;  they  are  commonly  called 
ant-eggs,  and  are  carefully  tended  by  the 
workers.  When  ready  for  their  second 
birth,  the  young  ants  are  cut  out  of  the  in- 
closing cells. 

The  workers  are  the  most  interesting  of 
the  three  classes  of  ants.  Besides  acting  as 
nurses,  they  supply  all  the  food  and  are  the 


food,  or  masses  of  material  several  times 
larger  than  themselves.  They  eat  various 
kinds  of  food,  both  vegetable  and  animal, 
other  insects,  honey,  sugar,  fruit,  etc. 
They  are  fond  of  the  honey-dew  pro- 
duced by  little  insects  called  aphides,  and 
some  kinds  of  ants  capture  these  insects 
and  use  them  as  milch  -  cows.  Many 
ants  live  on  decaying  vegetable  and 
animal  matter.  In  some  hot  countries  are 
large,  flesh-eating  ants,  which  move  in 
swarms  over  the  land,  searching  for  insects 
of  all  kinds,  each  carrying  his  prey.  In 
South  America,  when  a  swarm  is  seen  ap- 
proaching, the  people  leave  their  houses 
and  let  the  ants  clear  out  the  insects  which 
infest  them.  In  Texas  is  a  kind  of  farming 
ant,  which  is  said  to  plant,  cultivate  and 
harvest  a  kind  of  grain,  laying  it  up  in  cells 


ANTAEUS 


77 


ANT-EATER 


for  a  rainy  day.  This  kind  also  "builds 
paved  cities,  constructs  roads  and  keeps 
a  large  military  force." 

Some  varieties,  like  the  amazon  or  war- 
rior ant,  are  slaveholders.  They  go  out  on 
warlike  expeditions  against  tribes  of  smaller 
ants  and  capture  their  eggs  and  cocoons, 
which  they  bring  home,  dooming  the  ants 
hatched  from  them  to  lifelong  labor. 

The  honey  ant  is  a  very  curious  creature, 
having  a  distended  abdomen  filled  wholly 
with  honey.  Active  workers  bring  in  the 
honey,  and  it  is  stored  with  the  honey- 
bearers.  These  cling  to  the  ceiling  of  the 
underground  chambers,  and  in  time  of 
need  give  forth  their  store  drop  by  drop. 

The  common  household  ants  are  the 
little  red  ants,  the  small  black  ant  and  the 
pavement  ant.  Their  nests,  usually  in 
walls,  are  very  hard  to  locate.  Their 
presence  can  be  discouraged  by  spraying 
with  kerosene  the  crack  through  which 
entrance  is  had  to  kitchen  or  pantry. 

There  are  various  kinds  of  ant  homes. 
Some  have  underground  chambers  and 
galleries,  some  occupy  chambers  and  gal- 
leries in  decaying  wood.  Some  ants  construct 
mounds.  Some  build  nests  of  a  paste-like 
substance.  In  the  tropics  there  is  a  great 
variety  in  materials  used  and  manner  of 
building. 

The  only  insects  likely  to  be  mistaken 
for  ants  are  the  termites  or  white  ants, 
which  belong  to  an  entirely  different  order 
of  insects.  These  latter  live  in  vast  com- 
munities, generally  in  the  tropics,  and  do 
much  damage  by  eating  out  the  interior  of 
articles  of  furniture,  chairs,  tables,  sills  of 
houses,  etc.  They  are  very  productive,  one 
female  laying  as  many  as  80,000  eggs.  Their 
homes  are  very  large,  sometimes  twelve 
feet  high,  in  the  shape  of  a  cone,  and  so 
strongly  built  that  a  man  may  stand  upon 
them.  The  queen  is  imprisoned  in  a  large 
chamber  in  the  interior. 

Ants  have  been  a  most  interesting  object  of 
study  from  the  earliest  times;  reference  being 
made  to  them  in  the  Bible  and  in  poetry 
and  fable.  Many  stories  are  told  of  their  seem- 
ing intelligence,  much  written  of  the  curious 
features  of  their  lives  —  their  battles,  their 
mushroom-growing,  the  many  guests  they 
entertain  in  their  colonies,  the  cleanliness 
of  their  homes,  etc.,  etc.  See  Lubbock: 
Ants,  Bees  and  Wasps;  McCook:  The  Agri- 
cultural Ant;  The  Honey  Ants  and  Tenants 
of  an  Old  Farm;  Howard :  The  Insect  Book; 
La  Fontaine's  fable:  The  Grasshopper  and 
the  Ant. 

Antaeus  (an-te'us),  in  ancient  fable,  a 
giant  of  Libya,  son  of  Neptune  and  Terra. 
He  was  a  mighty  wrestler  and  could  not  be 
conquered  so  long  as  he  remained  on  and 
was  in  contact  with  the  earth.  Whoever 
came  to  Libya  had  to  wrestle  with  him,  and 
with  the  skulls  of  the  slain  he  built  a  temple 
to  his  father  Neptune.  Hercules  finally 


conquered   him   by   lifting   him   from   the 
ground  and  strangling  him  in  the  air. 

Antarctic,  meaning  opposite  to  the 
Arctic  or  northern  pole. 

Antarctic  Circle  is  one  of  the  smaller 
circles  of  the  globe,  twenty-three  and  a  half 
degrees  from  the  south  pole. 

Antarctic  Ocean,  is  the  name  of  the 
ocean  lying  within  the  Antarctic  circle. 
It  was  long  thought  impassable  for  ships 
on  account  of  the  ice,  but  of  late  years  many 
voyages  have  been  made  and  tracts  of  bar- 
ren land  observed.  The  features  of  the 
Antarctic  Ocean  are  constant  fogs  and 
currents,  unnumbered  icebergs  and  the 
beautiful  aurora  borealis  (which  see). 

Antarctic  Exploration.  Since  the 
notable  expedition  in  1840,  to  the  South 
Polar  Seas,  of  Captain  James  Ross  and  Dr. 
(Sir  Joseph)  Hooker  in  the  Erebus  and 
Terror,  there  have  been  several  researches 
in  the  region.  In  1901-4,  Captain  R.  F. 
Scott  penetrated  by  sledges  the  interior  of 
Victoria  Land,  and  carried  the  British  flag 
to  82°  17'  S.  Other  expeditions  embrace 
those  of  the  German  Antarctic  Expedition 
(1901-0^);  the  Swedish  Expedition  in  the 
Antarctic,  which  was  lost;  and  the  Scottish- 
National  Antarctic  Expedition  (1902-04)  in 
the  Scotia.  A  notable  expedition  was  that 
of  Lieutenant  Shackleford,  who  sailed  from 
England  in  Aug.,  1907,  and  reached  lati- 
tude 88°  23',  Jan.  9,  1909.  It  remained  for 
Roald  Amundsen  to  win  the  long-sought 
prize.  Sailing  from  Norway  in  1910,  he 
wintered  in  Whales  Bay,  and  in  Oct.,  1911, 
started  with  a  dog  and  sledge  outfit  for  the 
south  pole.  Climbing  the  ice  barrier  to  the 
great  polar  plateau  and  struggling  over  the 
great  polar  plain,  he  reached  the  pole  Dec. 
14—17,  1911. 

Ant-Eater,  a  toothless  animal  found  in 
Central  and  South  America  feeding  on  white 
ants  and  other  insects.  The  long,  flexible 
tongue,  covered  with  sticky  saliva,  is  pro- 
truded among  the  insects  and  suddenly 
withdrawn  when  a  number  have  collected 


ANT-EATER 

upon  it.  There  are  a  number  of  forms. 
The  great  ant-eater  is  about  four  feet  long 
with  a  large  tail  covered  with  bushy  hair. 
The  color  is  gray,  marked  by  a  band  of  black 
on  the  breast  and  toward  the  shoulders;  the 
feet  and  forelegs  are  white.  The  claws  are 
long  and  strong,  adapted  for  digging.  jit 
sleeps  a  great  deal,  and  lies  curled  up  with  its 


ANTELOPE 


ANTHONY 


tail  spread  out  to  protect  it  from  sun  and 
rain.  In  defending  itself,  it  makes  good 
use  of  its  strong  forearms. 

An'telope,  an  animal  like  the  deer,  be- 
longing to  a  group  between  cattle  and  goats. 
Its  horns  are  ringed  and  hollow  and  are  not 
renewed  annually.  The  size  varies  greatly, 
the  pygmy  antelopes  of  South  Africa  being 
only  from  eight  to  nine  inches  in  height, 
while  the  largest  kinds  are  from  five  to  six 
feet.  Antelopes  are  found  in  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa  and  America.  They  are  the  fleetest 
as  well  as  the  most  beautiful  and  graceful 
of  quadrupeds.  Two  kinds  are  peculiar 
to  North  America — the  Rocky  Mountain 
goat,  which  is  a  true  antelope,  and  the 
prong-horn.  The  latter  stands  apart  from 
the  true  antelopes,  from  the  circumstance 
that  annually  it  sheds  the  outer  sheath 
of  its  horns.  There  is  an  interior  bony  core 
that  remains  permanent.  These  animals 
are  distributed  from  the  Missouri  River  to 
the  Pacific  and  from  53°  N.  latitude  south- 
ward into  Mexico.  At  one  time  there  were 
immense  herds  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley 
in  California.  They  are  now  abundant  in 
northwestern  Mexico.  The  common  ante- 
lope is  found  in  India  and  Eastern  Asia. 
It  is  about  two  and  a  half  feet  high  at  the 
shoulders,  with  erect  diverging  horns  bent 
in  a  spiral  form.  It  is  so  swift  that  gray- 
hounds  cannot  catch  it,  and  it  leaps  easily 
a  height  of  ten  or  twelve  feet,  while  the 
length  of  its  bound  is  often  ten  or  twelve 
yards.  The  Chinese  antelope  is  found  in 
the  deserts  of  Central  Asia.  Its  flesh  is 
very  much  prized.  The  gazelle  of  North 
Africa  was  known  to  the  ancients,  its  beau- 
tiful black  eyes  being  often  spoken  of  by 
Arabian  poets.  In  the  Alps  we  find  the 
chamois  and  in  South  Africa  the  eland,  the 
largest  of  ail  the  antelopes. 

Anther  (Hn'ther).  That  part  of  a  stamen 
which  produces  the  pollen.  See  FLOWER. 

Antheridium  (an'ther- 
"id'i-iim).  The  male  or- 
gan of  plants.  Within 
it  are  produced  the 
sperms  or  their  equiv- 
alents, which  fertilize  the 
female  cells  or  eggs.  The 
antheridium  v  a  r  i  e  s  in 
structure  in  different 
groups  of  plants,  being 
for  the  most  part  a  sin- 
gle cell  in  the  Thatto- 
fhytes,  and  a  several  to 
many-celled  structure  in 
the  higher  groups.  It 
is  important  to  note  that 
the  antheridium  holds 
no  relation  to  the  an- 
ther, the  structure  in 
the  flower  which  pro- 
duces pollen,  for  the  SECTION  THROUGH 
anther  is  not  a  male  ANTHERIDIUM  OF 
organ.  To  avoid  this  LIVERWORT 


confusion  it  has  been  proposed  to  change 
the  name  antheridium  to  spermary. 

Antherozoid 

( tin'ther-o-zo'id  ). 
A  n  a  m  e  often 
applied  to  the 
swimming  o  r 
motile  sperm  of 
plants.  See 
SPERM. 

Anthoceros. 
A  genus  of  the 
plants  known  as 
liverworts  which 
gives  name  to 
the  group  An- 
Anthoceros,  showing  thallus  thoc  e  r  ot  ale  s. 
with  two  capsules  (A)  and  q-t-p  crrm-m  rr>n 
mature  capsule  splitting  (B)  ^e  gro"P  c  °n- 

tams     but     few 

forms,  but_is  of  great  interest  from  the  fact 
that  from  it  the  mosses  seem  to  have  devel- 
oped, and  possibly  the  ferns  and  seed-plants 
also.  The  body  (gametophyte)  is  a  simple 
flat  thallus,  and  produces  a  slender  spore- 
case  (sporophyte)  which  is  remarkable  for  its 
continued  growth  in  length  and  its  green 
color.  See  HEPATIC^E. 

Anthony,  Henry  Bowen,  American 
statesman,  was  born  at  Coventry,  R.  I., 
April  i,  1815,  and  died  at  Providence,  R.  I., 
September  2,  1884.  Graduating  at  Brown 
University,  he  took  early  to  journalism,  and 
was  for  a  time  editor  of  the  Providence 
Journal.  In  1849-50  he  was  governor  of 
Rhode  Island,  and,  nine  years  later,  he  en- 
tered the  United  States  senate,  and  was  a 
member  of  that  body  until  his  death,  serv- 
ing frequently  on  important  committees, 
and  acting  on  several  occasions  as  tem- 
porary president  of  the  chamber. 

Anthony,  Susan  Brownell.  In  1854 
a  school  teacher  appeared  in  Albany,  New 
York,  to  present  a  petition  signed  by  28,000 
persons  for  bet- 
ter laws  to  reg- 
ulate the  liquor 
traffic.  A  mem- 
ber of  the  As- 
s  e  m  b  1  y  said : 
"Who  are  all 
these  signers — 
nobody  but 
women."  No- 
body but  women 
—  mothers, 
wives,  daugh- 
ters, sisters  who 
wanted  to  pro- 
tect their  pro- 
tectors against 
evil  habits  that  threatened  the  home.  The 
teacher,  as  she  turned  away,  said:  "A 
woman's  name  on  a  petition  will  never  be 
as  good  as  a  man's  until  she  has  a  vote." 
Susan  B.  Anthony  from  that  day  was  an 
equal  suffragist.  That  thought  was  her 
whole  creed,  precept  and  practice.  For 


SUSAN   B.    ANTHONY 


ANTHRACITE 


79 


ANTHROPOMETRY 


the  next  half  century  she  gave  every  day, 
every  dollar,  every  power  of  her  mind  to 
the  work  of  making  a  woman's  name  worth 
as  much  as  a  man  s. 

Born  in  South  Adams,  Mass.,  February 
15,  1820,  of  a  Quaker  father,  she  was  given 
the  same  education  as  her  brothers,  which 
was  unusual  in  that  day.  It  was  not  until 
she  began  to  teach  for  $10  a  month  in  a 
position  for  which  a  man  would  have  been 
given  $40  that  she  felt  the  disadvantage 
of  being  born  a  girl.  Her  voice  was  first 
heard  in  a  New  York  State  Teachers'  As- 
sociation in  a  demand  for  equal  pay  for  men 
and  women.  At  the  age  of  27  she  joined 
the  movement  for  temperance  reform,  and 
she  might  have  preceded  Miss  Willard  in 
the  leadership  of  that  work  but  for  her  ex- 
perience at  Albany.  She  became  convinced 
that  the  ballot  was  the  only  effective 
weapon  to  fight  with  against  any  and  all 
kinds  of  moral  evil  and  legal  oppression. 

Other  eminent  women  were  pioneers  in 
this  movement,  but  Miss  Anthony  was  the 
most  original  and  aggressive  of  them  all, 
and  she  was  singled  out  for  ridicule.  In 
time  her  wit,  her  good-humor,  her  courage, 
her  intellect,  her  grasp  of  political  history 
and  the  legal  status  of  women  won  respect 
and  admiration  even  from  people  who  did 
not  agree  with  her.  There  are  few  to-day 
who  will  deny  the  debt  that  women  owe 
to  her  in  their  privilege  of  working  at  in- 
numerable occupations,  with  equal  or  very 
nearly  equal  pay  as  men,  in  their  control  of 
their  property  and  children,  in  their  op- 
portunities for  higher  education  and  in 
the  fact  that  women's  names  on  petitions, 
even  when  they  have  no  vote,  can  no  longer 
be  dismissed  with  contempt. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  cause 
Miss  Anthony  made  her  own  was  helped 
along  enormously  by  the  Civil  War.  The 
roll  of  the  dead  forced  thousands  of  timid 
women  into  the  ranks  of  bread-winners. 
From  a  social  disgrace  it  suddenly  became 
an  honor,  a  patriotic  duty  for  women  to 
work,  and  necessity  opened  all  the  gates  of 
industry  and  all  the  gates  of  preparation 
for  work.  Her  lectures,  her  writing,  her 
petitions,  her  appearance  before  Congress- 
sional  committees  and  her  work  of  organi- 
zation made  her  a  national  character.  In 
1872  she  cast  a  vote  in  the  presidential 
election  to  test  her  status  as  a  citizen.  She 
was  tried  before  the  courts  of  New  York 
state  and  fined  $100,  but  refused  to  pay  it, 
declaring  that  "taxation  without  repre- 
sentation is  tyranny,"  just  the  same  as  it 
was  a  hundred  years  before.  Miss  Anthony 
died  March  13,  1906,  active  and  able  for 
her  task  up  to  the  age  of  86.  See  Life  by 
Ida  M.  Harper. 

Anthracite.     See  COAL. 

An'thropol'ogy,    a    wide    and   compre- 
hensive   term,    otherwise    expressed    as    the  , 
science    of    man,    and    treating    of    man's  1 


nature,  origin,  history,  etc.,  especially  as 
a  social  animal,  living  in  groups  either  by 
nature  or  from  choice  or  necessity.  Sociol- 
ogy is  a  term  somewhat  akin  to  it,  though 
specifically  dealing  with  society  as  a  whole, 
its  _  structure  and  organizations,  the  laws 
of  its  development,  as  shown  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  man  in  communities,  and  of  what 
we  know  as  actual  civilization.  Again 
akin  to  what  is  termed  anthropology  is 
ethnography,  which  treats  of  the  races  of 
men  in  the  geographical  groups  or  tribes 
in  which  they  are  met;  while  ethnology 
deals  with  the  customs,  languages  and 
institutions  of  mankind  in  general.  An- 
thropology, in  the  main,  embraces  what  is 
usually  dealt  with  in  the  two  latter  sciences. 
The  physical  aspect  and  characteristics  of 
the  race,  varied  as  they  are  by  climate  and 
temperature,  including  the  cranium,  limbs, 
facial  features,  height  and  shape  of  the 
body  and  other  descriptive  details,  belong 
to  the  classification  of  physical  anthro- 
pology; while  the  industrial  and  utilitarian 
arts  in  which  man  employs  himself  or  is  em- 
ployed, together  with  the  tools  with  which 
he  works,  are  covered  by  the  term  tech- 
nology. Men  in  their  lawless,  vicious 
state  as  criminals,  felons  and  outlaws  of 
society,  transgressing  its  laws  and  defying 
its  proprieties  and  conventionalities,  are 
studied  and  treated  of  under  criminal  an- 
thropology, ^by  investigators  in  police 
offices  and  prisons,  who  endeavor  to  set  forth 
the  hereditary,  congenital  and  other  causes 
that  create  the  criminal  classes  and  leave 
the  imprint  of  crime  upon  them  as  a  distinct 
physiognomical  and  racial  type. 

An'thropom'etry,  the  science  of  the 
measurement  of  the  human  body,  is  of  use 
in  the  study  of  different  races  of  men  and 
also  of  special  groups,  such  as  school-chil- 
dren and  even  criminals.  It  is  of  service 
also  in  medicine  both  for  the  purpose  of  a 
more  exact  knowledge  of  the  symptoms 
of  disease  and  for  the  more  reliable  use  of 
measurements  of  the  average  rate  and 
variation  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
respiration,  etc.  It  is  not  only  necessary 
to  have  these  measurements  hi  large  num- 
bers; but  to  have  them  under  different 
conditions.  Francis  Galton  of  England 
was  perhaps  the  pioneer  of  the  science  of 
anthropometry.  It  was  only  in  1875  that 
measurements  of  average  height,  weight, 
girth  of  chest,  etc.,  were  ordered  to  be 
made  for  the  British  Association.  In  con- 
nection with  education,  the  measurements 
by  Galton,  Karl  Pearson,  Cattell,  Edward 
Thorndike  and  others  are  worthy  of  notice. 
Many  such  measurements  have  been  col- 
lected by  President  Stanley  Hall  in  his 
recent  work  on  Adolescence  (1908).  The 
system  of  identifying  criminals  by  means 
of  thumb-marks  and  other  physical  meas- 
urements is  an  example  of  the  application 
of  anthropometry  in  another  field.  Phy« 


ANTICOSTI 


80 


ANTIOCH 


sical  statistics  are  often  collected  by  the 
doctors  in  charge  of  large  gymnasiums. 
But  scientists  now  endeavor  to  measure 
mental  as  well  as  physical  traits;  and 
although  such  measurements  are  indirect, 
they  represent  a  greater  degree  of  exact- 
ness than  mere  opinion. 

An'ticos'ti.  An  immense  island  in  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  140  miles  long  by 
30  miles  wide.  Not  suitable  for  agricul- 
ture. It  is  now  owned  by  Menier,  the 
French  chocolate  manufacturer. 

Anti-Cyclone.     See  CYCLONE. 

Antie'tam  (an-te'tam),  a  creek  in  Mary- 
land, where  was  fought  one  of  the  great 
battles  of  the  Civil  War,  September  17, 
1862,  between  the  Union  army,  with 
57,614  men  in  the  field,  under  General 
McClellan,  and  the  Confederate,  with 
38,000  men,  under  General  Lee.  The  bat- 
tle raged  with  great  slaughter  from  early 
morning  until  dark.  The  result  was  not 
decisive,  the  Union  loss  being  over  11,000 
and  the  Confederate  loss  about  10,000. 
McClellan  did  not  renew  the  attack,  and 
on  the  1 8th  Lee  retreated  in  safety.  But 
the  moral  effect  was  to  encourage  the  north, 
and  on  the  strength  of  Antietam  President 
Lincoln  issued  his  proclamation  abolishing 
slavery. 

An'tigo,  Wis.,  a  city,  the  seat  of  Lang- 
lade  County,  on  the  Spring  Brook  River 
and  on  the  Chicago  &  Northwestern  R.  R., 
206  miles  northwest  of  Milwaukee.  Settled 
in  or  about  the  year  1878,  the  city  was  in- 
corporated in  1884.  Lumbering  and  ag- 
riculture are  the  chief  indutsries  of  the 
region,  together  with  its  commerical  trade. 
Besides  its  railroad  shops,  it  has  foundries, 
breweries,  flour  mills  and  extensive  wooden- 
ware  establishments, etc.  Population,  7,196. 

Antigone  (an-tig'o-ne),  one  of  the  tragic 
characters  in  Greek  fable.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  GEdipus,  king  of  Thebes.  When 
her  father  was  driven  from  his  throne,  she 
followed  him  to  Attica  and  cared  for  him. 
After  his  death  she  returned  to  Thebes, 
where  Haemon,  son  of  Creon,  the  new  tyrant 
of  Thebes,  fell  in  love  with  her.  She  at- 
tempted to  bury  the  body  of  her  brother, 
who  had  been  slain  in  war  with  Creon,  and 
for  this  offense  was  ordered  to  be  buried 
alive  or  shut  up  in  a  cave.  Haemon  slew 
himself  by  her  side.  The  story  of  Anti- 
gone has  been  told  by  several  Greek  poets; 
but  only  the  tragedy  of  Sophocles  is  now 
in  existence. 

Antigua  (ante'gwa) ,  British  West  Indies, 
one  of  a  group  of  islands  (the  Windward) 
which  compose  the  Lesser  Antilles,  situated 
to  the  east  of  Porto  Rico  and  separating 
the  Caribbean  Sea  from  the  Atlantic.  It 
is  54  miles  in  circumterence,  enclosing  an 
area  of  108  square  miles  or,  with  its  depend- 
ent islands  of  Barbuda  and  Redonda,  170 
square  miles  in  all.  Antigua  is  the  seat 
of  government  in  the  Leeward  Islands 


Colony  of  Britain,  and  has,  besides  a  nom- 
inated governor  and  executive  council,  a 
legislative  council  consisting  of  eight  official 
and  eight  unofficial  members.  The  chief 
town  is  St.  John  (population,  1911,  9,262); 
the  population  of  the  colony  with  its  de- 
pendencies, 38,899.  It  has  a  local  tele- 
phone line  90  miles  in  extent,  is  connected 
with  the  West  India  and  Panama  Tele- 
graph Company's  cable,  and  is  reached  by 
periodic  steam  vessels,  direct  from  England, 
New  York  and  Canada.  Its  chief  ex- 
ports embrace  sugar,  cotton  and  pineapples. 

Antilles  (an-til-lez  or  on-tel'),  a  cluster 
of  islands,  forming  a  half  circle  and  gener- 
ally called  the  West  Indies.  They  are 
about  360  in  number.  They  are  very  fertile, 
but  fierce  hurricanes  blow  over  them,  and 
their  climate  is  very  hot.  Their  chief  prod- 
ucts are  sugar,  coffee,  tobacco  and  cotton. 
They  are  divided  into  the  Windward  Islands, 
the  Leeward  Islands  and  the  Great  Antilles. 
See  WEST  INDIES,  CUBA,  JAMAICA,  BAHAMAS, 
etc. 

An'timony,  a  brittle  metal  of  a  bluish- 
white  color.  It  may  easily  be  reduced  to  a 
powder.  When  heated  to  about  800°  it 
melts,  and  when  cooled  it  forms  crystals. 
It  burns  in  the  air  with  a  white  light,  and 
gives  off  fumes  known  as  the  flowers  of 
antimony.  It  does  not  tarnish  or  rust, 
and  so  is  much  used  in  alloys,  such  as  type- 
metal.  The  finely-divided  metal,  called 
antimony  black,  is  used  to  give  casts  an  ap- 
pearance of  iron.  There  are  a  number  of 
useful  compounds  of  antimony:  tartar 
emetic,  the  tartrate  which  is  used  in  medi- 
cine; glass  of  antimony,  a  mixture  of  oxide 
and  sulphide,  used  for  coloring  glass  and 
porcelain  yellow;  and  butter  of  antimony, 
the  chloride,  an  oily  liquid,  which,  mixed 
with  olive  oil,  is  used  by  gunmakers  to  give 
a  brown  color  to  gun  barrels.  The  prin- 
cipal source  of  the  metal  is  the  sulphide, 
called  stibnite  or  gray  antimony  ore.  It  is 
smelted  in  France,  where  it  is  found  abundant- 
ly, in  Germany  and  in  England  which  receives 
its  supply  from  Singapore  and  Borneo.  An- 
timony is  found  in  America,  in  California, 
Nevada,  Mexico  and  New  Brunswick. 

Antinous  (an-tin'd-us),  a  beautiful  youth 
of  Bithynia.  He  was  a  favorite  of  the  Em- 
peror Hadrian,  and  went  with  him  on  his 
journey  through  Egypt.  An  oracle  had 
told  the  emperor  that  a  great  danger  which 
threatened  him  could  be  avoided  only  by 
the  sacrifice  of  the  person  whom  he  loved 
most  fondly.  The  youth  hearing  this, 
drowned  himself  in  the  Nile.  In  his  honor, 
Hadrian  built  the  splendid  city  of  Antino- 
opolis  or  AntinoS,  in  Egypt,  and  also  gave 
his  name  to  a  newly-observed  star.  An- 
tinous was  made  a  god,  and  statues  of  him 
were  set  up  throughout  the  Roman  empire. 

Antioch  (an'tl-bk),  named  from  its  foun- 
der, Antiochus,  was  long  celebrated  as  one 
of  the  first  cities  of  the  east.  The  name 


ANTIPODAL  CELLS 


81 


APE 


Christians  was  first  given  to  the  disciples  of 
Christ  in  this  city.  It  was  captured  by 
the  Saracens  and  the  Crusaders.  Once 
richer  than  Rome  itself,  but  devastated 
by  earthquakes  and  impoverished  by  con- 
quests, it  was  finally  razed  to  the  ground 
by  the  Mamelukes,  in  1269.  The  "Queen 
of  the  East,"  as  it  was  called,  is  now  only 
a  small  town. 

Antip'odal  Cells  (in  plants).  A  group 
of  ceils  developed  in  the  embryo-sac  of 
Angiosperms.  See  EMBRYO-SAC. 

Ant-Lion,  the  larva  of  an  insect  common 
in  the  United  States  and  belonging  to  the 
order  Neuroptera.  The  larva  is  armed  with 
long  jaws.  It  constructs  in  the  sand  a 
funnel-shaped  pit  one  or  two  inches  across. 
It  then  conceals  itself  at  the  bottom  with 
its  pincer-like  jaws  protruding  into  ^the 
funnel.  Ants  and  other  insects  slide  into 
the  pitfall  and  are  devoured  by  the  larva. 
The  adult  form  is  a  graceful  insect  with 
four  delicate  wings  and  a  slender  body. 

Antonel'li  (dn'to-nel'le),  Cardinal 
Qiacomo,  was  born  in  Italy  in  1806,  and 
died  at  Rome,  November  6,  1876.  He  was 
raised  to  the  cardinalate  in  1847,  and  was 
for  a  time  secretary  of  foreign  affairs  for 
the  papal  states.  As  a  champion  of  the 
papal  interest,  he  strenuously  opposed  the 
union  of  Italy,  under  Victor  Emmanuel. 
He  was  chief  adviser  and  prime  minister 
of  Pope  Pius  IX,  and  during  the  Italian 
revolution  of  1848  he  accompanied  his 
Holiness  in  his  flight  to  the  seaport  of  Gaeta. 

Antoni'nus  (dn'to-nl'nus)  Pi'us,  a  Roman 
emperor,  was  born  in  86  A.  D.  He  was 
adopted  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian  and  sue 
ceeded  him  in  the  year  138.  His  reign  was 
peaceful  and  prosperous.  He  is  quoted  as 
saying:  "I  had  rather  preserve  the  life  of  a 
citizen  than  destroy  a  thousand  enemies." 
He  encouraged  everything  that  was  good, 
helped  the  poor,  lessened  the  taxes  and 
well  earned  the  title:  "Father  of  his  Coun- 
try." He  was  called  Pius  (pious),  because 
he  built  a  temple  in  honor  of  his  adopted 
father  Hadrian.  He  died  161  A.  D. 

An'tony,  Mark,  a  great  Roman  general, 
was  born  at  Rome  in  83  B.  C.  He  fought 
bravely  as  a  soldier  in  Syria,  Egypt  and 
Gaul  under  Caesar,  whose  firm  friend  he 
became.  He  took  part  in  Caesar's  great 
victory  of  Pharsalia,  and  with  him  was  made 
consul  in  44  B.  C.  After  Caesar  was  killed, 
Antony,  with  Augustus  and  Lepidus,  formed 
a  government  called  the  Triumvirate,  which 
defeated  the  republican  army  of  Brutus 
and  Cassius  at  Philippi.  Some  time  after, 
Antony  visited  Greece  and  Asia,  and  met 
the  beautiful  Cleopatra,  queen  of  Egypt. 
His  love  for  her  made  him  forget  the  prov- 
inces he  was  to  govern.  When  at  last  he 
turned  his  attention  to  them,  he  ruled  so 
much  like  a  despot  that  Augustus  sent  an 
army  against  him,  which  defeated  him  in 
the  naval  battle  of  Actium,  Cleopatra 


cowardly  sailing  away  with  her  ships,  and 
Antony  too  much  in  love  to  stay  behind 
her  even  to  fight  for  his  honor.  Soon 
afterward  Mark  Antony  killed  himself  (30 
B.  C.). 

An'  trim,  a  county  and  town  in  the  north- 
east of  Ireland,  noted  for  its  extensive 
manufactures  of  linen.  The  capital  of  the 
county, — which,  as  it  was  largely  colonized 
from  Scotland,  is  preponderatingly  Protest- 
ant— is  Belfast.  Antrim  is  an  old  town, 
with  considerable  historic  interest  attached 
to  it.  Near  it,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III, 
a  battle  was  fought  between  the  English 
and  the  Irish;  and,  during  the  troubles  of 
the  year  1798,  a  British  force  encountered, 
at  Antrim,  a  body  of  rebellious  "United 
Irishmen,"  and  defeated  them.  The  county 
of  Antrim  has  an  area  of  1,211  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  478,603. 

Ant'werp,  the  main  seaport  of  Belgium. 
Its  cathedral  is  a  fine  specimen  of  Gothic 
architecture.  The  paintings  in  it  are  by 
Rubens;  among  them  is  his  best  work,  The 
Descent  from  the  Cross.  Antwerp  is  over  a 
thousand  years  old.  It  is  to-day  the  chief 
military  arsenal  and  the  principal  com- 
mercial city  and  seaport  of  the  kingdom. 
The  province  of  the  same  name  (Antwerp 
or  Anvers),  has  an  area  of  1,093  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  825,156.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  i6th  century  the  city 
was  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity,  with  a 
population  of  over  200,000,  a  world- wide 
commerce,  and  having  2,500  ships  at  a  time 
in  its  harbor.  Its  noted  citadel  was  built 
by  the  Duke  of  Alva,  and  has  endured  many 
sieges,  especially  one  of  thirteen  months 
by  the  Duke  of  Parma.  Population, 
317.171- 

Apa'ches  (d-pd'chdz),  a  tribe  of  Indians 
that  inhabit  Arizona,  New  Mexico  and 
parts  of  Mexico.  They  are  the  most  treach- 
erous and  bloodthirsty  of  Indians,  and  live 
by  hunting  and  robbery.  They  have  no 
single  chief.  By  a  system  of  mountain 
signals  they  can  gather  at  short  notice  a 
large  body  of  warriors. 

Ape,  the  name  often  applied  to  any 
monkey,  but  here  confined  to  the^tailless, 
semi-erect  forms  that  most  nearly  approach 
man  in  structure.  This  includes  the  chim- 
panzee, orang-outang,  gorilla  and  the 
gibbon.  They  are  aU  inhabitants  of  the 
old  world.  The  term  man-like  ape  applied 
to  these  forms  is  significant  of  their  likeness 
in  structure  to  man.  in  fa^o,  man  differs 
structurally  from  these  apes  no  more  than 
they  differ  among  themselves.  It  requires 
some  anatomical  knowledge  to  appreciate 
the  differences.  Those  in  the  brain  are 
often  referred  to,  but  even  in  that  organ 
it  is  largely  a  difference  in  size,  in  convolu- 
tions and  microscopic  structure.  The  con- 
volution containing  the  brain-cells  that 
preside  over  speech  (convolution  of  Brocca) 
is  deficient  in  the  apes,  and  there  are,  of 


APELLES 


82 


APIARY 


course,  other  differences.  The  likeness  is 
especially  strong  in  the  young  animal. 

An  interesting  contribution  to  the  facts 
bearing  on  the  subject  of  structural  re- 
semblances was  the  finding  of  a  fossil 
form  more  man-like  than  any  previously 
discovered.  In  1894,  there  was  found  in 
the  island  of  Java  remains  of  a  fossil  ape 
(Pithecanthropus  erectus),  which,  from 
the  capacity  and  form  of  the  cranium  and 
the  anatomy  of  the  long  bone  of  the  leg, 
occupies  a  position  intermediate  between 
man  and  living  apes.  The  doctrine  of  evolu- 
tion does  not  teach  that  any  existing  ape 
is  in  the  direct  line  of  man's  ancestry,  but 
that  the  simian  line  and  the  human  line  are 
united  in  remote  generalized  ancestors 
common  to  both  groups.  The  existing  apes 
are,  therefore,  side  branches,  as  it  were,  of 
the  ancestral  tree  and  not  in  the  direct  royal 
line.  The  apes  are  progressing  in  their 
habits;  some  of  them  build  rude  shelter, 
use  clubs  and  stones  in  defense,  etc.,  but  a 
popular  misconception  should  be  corrected — 
their  progress  is  not  directly  toward  human- 
ity, but  toward  a  more  perfect  simianity. 
Apes  live  mainly  on  vegetable  food.  They 
are  as  large  as,  or  larger  than,  man;  all  can 
walk  as  man  does,  though  more  at  home  in 
climbing.  They  have  no  tail  and  no  cheek 
pouches,  have  great  strength  and  intelli- 
gence. They  are  by  nature  very  savage, 
and  are  among  the  most  dangerous  of  wild 
animals.  See  CHIMPANZEE,  ORANG-OUTANG, 
GORILLA. 

Apelles  (a-pel'ez),  a  Greek  painter,  who 
lived  probably  between  352  and  308  B.  C. 
We  do  not  know  when  or  where  he  was  born, 
nor  when  or  where  he  died,  and  not  one  of 
his  pictures  remains,  yet  his  name  stands 
for  the  highest  excellence  in  painting.  He 
painted  portraits  of  Philip  and  Alexander, 
who  would  sit  to  no  other  painter.  His 
most  famous  picture  was  Venus  Rising  from 
the  Sea.  One  of  his  paintings,  representing 
Alexander  holding  a  thunderbolt,  was  sold 
for  a  sum  equal  to  $200,000.  When  he  had 
finished  a  picture,  he  used  to  place  it  in  a 
public  place  and  hide  behind  it,  to  hear  what 
was  said.  Once  he  overheard  a  passing 
shoemaker  say  that  a  slipper  on  the  foot 
of  a  figure  had  not  ties  enough.  Apelles  cor- 
rected the  mistake.  The  next  day  the 
shoemaker  began  to  find  fault  with  a  leg, 
when  Apelles,  putting  out  his  head,  desired 
him  to  confine  his  criticism  to  the 
slipper. 

Ap'ennines,  a  chain  of  mountains  in 
Italy,  running  the  whole  length  of  the  penin- 
sula, from  the  Maritime  Alps  to  the  Straits 
of  Messina,  a  distance  of  800  miles.  Its 
average  height  is  about  4,200  feet;  its  high- 
est peak,  Monte  Corno,  is  9,542  feet.  Be- 
tween the  main  range  and  the  Mediterranean 
extends  a  chain  called  the  Sub-Apennines, 
which  include  the  group  of  volcanoes  of 
which.  Mt.  Vesuvius  is  the  center. 


Apet'alous  Flowers.  The  phrase  liter- 
allv  means  "flowers  without  petals,"  but 
it  is  somewhat  arbitrarily  applied.  In  a 
complete  flower  there  are  two  distinguish- 
able floral  envelopes — calyx  and  corolla. 
In  case  there  is  only  one  floral  envelop,  it  is 
assumed  that  the  corolla  (petals)  is  missing, 
and  the  flower  is  said  to  be  apetalous.  The 
apetalous  condition  may  be  a  primitive  one, 
or  it  may  have  been  derived  by  reduction 
from  forms  which  had  petals.  Apetalous 
flowers  are  most  common  in  what  are 
regarded  as  the  more  primitive  families 
of  Angiosperms.  The  noun  form  of  the 
word  is  apetaly. 

Aphides  (af'i-dez),  small  insects  very 
injurious  to  plants  and  commonly  called 
plant-lice.  The  number  of  species  is  very 
large,  and  they  live  on  a  great  variety  of 
plants.  They  are  usually  greenish  in  color, 
with  short  bodies  and  long  slender  legs. 
Their  mouth  parts  are  formed  into  a  short 
stylet,  through  which  they  suck  the  juices  of 
plants.  They  prey  practically  upon  all 
cultivated  plants,  and  increase  so  rapidly 
that  were  it  not  for  their  numerous  enemies 
plant  life  would  almost  be  destroyed.  The 
grapevine  phylloxera  is  very  destructive 
to  vineyards;  a  great  pest  is  the  root-louse 
of  the  apple,  mistakenly  called  the  American 
blight;  another  great  pest  the  hop  plant 
louse ;  and  others,  the  aphides  of  the  cabbage, 
potato,  bean,  apple,  pear,  etc.,  have  carried 
wide  destruction.  They  are  produced  in 
large  numbers,  and  have  natural  enemies, 
like  the  larvae  of  the  lady-bird.  Tobacco 
and  a  strong  solution  of  soap  and  kerosene 
emulsion  are  used  in  combating  them. 

Many  forms  of  aphide  produce  a  sweet 
liquid,  called  honey-dew,  of  which  ants  are 
very  fond.  Ants  are  known  to  keep  herds 
of  them  as  "milch  cows"  in  captivity,  pro- 
tecting them  from  their  enemies  and  strok- 
ing them  with  their  antennae  in  order  to 
make  them  give  up  the  honey-dew. 

Aphrodite  (af-ro-dl'te),  the  Greek  god- 
dess of  love,  the  counterpart  of  Venus  in 
Roman  mythology.  Both,  probably,  are 
of  Asiatic  origin;  though  it  is  to  the  Greeks 
that  we  owe  the  pretty  story  of  her  birth 
from  the  sea  foam  and  of  her  subsequently 
becoming  the  wife  of  Hephaestos  and  the 
mother  of  Cupid.  By  another  account, 
Aphrodite  is  said  to  be  the  daughter  of 
Jupiter  and  Dione.  Beautiful  herself,  she 
was  endowed  with  the  power  of  conferring 
beauty;  and  as  the  queen  of  beauty  she  was 
awarded  the  golden  apple  of  Paris. 

A'piary,  a  house  or  structure  for  keeping 
bees,  from  the  Latin  apis,  a  bee.  Differ- 
ences of  opinion  exist  as  to  the  best  form 
hives  should  take  and  of  what  material 
they  should  be  constructed.  Among  old- 
country  bee-keepers,  the  old  dome-shaped 
straw  skep  is  still  preferred;  others  prefer 
a  box-like  wooden  hive,  consisting  of  a 
breeding-chamber  below  and  two  sliding. 


APOCARPOUS  FLOWERS 


APPERCEPTION 


removable  chambers  above  for  the  abstrac- 
tion of  the  honey  without  disturbing  the 
bees.  The  one  essential  on  which  all  agree  is 
that  the  apiary  should  be  erected  in  the 
vicinity  of  good  feeding  grounds,  such  as 
gardens,  clover-fields  or  heath-covered  hijls. 
See  BEES. 

Apocarpous  (dp'd-kdr'piis}  Flowers.  The 
carpels  oi  a  flower  may  remain  distinct  from 
one  anothei  and  thus  form  simple  pistils,  or 
they  may  organize  together  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  compound  pistil.  In  the  former 
case  the  flower  is  apocarpous,  in  the  latter 
it  is  syncarpous.  An  apocarpous  condition 
is  regarded  as  more  primitive  than  a  syn- 
carpous one.  The  noun  form  of  the  word 
is  apocarpy. 

Apogamy  (d-pog'd-tny).  In  plants  with 
regular  alternation  of  generations  (which 
see)  the  gametophyte  produces  the  sporo- 
phyte  by  means  of  a  fertilized  egg.  Occa- 
sionally the  sporophyte  is  produced  directly 
upon  the  gametophyte  without  the  inter- 
vention of  an  egg,  and  such  a  phenomenon 
is  known  as  apogamy.  In  general,  there- 
fore, apogamy  refers  to  the  appearance  of  the 
embryos  of  higher  plants  without  any  sex  act. 

Apollo,  called  also  Phoebus,  one  of  the 
chief  gods  of  the  Greeks.  He  was  born  on 
the  island  Delos,  and  was  the  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Latona.  He  is  the  god  of  the  sun, 
the  god  of  song,  the  head  and  protector  of 
the  muses,  the  revealer  of  the  future — 
especially  at  his  temple  at  Delphi — the  god 
of  flocks,  the  archer  who  inflicts  vengeance 
with  his  arrows  and  the  patron  of  the  heal- 
ing art.  He  is  pictured  as  a  beautiful  youth 
with  long  hair,  his  brows  bound  with  the 
leaves  of  the  sacred  bay  tree,  and  bearing 
the  lyre  or  the  bow.  The  Romans  adopted 
him  from  the  Greeks,  and  built  a  temple 
and  held  games  m  his  honor. 

Apollo  Belvedere  (bel've-der),  a  marble 
statue  of  the  god  Apollo,  one  of  the  most 
famous  works  of  ancient  art.  It  was  found 
in  1503  in  the  ruins  of  ancient  Antium  and 
placed  in  the  gallery  of  the  Belvedere  in  the 
Vatican  at  Rome.  The  sculptor  is  unknown, 
but  is  thought  to  be  one  of  the  Greek  sculp- 
tors, either  Agasias  or  Praxiteles.  The 
statue  is  seven  feet  high  and  shows  the  god 
in  the  perfection  of  manly  beauty,  at  the 
moment  of  his  victory  over  the  monster 
Python.  He  stands  with  his  left  arm  ex- 
tended, holding  the  bow,  while  his  right 
hand,  which  has  just  left  the  string,  is  near 
his  hip.  The  body  is  poised  with  such  grace 
as  to  give  it  a  wonderful  beauty. 

Apos'pory.  In  plants  with  regular  alter- 
nation of  generations  the  sporophvte  pro- 
duces the  gametophyte  by  means  of  asexual 
spores.  Occasionally  gametophytes  arise 
directly  from  sporophytes  without  the  inter- 
vention of  a  spore,  and  such  a  phenomenon 
b  known  as  apospory.  Both  apogamy  and 
apospory  have  been  most  commonly  6\> 
•erved  in  ferns. 


Apostles,  originally  the  twelve  men 
whom  Jesus  chose  to  preach  the  Gospel. 
They  were  Simon  Peter  (called  also  Cephas 
and  Bar-jona),  Andrew,  James  the  Elder 
(son  of  Zebedee),  John  his  brother,  Philip, 
Bartholomew  (Nathaniel),  Thomas  (Didy- 
mus),  Matthew  (Levi),  James  the  Younger 
(son  of  Alpheus),  Thaddeus,  Simon  and 
Judas  Iscanot.  Matthias  was  chosen  in 
the  place  of  Judas,  and  later  on  Paul  and 
Barnabas  were  added  to  the  number.  The 
apostles  were  first  sent  out  by  Jesus  to  preach 
to  the  Jews  only;  but  a  short  time  before  his 
ascension  they  were  commanded  to  preach 
to  all  nations.  On  the  day  of  Pentecost 
they  received  miraculous  gifts  and  began 
their  public  ministry.  They  have  left 
records  in  the  Epistles  and  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles. 

Apothe'cium.  In  plants,  a  flat  or  cup- 
like  spore-producing  body  formed  by  the 
h.scomycetes,  which  see.  The  name  is 
most  commonly  applied  among  the  lichens. 

Appala'chian     Mountains.      See    ALLE- 

GHANIES. 

Apperception.  This  term  was  origin- 
ally used  by  Leibniz  (1646-1716),  a  Ger- 
man philosopher.  He  wished  to  distin- 
guish between  consciousness  and  self-con- 
sciousness. Ordinary  perception  makes  us 
aware  of  external  objects,  but  not  of  our 
own  perceptions  as  distinct  from  what  we 
perceive.  Leibniz  employed  the  word 
apperception  to  indicate  the  consciousness 
of  perception.  This  self-consciousness,  he 
thought,  is  not  possessed  by  the  lower  ani- 
mals, but  only  by  human  beings.  The  brute 
perceives,  man  apperceives,  or  perceives 
that  he  perceives.  The  philosopher  Kant 
(1724-1804)  used  the  term  apperception 
to  mean  the  power  of  the  mind  to  relate  to 
various  perceptions  and  especially  to  or- 
ganize them  into  a  system.  The  result 
of  apperception,  according  to  him,  is  that 
the  objects  of  perception  are  all  seen  to  be- 
long to  one  world,  to  be  governed  by  its 
laws  and  thus  to  be  related  to  each  other, 
and  all  the  perceptions  are  seen  to  belong 
to  various  minds,  by  which  they  are  organ- 
ized, and  by  the  laws  of  which  they  are 
controlled. 

Herbart  (1776-1841),  another  German 
philosopher  and  psychologist,  still  further 
modified  the  definition  of  apperception'  by 
conceiving  it  to  be  the  process  by  which 
old  expenence  assimilates  or  gives  meaning 
to  new  perceptions.  This  view  emphasizes 
the  fact  that  the  character  of  one's  previous 
experience  will  determine  whether  he  will 
be  interested  in  any  new  object  sufficiently 
to  attend  to  it,  that  is,  to  apperceive  it. 
Moreover,  the  new  object  that  one  attends 
to  will  seem  significant  and  interesting  in 
accordance  with  the  richness  of  the  expe- 
rience that  he  has  already  acquired  in 
reference  to  similar  objects.  Indeed,  diff 
erent  people  may  apperceive  the  same 


APPERCEPTION 


84 


APPERCEPTION 


thing  in  very  different  ways  and  yet  all 
find  it  interesting.  To  illustrate  these 
points,  suppose  a  person  in  crossing  a 
stream  sees  what  looks  like  a  small  dull, 
yellow  stone.  It  does  not  differ  much 
from  the  other  stones  surrounding  it,  and 
if  the  observer  ^oes  not  know  enough  about 
that  sort  of  an  object  to  make  it  more  in- 
teresting tc  him  than  its  neighbors,  it  will 
not  arrest  his  attention.  Suppose,  howr 
ever,  that  the  observer  is  a  savage,  who 
has  noticed  such  stones  before,  and  that 
they  are  unusually  heavy,  and  therefore 
valuable  as  missiles,  such  a  person  would 
get  from  seeing  the  stone  a  number  of 
suggestions  connected  with  warfare  or  the 
hunting  of  wild  animals,  and  be  sufficiently 
interested  to  pick  it  up  and  carry  it  away. 
But  if  a  civilized  man  were  to  perceive 
that  the  object  is  not  an  ordinary  stone, 
but  a  nugget  of  gold,  his  interest  will  be- 
come intense  because  of  his  knowledge  of 
its  use  as  money  and  in  the  arts.  He  will 
not  only  pick  up  the  nugget,  but  will  do 
so  eagerly.  A  great  number  of  ideas  will 
surge  into  his  mind,  and  it  may  be  some 
time  before  he  will  think  of  anything  ex- 
cept his  discovery  and  its  significance. 
Moreover,  his  actions  will  be  very  exten- 
sively modified  by  the  experience.  If  he 
happens  to  be  a  miner,  he  may  perceive  in 
the  nugget  the  suggestion  of  a  nch  deposit 
of  gold  in  the  neighborhood,  and  the  cur- 
rent of  bis  life  may  be  turned  by  its  dis- 
covery. 

It  is  evident  that  apperception  means 
alike  to  Leibniz,  Kant  and  Herbart  the 
interpreting  of  perceptions  by  the  mind. 
Leibniz  saw  in  this  a  process  of  reflecting 
upon  and  becoming  conscious  of  our  per- 
ceptions. This  is,  no  doubt,  one  phase  of 
the  process  of  apperception.  Kant  noticed 
that  this  interpreting  of  perceptions  con- 
sists in  relating  and  organizing  them,  and 
here,  too,  is  an  important  part  of  the  truth. 
Herbart  brought  out  the  fact  that  the 
relating  of  experience  consists  in  the  sug- 
gesting of  old  experience  by  new  percep- 
tions and  that  its  organization  means  the 
interpretation  of  the  new  perception  by 
the  knowledge  thus  called  up.  The  active 
force  in  apperception  is,  with  Herbart,  ex- 
perience itself,  and  not,  as  with  Kant,  a 
mind  that  is  *hought  to  organize  experi- 
ences which  are  themselves  passive. 

^The  consequences  on  education  of  this 
view  of  Herbart  are  very  important.  Learn- 
ing, i.  e.t  apperception,  is  commonly  re- 
garded as  absorbing  new  facts  and  organ- 
izing them  so  that  they  may  be  useful. 
According  to  Kant,  the  teacher  might  be 
supposed  to  present  the  facts,  but  their 
organization  must  be  left  to  the  activity 
and  inclination  or  will  of  the  pupil.  The 
Herbartian  notion  of  apperception,  on  the 
other  hand,  makes  the  teacher  responsible 
in  a  measure  for  the  activity  displayed 


by  the  learner  in  assimilating  or  inter- 
preting the  new  experience.  For  the  suc- 
cessful apperception  of  a  new  object  de- 
pends upon  two  things:  first,  whether  the 
learner  already  possesses  any  experience 
with  which  to  interpret  it;  and  second, 
whether  the  new  perception  comes  in  such 
a  way  that  it  calls  up  this  interpreting  ex- 
perience. Both  of  these  conditions  the 
teacher  can  understand  and  at  least  par- 
tially control.  He  can,  before  he  presents 
a  new  topic,  investigate  what  the  child 
already  knows  about  it.  This  will  tell 
him  whether  the  child  can  apperceive  the 
topic  at  all  and,  if  so,  to  what  extent  and 
in  what  way.  If  the  child  already  possesses 
a  fund  of  apperceiving  material  sufficient 
to  make  the  topic  profitable,  it  may  be 
presented.  The  method  of  presentation, 
however,  will  depend  on  what  th£  child 
already  knows.  This  is  brought  out  in  a 
preparatory  step.  Such  a  preparation 
brings  all  or  the  most  valuable  part  of  the 
related  experience  possessed  by  the  child 
actively  to  bear  on  the  new  idea,  thus  in- 
suring its  apperception.  It  also  gives 
the  teacher  his  clue  as  to  what  the  child 
can  learn,  and  what  he  needs  to  learn  in 
order  to  complete  his  view  of  the  subject. 
Later,  as  the  new  subject  becomes  better 
mastered,  the  teacher  can  suggest  the  con- 
nections between  it  and  other  related  sub- 
jects— thus  increasing  the  degree  of  organi- 
zation of  material  in  the  pupil's  mind. 
Finally,  the  ideas  thus  mastered  can  be 
continually  revived  at  the  suggestion  of 
the  teacher  in  order  to  interpret  new  mate- 
rial or  solve  new  problems.  Thus  the 
idea  of  appreception  can  have  a  very  de- 
cided influence  upon  this  method  of  in- 
struction. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  course  of 
study  also,  the  notion  of  apperception  is 
of  the  greatest  importance.  For  it  im- 
plies that  each  subject  as  a  whole  be  selected 
with  reference  to  the  child's  particular 
stage  of  development;  that  it  be  so  graded 
that  the  work  of  every  day  prepares  for 
the  next;  and  that  all  the  subjects  be  so 
correlated  that  the  growing  knowledge 
of  each  shall  constantly  redound  to  the 
benefit  of  all. 

The  idea  of  apperception  has  in  recent 
years  received  a  new  development  because 
of  the  discovery  that  what  causes  new 
subjects  to  be  seized  and  assimilated  by 
the  mind  is  not  merely  that  they  are  seen 
to  be  related  to  familiar  experience,  but 
that  their  mastery  is  felt  to  be  worth  while. 
To  use  the  illustration  employed  earlier, 
the  savage  is  interested  in  the  nugget  and 
apperceives  it,  because  he  sees  that  he  can 
make  use  of  it  in  a  very  fruitful  way.  The 
intenser  apperception  of  the  civilized  man 
is  due  to  the  great  value  that  gold  has  for 
him  in  the  social  world  he  inhabits.  From 
this  point  of  view  the  teacher  is  seen  to 


APPIAN  WAY 


APPLE 


have  the  task  of  not  merely  connecting  the 
new  object  with  familiar  experience  but 
also  that  of  helping  the  child  to  see  how, 
in  the  light  of  his  experience,  the  compre- 
hension of  the  new  topic  is  worth  while. 
To  get  the  observer  to  apperceive  the  nugget 
properly,  it  may  not  only  be  necessary  to 
tell  him  that  it  is  that  familiar  thing,  gold, 
but  to  get  him  to  see  how  valuable  a 
thing  it  is  to  know  about  and  to  possess. 
To  be  sure,  experience  would  be  the  only 
source  of  this  valuation.  Yet  the  child 
may  need  help  to  get  from  experience  the 
values  that  will  inspire  him  to  enlarge  his 
experience  and  power  along  specific  lines. 
Thus,  through  a  proper  utilization  of  his 
experience  the  savage  might  be  led  to  see 
the  value  that  gold  has  for  civilization  and 
so  to  apperceive  it  quite  differently.  In 
this  aspect  apperception  is  very  intimately 
related  to  Interest. 

Some  psychologists  now  use  the  term 
apperception  to  cover  all  that  the  mind 
adds  to  what  is  at  the  moment  given  by 
the  senses.  In  this  meaning  it  signifies 
the  interpretation  by  the  mind,  not  of  per- 
ception, but  rather  of  sensation.  Percep- 
tion itself  is  a  gradual  outgrowth  of  expe- 
rience and  therefore  involves  apperception. 
This  use  of  the  term  leads  to  no  important 
educational  consequences  that  are  not  in- 
volved in  the  other. 

See  ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS,  INTEREST, 
TEACHING,  METHOD  OF,  MENTAL  DISCIPLINE, 
PSYCHOLOGY  FOR  TEACHERS. 

Consult  Apperception,  Lange;  General 
Method  and  Method  of  the  Recitation,  Mc- 
Murry;  The  Educative  Process,  Bagley; 
and  The  Point  of  Contact  in  Teaching, 
Du  Bois.  E.  N.  HENDERSON. 

Appian  Way,  a  famous  road  with  many 
branches  which  connected  Rome  with 
southern  Italy.  The  main  road  was  laid 
out  by  Appius  Claudius  (312-307  3.  C.). 
It  was  paved  with  large  and  well-fitting 
blocks  and  adorned  with  numerous  mag- 


nificent sepulchers,  the  most  noted  being 
those  of  Collatinus  and  the  Scipios.  Within 
the  present  century  excavations  have  been 
made  over  a  large  part  of  the  ancient  road. 
Apple,  the  name  of  a  tree  and  of  the  king 
of  fruits,  the  most  important  commercial 
pomolpgical  fruit  in  the  world.  It  will 
grow  in  a  variety  of  climates  and  soils;  in 


the  Old  World  its  range  is  from  Scandinavia 
south  to  the  mountainous  portions  of 
Spain;  in  the  New  World,  from  New  Bruns- 
wick to  the  mountains  of  Georgia,  from 
British  Columbia  down  to  the  mountains 
of  Mexico.  And  in  New  Zealand  and 
Tasmania  the  apple  thrives.  It  has  been 
in  cultivation  since  prehistoric  times.  Nota- 
ble reference  is  made  to  it  in  ancient  litera- 
ture; it  is  mentioned  several  times  in  the 
Bible;  in  the  tale  of  Troy's  fall  the  apple 
played  a  part;  names  and  other  evidence 
shows  its  extensive  cultivation  by  the 
Romans;  the  folk-lore  of  Scandinavia  and 
Germany  abounds  with  stories  of  apple 
trees  and  golden  apples. 

The  apple^  belongs  to  the  rose  family  of 
plants,  and  is  a  native  of  southwestern  Asia 
and  adjacent  Europe.  The  common  apples 
are  all  modifications  of  a  single  species; 
while  the  crab  apples  have  all  been  de- 
rived from  another  species.  The  number 
of  varieties  actually  on  sale  in  America  dur- 
ing any  year  is  not  far  from  1,000.  North 
America  is  the  greatest  apple  country  of 
the  world,  and  a  full  crop  for  the  United 
States  and  Canada  is  said  to  be  not  less 
than  100,000,000  barrels. 

Apples  were  early  introduced  in  this  coun- 
try, and  at  first  prized  specially  for  cider. 
In  the  United  States  the  apple  is  adapted 
to  all  portions  save  Florida,  the  lands  im- 
mediately bordering  the  Gulf  and  the 
warmer  localities  of  the  southwest  and 
Pacific  coast.  The  most  perfect  apple 
region,  Bailey  considers,  begins  with  Nova 
Scotia  and  extends  to  the  west  and  south- 
west to  Lake  Michigan;  other  important 
regions  are  the  Piedmont  country  of  Virginia 
and  the  highlands  of  adjacent  states,  the 
plains  region,  the  Ozark  and  Arkansas 
regions  and  the  Pacific  region. 

While  the  apple  thrives  in  a  variety  of 
soils,  it  reaches  its  best  in  a  clay-loam.  It 
is  propagated  both  by  budding  and  by 
grafting  the  sort  desired  on  young  seedling 
trees.  Apples  grown  from  seeds  are  very 
apt  to  revert  to  the  wild  type.  Dread 
enemies  of  the  apple  are  apple  worm  and 
apple  scab.  Spraying  with  poison  is  the 
means  used  to  check  their  work  of  ruin. 

There  are  several  species  of  crab  apple 
native  to  North  America;  the  prairie,  the 
wild  (Coronaria),  the  narrow-leaved,  and 
the  Oregon  crab.  The  blossom  of  the 
wild  crab-apple  is  of  exquisite  beauty  and 
fragrance,  and  thickets  of  these  trees  now 
have  place  in  many  of  our  city  parks. 
There  is  no  wild  flower  more  highly  prized 
in  this  country,  and  for  every  region  there 
is  a  crab-apple  tree. 

The  common  apple  tree  is  rightly  valued 
for  its  beauty  as  well  as  its  utility.  In 
the  spring,  when  the  rugged,  sturdy  trunk 
bears  aloft  its  huge  bouquet  of  fragrant 
bloom  and  freshest  leaves,  all  pay  homage — 
and  here  may  be  made  declaration  that 


APPLESEED.  JOHNNY 


86 


AQUARIUM 


beauty  is  excuse  for  the  wealth  of  flowers, 
for  not  one  tenth  of  the  blossoms  is  needed 
to  "set"  all  the  fruit  the  tree  could  mature. 
A  summer  orchard,  too,  is  very  attractive, 
and  decidedly  attractive  is  the  orchard  in 
the  season  of  ripened  fruit.     In  winter  the 
spreading  bare   branches  and  leaning  tree 
stand  out  in  full  picturesqueness. 
"Health  to  thee,  good  apple-tree, 
Well  to  bear  pocketfulls,  hatlulls, 
Peckfulls,  bushel-bagfulls." 

See  Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Hor- 
ticulture and  Bailey's  Field  Notes  on  Apple 
Culture;  Thomas:  The  Book  of  the  Apple; 
McFarland :  Apples. 

Appleseed,  Johnny,  the  nickname  of  an 
eccentric  character  belonging  to  the  early 
pioneer  days  of  Ohio  and  Indiana.  He 
looked  upon  it  as  his  mission  in  life  to 
start  orchards  in  the  wilds,  and  for  over 
40  years  trudged  here  and  there  in  the 
wilderness  with  his  leathern  bag  of  apple 
seeds.  His  clothing  in  later  life  consisted 
of  a  long,  loose  garment  made  out  of  a 
coffee  sack,  on  his  head  a  cap  fashioned 
of  pasteboard.  He  wore  no  shoes,  but  trod 
barefoot  on  his  long,  rough  journeys. 

His  real  name  was  Jonathan  Chapman; 
it  is  thought  he  was  born  in  Boston  in 
1775.  He  made  his  appearance  in  Ohio 
with  his  apple  seeds  in  1801;  came  again 
in  1806,  this  one  time  travelling  by  water, 
his  seeds  stored  in  canoes.  Ere  long  he 
became  well  known  to  the  settlers  and 
Indians,  and  was  regarded  as  a  friend  by 
both.  He  would  procure  his  seeds  from 
the  cider-presses  of  western  Pennsylvania, 
then  with  his  load  go  where  the  white  men 
were  clearing  and  making  homes  farther 
west;  selecting  a  fertile  spot  near  a  settle- 
ment, he  would  start  a  nursery,  and  when 
ready  for  transplanting  dispose  of  his  trees 
to  the  settlers.  Ohio  and  Indiana  owed  to 
Johnny  Appleseed  many  and  many  a  good 
orchard;  he  lived  to  see  his  trees  bear 
fruit  over  a  territory  of  great  extent. 

At  the  scattered  log-cabins  old  and 
young  were  wont  to  give  warm  welcome 
to  the  strange,  kindly  wanderer.  He  seems 
to  have  been  held  in  a  kind  of  superstitious 
awe,  the  Indians  for  their  part  considering 
him  a  great  medicine-man.  During  the 
War  of  1812  he  saved  the  lives  of  many 
settlers  by  spreading  the  news  of  Hull's 
surrender  and  the  coming  of  the  Indians. 
He  was  extraordinarily  gentle  and  kindly, 
would  harm  no  living  creature,  and  amid 
the  many  dangers  of  the  forest  himself 
remained  unharmed.  He  died  at  a  settler's 
cabin  in  Allen  County,  Indiana,  in  the 
summer  of  1847. 

Appleton,  Wis.,  a  city,  the  capital  of 
Outagamie  County,  Wisconsin,  on  the  Fox 
River,  about  midway  between  Oshkosh  and 
Green  Bay  city.  The  town  receives  its 
water-power  from  the  falls  here  on  the 
Fox  River,  and  utilizes  this  in  the  chief 


factories  and  industries,  such  as  in  pulp- 
making,  paper  making,  the  manufacture  of 
pulp-mill  machinery,  furniture  and  woolen 
goods.  Other  industries  are  flour  and  wind 
mills,  wire  works  and  cement  building- 
blocks.  The  town  has  a  water  outlet  by 
river  into  Green  Bay  and  Lake  Michigan, 
as  well  as  by  rail,  120  miles  southeast  to 
Milwaukee  and  other  points.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Lawrence  College,  has  two  fine  libraries,  one 
public  and  the  other  in  Lawrence  College,  and 
a  handsome  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building;  also  a  fine 
hospital  in  charge  of  the  Catholic  sisters. 
Population,  16,773. 

Appomat'tox  Courthouse,  a  Virginia 
village,  20  miles  east  of  Lynchburg.  Here, 
April  9,  1865,  General  Lee  surrendered  the 
army  of  northern  Virginia  to  General  Grant. 
Of  this  army  only  27,805  men  were  left. 

Apricot  (d'pjt-cot),  a  fruit  between  the 
peach  and  the  plum,  supposed  to  be  a 
native  of  China.  There  are  three  species. 
The  kind  common  in  Europe  and  America 
grows  on  a  spreading  tree  with  round  top, 
luxuriant,  beautiful  foliage,  bark  similar  to 
that  of  the  peach,  leaves  bright  green  and 
ovate  or  round-ovate,  flowers  of  pinkish 
white.  The  apricot  will  grow  under  much 
the  same  general  conditions  as  the  peach. 
It  is  beginning  to  be  grown  commercially  in 
the  east,  but  it  is  in  California  it  holds 
leading  place.  It  has  been  grown  there 
since  the  early  mission-days,  and  now  is 
one  of  California's  most  important  com- 
mercial fruits.  In  the  east  the  apricot 
suffers  from  the  curculio,  the  insect  that 
works  such  havoc  with  peach  and  plum. 
In  California  the  enemies  feared  are  scale 
insects  and  a  slot-hole  fungus. 

A'pril,  the  fourth  month  of  the  year, 
containing  30  days.  It  is  named  from  a 
Latin  word,  meaning  "to  open,"  because 
the  buds  open  at  this  period  of  the  year. 
Charlemagne,  who  made  a  new  calendar, 
called  it  Grass  Month,  the  name  still  given 
it  by  the  Dutch.  On  old  monuments 
April  is  represented  by  a  dancing  boy  with 
a  rattle. 

April  Fools'  Day,  the  first  day  of  April. 
The  custom  of  playing  tricks  and  practical 
jokes  on  this  day  is  common  throughout 
Europe  and  America.  In  France,  the  man 
tricked  is  called  a  "silly  fish;"  in  Scotland 
a  "gowk."  This  practice  probably  goes 
back  to  the  era  of  the  early  Hindus  who 
play  the  same  kind  of  tricks  on  the  last  day 
of  March,  when  they  hold  what  is  called 
the  Huli  festival. 

Aquarium  (d-£wa'rt-«m),  a  tank  for  keep- 
ing living  animals  and  plants  for  study  and 
amusement.  A  proper  proportion  of  plants 
and  animals  keeps  the  water  pure,  or  it 
may  be  renewed.  There  are  two  kinds, 
fresh  water  and  marine  aquariums.  The 
fresh  water  ones  are  more  easily  kept,  as 
the  animals  are  hardier.  A  good  form  is 
a  square  tank,  about  12  inches  deep,  with 


AQUEDUCT 


ARABIA 


plate  glass  sides,  and  metal,  slate  or  marble 
bottom  and  a  metal  frame.  The  bottom 
should  be  covered  an  inch  deep,  or  more 
with  sand  and  pebbles  scattered  over  it, 
and  the  tank  filled  with  fresh  river  or  spring 
water.  The  use  of  rock  work  adds  greatly 
to  the  beauty.  Among  plants,  water  thyme, 
crowfoot,  milfoil  and  starwort,  are  useful, 
because  they  produce  a  great  deal  of  oxygen. 
Interesting  animals  for  this  purpose  are  the 
stickleback,  goldfish,  tench,  gudgeon,  perch, 
minnow  and  Prussian  carp;  while  mussels 
and  snails  are  good  as  purifiers.  A  salt- 
water aquarium  needs  more  careful  atten- 
tion, but  is  built  in  much  the  same  way. 
Another  form,  with  three  of  the  sides 
closed  and  with  an  inclined  plane  for  a 
floor,  to  allow  the  more  torpid  animals 
easily  to  reach  the  surface,  has  been  found 
very  successful.  Green  dulse  or  seaweed 
is  a  good  sea-plant  to  use,  and  of  animals, 
shrimps,  snails,  barnacles,  minnows  and 
sticklebacks.  Large  aquariums  have  been 
built  in  many  cities.  One  of  the  largest 
is  the  English  one  at  Sydenham  near 
London. 

Aqueduct  (ak'we-dukt),  a  cliannel  for 
carrying  water,  or  a  structure  on  which 
water-pipes  are  laid.  This  method  of  carry- 
ing water  has  been  in  use  from  the  earliest 
times.  Persia,  Phoenicia,  Judaea  and  many 
other  eastern  countries  practiced  it;  while  the 
Incas  or  rulers  of  Peru  in  the  western  world 
built  aqueducts  which  have  not  been  equaled 
in  ancient  or  modern  times.  The  Romans  were 
the  most  expert  at  aqueduct  building  of  ancient 
peoples  and  built  these  works  all  over  their 
dominions.  Rome  was  supplied  by  24  aque- 
ducts, some  with  several  channels,  one  above 
another,  extending  many  miles.  They  are 
built  on  a  grade  of  regular  descent,  winding 
around  the  hills  or  piercing  them  by  tunnels 
and  supported  across  low  levels^  by  arches 
sometimes  over  a  hundred  feet  high.  Many 
cities  are  now  supplied  with  water  by  this 
means. 

Other  important  aqueducts  are  those  used 
for  carrying  canals  across  rivers  and  valleys. 
The  chief  examples  in  the  United  States  are 
those  on  the  Erie  canal,  32  in  number,  the 
Denver  aqueduct,  of  wood,  which  supplies 
16,000,000  gallons  a  day,  the  Pioneer  aqueduct 
in  Utah,  and  the  new  Croton  aqueduct  in 
New  York,  which  cost  over  $20,000,000,  and 
required  over  five  years  to  build. 

California  has  many  wooden  aqueducts, 
called  flumes,  for  use  in  hydraulic  mining. 
Masonry  and  iron  piping  are  both  exten- 
sively used  for  aqueducts,  the  choice  depend- 
ing upon  the  contour  of  the  land.  As  cast 
iron  does  not  become  corroded  so  quickly 
as  steel,  it  is  more  often  used,  though  steel 
can  sustain  a  greater  amount  of  pressure 
from  within.  Concrete  is  used  when  the 
ground  is  high  and  the  water  is  to  be 
carried  on  or  near  the  surface,  and  when  a 
great  volume  of  water  has  to  be  transported. 


Aquinas  (A-kwl'nas),  Thomas  (c.  1225- 
1274),  was  the  greatest  of  the  Christian 
philosophers  of  the  Middle  Ages.  He  is 
known  as  "  the  angelical  doctor "  and  "the 
universal  doctor."  Aquinas,  so  called 
because  of  his  birthplace  Aquino,  in  Italy, 
was  a  member  of  the  order  of  Black  Friars. 
His  chief  work  is  the  Summa  Theologies. 
His  writings  were  regarded  by  his  follow- 
ers as  almost  sacred;  and  in  1323  he 
was  canonised  as  Saint  Thomas  Aquinas. 
Although  he  knew  little  of  history  and 
nothing  of  Hebrew  and  Greek,  the  learn- 
ing of  Aquinas  was  as  extensive  as  was 
possible  previous  to  the  Renaissance.  In 
the  1 4th  century  scholars  became  divided 
into  two  great  bodies,  the  Thomists  or 
followers  of  Aquinas  and  the  Scotists  or 
the  followers  of  the  Franciscan  writer,  Duns 
Scotus.  The  doctrines  of  Aquinas  some- 
what resemble  those  of  Aristotle,  who  was 
known  in  part  to  Aquinas  in  translation, 
and  those  of  the  Scotists  are  indebted  to 
Plato.  The  great  work  of  Aquinas  was  his 
attempt  to  bring  together  scientific  learn- 
ing and  Christian  doctrine  into  one  com- 
plete system. 

Ara'bia,  an  extensive  quadrangular 
peninsula  forming  the  extreme  southwest 
part  of  Asia,  much  of  the  interior  of  which 
is  an  arid,  sandy  desert.  It  is  situated  be- 
tween 12°  40'  and  34°  north  latitude  and 
between  32°  30'  and  59°  40'  east  longitude. 

Area.  Its  length,  from  north  to  south, 
is  about  1,500  miles,  and  its  breadth  from 
east  to  west  varies  from  800  to  1,200 
miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the 
Gulf  of  Aden,  the  Arabian  Sea  and  Indian 
Ocean;  on  the  east  by  the  Gulf  of  Oman 
and  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Tigris  River  in 
the  northeast  separating  it  from  Persia; 
while  its  northern  boundary  is  Asiatic 
Turkey;  and  its  western  the  Red  Sea  and 
Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb.  The  Sinaitic 
Peninsula  and  the  Suez  Canal  on  the 
extreme  northwest  separate  Arabia  from 
Egypt  and  the  continent  of  Africa.  In 
the  southwest  the  island  and  fortified  port 
of  Aden  and  that  of  Perim  both  British 

Eossessions  subject  to  the  Bombay  (East 
ndian)  Government  form  excellent  har- 
bors and  coaling  stations.  The  other  har- 
bors (there  are  not  many  on  the  Arabian 
Coast)  include  Muscat  on  the  Gulf  of  Oman, 
El  Kuweit  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tigris, 
and  Dafar  (or  Dhofar)  near  the  British 
Kuria-Muria  Islands  in  the  Arabian  Sea. 

Government.  The  peninsula  is  politically 
a  dependency  of  Turkey,  and  by  that 
power  its  more  settled  region,  on  the  Red 
Sea  front,  is  created  into  two  vilayets  or 
provinces,  named  Hejas  (area,  96,500 
square  miles,  with  a  population  of  300,000) 
and  Yemen  (area,  73,800  square  miles, 
with  a  population  estimated  at  750,000). 
In  the  former  (Hejas)  the  chief  port  is 
Jedda,  the  administrative  seat  and  the 


ARABIAN  GULP 


88 


ARAGO 


objective  point  of  pilgrims,  proceeding  from 
Syria  and  Egypt  on  their  way  to  the  in- 
land city  of  Mecca,  the  birthplace  of  Mo- 
hammed and  containing  the  Kaaba,  the 
holy  shrines  and  sacred  mosques  of  Islam. 
North  of  Mecca  lies  Medina,  with  its  Red 
Sea  port  of  Yambo.  Medina,  too,  has  its 
fine  mosques,  one  of  them  being  erected 
on  the  spot  where  Mohammed  died.  The 
capital  of  Yemen,  is  Sanaa,  its  port  being 
Hodeida  on  the  Red  Sea.  South  of  Hodeida, 
near  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  is  Mocha, 
the  seat  of  the  coffee  trade,  which  is  now 
chiefly  exported  from  Aden  and  Hodeida. 
Inland  from  these  two  provinces  lies  the 
Syrian  desert  on  the  north ;  and  on  the  south, 
extending  for  hundreds  of  miles  from  Yeman 
to  Oman,  are  the  deserts  of  El  Akhaf  and 
Roba'a-el- Khali. 

Surface  and  Products.  Arabia  with  its 
extensive  tablelands,  varied  by  its  vast 
trackless  deserts,  has  a  hot,  dry  climate, 
only  the  coastal  plains  being  fertile  and 
productive.  On  the  latter,  browsing  on  the 
grassy  slopes,  are  reared  donkeys,  goats  and 
dromedaries.  Besides  these,  Arabia  has 
many  wild  animals,  the  terror  of  travellers 
and  the  menace  to  the  native  caravans; 
among  these  are  tigers,  panthers,  hyenas 
and  lynxes,  besides  the  less  repellant  and 
more  useful  ostriches  and  gazelles.  Among 
the  natural  resources,  besides  the  rice  plant, 
the  coffee  tree  and  the  date  palm,  there 
are  many  spice  and  incense  shrubs,  to- 
gether with  the  cotton  and  maize  plants; 
while  gum  arabic  and  precious  stones  form 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  exports. 

History.  The  Arabs  claim  descent  from 
Ishmael,  and  have  ever  been  a  wild  and 
independent  people  of  nomadic  habits  and 
predatory  instincts.  Their  history  proper 
begins  with  the  advent  of  the  religious 
enthusiast,  Mahomet  (570-632  A.  D.),  and 
with  the  foundation  of  the  caliphate. 
Leaving  their  peninsula,  the  Arabs  and  their 
caliphs  founded  large  and  powerful  em- 
pires in  three  continents,  which  flourished 
until  the  close  of  the  isth  century,  when 
Arab  rule  and  influence  in  Europe  and  Asia 
Minor  came  to  an  end.  In  the  following 
century  the  Turks  obtained  possession  of 
Yemen,  and,  though  for  a  time  they  were 
expelled  from  that  Arabian  province,  they 
subsequently  settled  down  in  the  peninsula 
and  obtained  at  least  nominal  possession 
of  its  holy  cities  as  well  as  those  in  the 
Hejas  province.  Since  then,  the  one  alloy 
in  the  Turkish  cup  was  the  rise  and  domin- 
ance for  a  time  of  the  Wahabis,  a  religious 
sect  which  sought  control  of  the  Moham- 
medan holy  cities  and  shrines,  and  menaced 
the  Sultan's  interests  in  the  country  as 
protector  of  the  sanctuaries.  The  rebellion 
— which  it  was — was  attempted  to  be  put 
down,  but  it  took  many  campaigns  from 
the  years  1811  to  1818  before  this  could 
be  effected  by  Ibrahim  Pasha,  acting  under 


Mehemet  AH,  Viceroy  of  Egypt.  The 
Wahabis,  despite  Turkish  sway,  still  exert 
a  considerable  influence  in  Arabia. 

Arabian  Gulf.     See  RED  SEA. 

Arabian   Literature.     See    LITERATURE. 

Arabian  Sea,  the  upper  part  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  situated  to  the  south  ot 
Persia  and  flanked  by  Arabia  on  the  west 
and  British  India  on  the  east.  It  has  two 
extensions  ot  :t?  waters,  northwest  by  way 
of  the  Gulf  of  Oman  into  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  southwest  by  way  of  the  Gulf  of  Aden 
into  the  Red  Sea.  The  latter,  with  its  con- 
nection with  the  Mediterranean,  through 
the  Gulf  of  Suez,  makes  the  Arabian  Sea 
a  great  highway  of  traffic  to  Bombay  and 
to  Madras  and  Calcutta  in  the  Bay  oi 
Bengal.  The  eastern  inlets  of  the  sea  are 
the  Gulfs  of  Cutch  and  Cambay  in  north- 
western India,  where  it  receives  the  waters 
of  the  Indus  River. 

Ara'bi  Pasha'  (a-r&'be  pa-slid' '),  the 
leader  of  the  Egyptian  rebellion  of  1882. 
was  born  in  Egypt  about  1835.  His  father 
was  a  farm  laborer.  He  had  no  schooling 
when  a  boy.  but  afterward  learned  to  read 
and  write  Arabic.  He  was  for  12  years  i 
private  soldier  in  the  Egyptian  army,  then 
rose  to  be  colonel,  minister  of  war  and 
pasha.  Previous  to  his  day  a  great  deal 
of  money  had  been  borrowed,  and  the 
Khe"dive  had  promised  all  Egypt  to  the 
bondholders.  The  people,  however,  refused 
to  pay  the  taxes.  Hence,  England  and 
France  interfered,  and  the  Khedive  wau 
obliged  to  fill  all  positions  of  trust  with 
foreigners.  Arabi  now  proclaimed  to  the 
troops  that  he  was  inspired  by  the  prophet 
to  undertake  a  holy  mission,  the  motto  of 
which  was,  "Egypt  for  the  Egyptians," 
and  he  thus  became  the  leader  of  a  great 
rebellion.  A  massacre  by  his  forces  at 
Alexandria  soon  followed.  The  English 
came  to  the  help  of  the  Khddive,  and  their 
fleet  bombarded  and  dismantled  the  forts 
at  Alexandria.  The  war  lasted  but  a  few 
months,  Arabi's  army  being  entirely  de- 
feated at  Tel-el-Kebir,  September  13,  1882, 
by  the  English  under  General  (now  Vis- 
count) Wolseley.  Arabi  soon  after  sur- 
rendered, and  was  condemned  to  death. 
His  sentence,  however,  was  commuted  to 
exile  for  life,  and  he  was  sent  to  Ceylon. 
In  1901  his  banishment  ceased  and  he  was 
made  a  pensioner  of  the  British  Crown. 

Arachnida.  Scorpions,  spiders  and 
mites.  See  SPIDERS. 

Ar'ago  (dr'd-go),  Francois  Jean  Domi- 
nique (born  1786,  died  1853).  A  leading 
man  of  science  in  France  during  the  first 
half  of  the  igth  century,  he  was  distinguished 
alike  in  astronomy  and  in  physics.  At  the 
early  age  of  23,  he  had  acquired  a  brilliant 
reputation  by  three  years  of  strenuous  labor 
and  hardship  spent  in  determining  the 
length  of  the  earth's  meridian  from  Dun- 
kirk to  Barcelona.  In  this  work  he  was 


ARAGON 


ARBITRATION 


assisted  by  Biot;  and  from  the  measures  of 
these  two  men  was  computed  the  distance 
from  the  pole  to  the  equator  of  the  earth. 
Our  international  standard  of  length,  the 
metre,  is  one  ten-millionth  part  of  this 
quadrant.  In  1809,  Arago  was  appointed 
to  the  Paris  observatory  where  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  In  1816  he  joined 
hands  with  Gay-Lussac  in  founding  the 
great  French  journal,  Annales  de  Chimie 
et  de  Physique.  It  was  about  this  time  that 
Arago  "discovered  Fresnel,"  and  made  it 
possible  for  the  latter  to  carry  out  his 
investigations  in  optics.  In  this  manner 
Arago,  perhaps,  did  more  to  establish  the 
wave  theory  of  light  than  by  his  own  experi- 
ments, which,  however,  were  a  contribu- 
tion of  no  mean  order.  In  1830,  he  became 
director  of  the  Observatory  and  member 
of  the  chamber  of  deputies.  A  little  later 
he  held,  at  the  same  time,  the  portfolios  of 
minister  of  war  and  minister  of  marine. 
His  lectures  on  astronomy  and  his  eulogies 
on  deceased  members  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  are  models  of  clearness  and  ele- 
gance. Arago's  works  are  published  in  17 
octavo  volumes.  The  first  of  these  opens 
with  his  Histoire  de  ma  Jeunesse,  which  is 
already  a  classic  among  autobiographies, 
and  should  be  read  by  everyone  interested 
in  the  development  of  this  remarkable 
man. 

Aragon  (ar'a-gon),  an  ancient  Spanish 
kingdom,  now  a  district  of  Spain,  embrac- 
ing the  provinces  of  Huesca,  Teruel  and 
Zaragoza  (Saragossa),  and  through  which 
the  Ebro  and  Jalen  Rivers  flow.  It  em- 
braces an  area  of  18,294  square  miles,  and 
has  a  population  under  a  million.  It  is 
mountainous,  skirted  by  the  Sierras  and 
the  highest  range  of  the  Pyrenees.  Of  its 
many  products,  the  grape  and  the  olive  are 
the  finest.  Aragon  was  conquered  by  the 
Romans,  by  the  Goths  and  lastly  by  the 
Moors  in  714.  Later  it  was  governed  by 
its  own  kings  till  it  became,  in  1479,  a  part 
of  Castile  and  Leon,  by  the  marriage,  in 
1469,  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

Araguay  (d-rd-gwt'),  an  ^ affluent  of  the 
Tocantins,  an  important  river  of  central 
and  northern  Brazil,  which  reaches  the 
Atlantic  through  the  Para  River.  Total 
length,  including  the  Tocantins  and  the 
Para,  1,900  miles.  In  the  lower  reaches  of 
the  river,  some  200  miles  above  Para,  the 
navigation  is  much  interrupted  by  rapids. 
About  500  miles  from  its  source,  the  Araguay 
incloses  the  island  of  Santa  Anna,  about  210 
miles  long. 

Ar'al,  Sea  of,  next  to  the  Caspian  Sea, 
the  largest  inland  body  of  water  in  Asia. 
It  is  265  miles  long  by  145  miles  broad,  and 
is  situated  in  Asiatic  Russia.  It  receives 
several  rivers,  but  has  no  outlet.  Its  waters 
are  salt.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  twice, 
first  in  the  Greco-Roman  period  and  after- 
Ward  during  the  I3th  and  I4th  centuries. 


the  present  bed  of  the  Aral  is  known  to 
have  become  dry,  while  its  rivers  flowed 
to  the  Caspian. 

Aram  (d'ram),  Eugene  (born  1704,  died 
1759),  an  English  felon,  born  in  Yorkshire. 
He  had  a  good  knowledge  of  a  number  of 
languages  and  became  a  schoolmaster.  A 
Tnan  named  Clark  disappeared,  leaving  his 
debts  unpaid,  and  Aram  was  tried  as  his 
accomplice.  It  was  discovered  later  that  he 
and  another  man  had  killed  Clark.  Aram 
made  his  own  defense  at  his  trial,  but  was 
convicted  and  hanged.  He  is  known  as  the 
subject  of  a  poem  of  Hood's  and  also  of 
one  of  the  novels  of  Bulwer. 

Arap'  ahoes,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians 
who  roamed  over  the  country  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains;  but  chiefly  inhabiting 
Indian  Territory  and  Wyoming.  The  name 
is  said  to  signify  "tattooed  people."  They 
were  noted  robbers  and  are  very  cruel.  They 
number  about  5,000. 

Ar'arat,  a  noted  mountain  of  western 
Asia.  It  is  on  the  boundary  between  Persia, 
Asiatic  Turkey  and  the  Russian  possessions. 
It  is  called  by  the  Persians  Koh-i-nooh,  or 
mountain  of  Noah.  The  highest  peak  is 
17,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  or 
14,200  above  the  level  of  the  plain  beneath, 
and  is  always  capped  with  snow.  It  is  a 
volcano,  and  its  last  eruption  took  place  in 
1840.  Here,  according  to  the  Bible,  the 
ark  of  Noah  rested  after  the  flood. 

Ar'  auca'  nia,  the  name  formerly  applied 
to  a  part  of  Chile  which  is  now  nearly  all 
included  in  the  provinces  of  Arauco  and 
Valdivia,  lying  between  the  Andes  Moun- 
tains and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  Arau- 
canians  are  very  warlike,  and  are  so  tenacious 
of  their  liberty  that  they  maintained  their 
independence  for  several  centuries.  They 
have  been  much  reduced  as  a  nation,  and 
now  number  only  about  50,000.  They  are 
humane  towards  their  enemies,  and  are 
said  to  be  very  hospitable.  They  are  an 
agricultural  people,  and  give  much  attention 
to  stock-breeding.  In  1861  a  French 
adventurer,  Antoine  Tounens,  was  elected 
king  of  the  Araucanians,  but  the  Chilean 
government  sent  him  back  to  France. 
The  Araucanians  finally  recognized  the 
rule  of  Chile  in  1870. 

Ar'bitra'tion,  a  mode  of  determining 
and  settling,  by  reference  to  outside,  inde- 
pendent parties,  matters  in  dispute  or  dis- 
agreement, either  in  commercial  or  indus- 
trial affairs  or  in  the  larger  questions  of 
political  and  international  controversy. 
This  may  be  done  by  representatives  will- 
ingly chosen  by  the  respective  parties  to 
settle  the  points  of  disagreement,  or  by 
order  of  a  court  of  law,  when  decisions  have 
the  conclusive  effect  of  legal  proceedings. 
Arbitration  is  now  being  largely  adopted 
in  private  commercial  dealings,  especially 
between  masters  and  workmen;  while  the 
resort  to  the  expedient  has  for  many  years 


ARBOR  DAY 


ARCH,  TRIUMPHAL 


been  employed  in  cases  of  international  dis- 
pute, not  involving  national  honor.  (See 
HAGUE  PEACE  CONFERENCE.)  Arbitration  has 
been  successfully  employed  in  settling  railroad 
and  labor  strikes,  wage  controversies,  lockouts 
and  other  industrial  troubles.  Arbitration  in 
labor  disputes  took  a  long  step  forward  in  the 
appointment  of  the  Commission  on  Industrial 
Relations  by  President  Wilson  under  an  Act 
of  Congress.  The  Commission  made  inquiry 
into  the  general  conditions  of  labor,  relations 
between  employers  and  employees,  the  effect 
of  industrial  conditions  on  public  welfare  and 
the  like.  As  one  social  worker,  who  helped  to 
secure  the  Commission,  put  it:  "What  we 
need  is  more  light  and  less  heat. "  A  free  copy 
of  its  report  may  be  obtained  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Labor. 

Arbor  Day,  a  day  set  apart  for  the 
planting  of  trees,  generally  observed  through- 
out the  United  States.  It  has  been  estab- 
lished also  in  Great  Britain,  France,  northern 
and  southern  Africa  and  in  Japan.  Ob- 
servance of  the  day  may  be  said  to  have 
started  April  10,  1872,  the  state  of  Nebraska 
having  the  honor  of  the  first  Arbor  Day, 
and  to  the  Hon.  J.  Sterling  Morton  of 
Nebraska,  belongs  the  credit  of  suggesting 
and  establishing  a  tree-planting  day.  Kan- 
sas began  tree  planting  in  1875,  Minnesota 
in  1876,  and  gradually  the  other  states 
followed  suit. 

Now  an  important  feature  of  Arbor  Day 
is  its  connection  with  the  public  schools. 
This  connection  probably  began  in  1882, 
when  the  school  children  of  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  planted  trees  in  a  public  park  in 
memory  of  authors  and  statesmen.  Soon 
after  this,  in  most  of  the  schools  of  West 
Virginia  a  special  day  was  appointed  for 
tree-planting.  While  the  festival  may  be 
considered  a  national  one,  it  is  observed 
by  the  several  states  and  territories  at 
widely  different  times;  in  the  south  it  may 
be  observed  in  December,  in  the  north  in 
May.  Some  states  have  a  fixed  date,  in 
others  it  is  appointed  by  the  governor.  In 
addition  to  the  planting  of  the  trees, 
appropriate  exercises  mark  the  day.  The 
various  states  issue  Arbor  Day  circulars 
giving  suggestions  for  the  celebration. 
The  value  of  the  interest  of  the  school 
children  in  Arbor  Day  is  recognized  by 
the  United  States  Forest  Service,  which 
sends  out  circulars  treating  of  its  history 
and  observance.  It  is  desired  that  every 
child  shall  learn  of  the  use  and  value  of 
the  tree  in  the  life  of  the  nation. 

Arbutus  (ar'bu-tus  or  ar-bu'tus),  trail- 
ing arbutus,  mayflower  or  ground  laurel, 
belongs  to  the  heath  family.  It  is  one 
of  the  loveliest  of  our  wealth  of  wild  blos- 
soms. The  leaf  often  presents  a  time-worn 
and  rusty  appearance,  but  the  waxy,  pink 
blossoms  are  of  rare  delicate  beauty  and 
exquisite  fragrance.  After  the  rpring  rains 
the  new  leaves  come  and  snow  glossy 


green,  the  later  sprays  the  finest  specimens 
of  both  flower  and  foliage.  It  is  a  shy 
blossom,  does  not  take  kindly  to  trans- 
planting in  cultivated  garden,  prefers  the 
distant  pine  woods  or  sandy  beach  by 
pine-wood  lake.  Frequently  in  moss,  too, 
the  arbutus  grows,  but  in  moss  of  sand 
rather  than  loam.  It  is  found  from  the 
Maine  woods  south  to  Florida,  abounds  in 
the  northern  pine  forests  of  the  Middle 
West  and  is  a  familiar  and  beloved  flower 
of  New  England.  It  is  a  brave  little  blos- 
som j  its  buds  formed  the  preceding  fall, 
are  all  ready  to  come  forth 'while  yet  an- 
other snow  storm  may  be  expected.  The 
plant  trails  on  the  ground,  and  the  sun  on 
the  sandy  soil  forces  the  bloom.  A  few 
warm  days  in  early  spring  are  sufficient 
encouragement,  and  often  after  the  rosy 
little  faces  have  shown  themselves  a  snow- 
fall will  whiten  the  ground  around  them. 
The  poet,  Whittier,  tells  of  the  joy  the 
weary  Pilgrims,  after  their  hard  winter, 
took  in  this  early  blossom — which  abounds 
in  the  vicinity  of  Plymouth — 

"Yet  God  be  praised!"  the  Pilgrim  said, 
Who  saw  the  blossoms  peer 

Above  the  brown  leaves,  dry  and  dead." 

The  Indians  say  when  there  is  most 
moisture  the  flowers  are  pinkest,  and  they 
do  show  pallid  in  a  dry  season.  The  stem 
is  prostrate  or  trailing,  some  petals  quite 
buried  in  the  sand,  no  branch  high  above 
the  ground — one  must  stoop  low  to  pluck 
the  posies.  The  flowers  grow  in  clusters, 
many  attached  to  the  woody  central  stem; 
they  may  be  gathered  in  graceful  sprays, 
but  by  the  Indian  venders  are  cut  off 
short  and  made  up  into  compact  little 
bunches.  In  gathering  the  arbutus  greedi- 
ness should  be  controlled,  the  plant  not 
uprooted,  else,  as  is  the  case  near  the 
eastern  cities,  the  beautiful  blossom  will 
be  pushed  farther  and  farther  back  from 
town  and  village,  and  in  the  end  become 
extinct. 

Arca'dia,  a  mountainous  country  of 
ancient  Greece,  lies  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  Peloponnesus.  In  the  north- 
east is  the  great  waterfall  of  the  Styx, 
which  the  Greeks  thought  the  main  river 
of  the  infernal  regions.  Arcadia  seems  never 
to  have  had  immigration  from  other  coun- 
tries, but  was  always  peopled  by  the  same 
race,  noted  for  their  great  simplicity  of 
life.  Cut  off  from  commerce  divided  by 
the  mountains  into  small  districts  that  had 
very  little  to  do  with  one  another,  the 
rustic  ways  of  the  Arcadian  seemed  awk- 
ward and  stupid  to  other  Greeks.  Their 
history  is  made  up  of  wars  against  the 
Spartans.  They  became  a  part  of  the 
Achaean  league,  and  later  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Achaia.  Sir  Philip  Sidney's 
Arcadia  greatly  praises  the  Arcadians. 

Arch,  Triumphal,  was  a  memorial  raised 
by  the  Romans  to  celebrate  a  victory  « 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


ARCHIBALD 


in  honor  of  a  victorious  general.  When  a 
general  came  back  from  battle,  the  gate 
by  which  he  entered  Rome  was  wont  to  be 
adorned  with  the  spoils  of  war.  This 
custom  grew  into  that  of  raising  a  special 
arch  of  bronze  or  stone,  patterned  after  a 
city  gate.  The  most  remarkable  of  these 
arches  still  remaining  are  the  arch  of 
Augustus  at  Rimini,  the  arch  of  Trajan 
at  Beneventum  and  the  arches  of  Con- 
stantine  and  Titus  at  Rome.  The  arch 
of  Titus  was  built  by  the  Roman  people 
after  his  death,  in  honor  of  his  conquest 
of  Judasa,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  bas- 
reliefs.  The  finest  modern  arch  is  the 
Arc  de  Triomphe,  built  by  Napoleon  I  at 
Paris.  It  has  three  arches,  and  is  160  feet 
high  and  150  feet  long. 

Archaeology  (dr'ke-ol'd-ff),  the  science 
which  deduces  knowledge  of  past  times  in 
the  history  of  the  human  race  from  the 
relics  of  bygone  ages  and  the  study  cf 
existing  remains.  Exploration  in  the  seats 
of  ancient  civilization  in  the  old  world  and 
the  new  has  greatly  enriched  our  knowledge 
of  past  modes  of  living  and  the  artistic 
habits  of  nations  and  peoples.  In  this 
work  the  researches  and  published  records 
of  the  various  archaeological  societies  have 
been  very  helpful  and  instructive,  par- 
ticularly in  Mycenae,  Athens,  Corinth  and 
Rome,  in  Assyria,  Mesopotamia,  Egypt 
and  Palestine,  as  well  as  in  notable  places 
in  ancient  Britain,  and  on  this  continent 
in  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Yucatan  and  Peru. 
Nor  is  it  only  in  these  regions  that  antiq- 
uities have  been  recovered;  almost  every 
state  in  the  American  Union  has  con- 
tributed of  its  ancient  treasure,  and  not 
alone  from  the  sites  where  abode  ancient 
cave  dwellers  and  mound  builders,  but 
from  the  seats  of  early  civilization  in  North, 
South  and  Central  America,  as  well  as  from 
almost  everv  region  in  the  old  world,  where 
at  periods  there  was  a  more  or  less  pre- 
valent high  art,  despite  the  current  estimate 
of  what  is  deemed  a  primitive  age.  The 
recovered  treasure  revealing  to  our  modern 
gaze  the  cunning  handicraft  and  artistic 
taste  of  these  early  peoples  embraces  a 
wide  and  curious  variety,  including  not 
only  remarkable  specimens  of  the  sculptor's 
and  metal-worker's  activities,  beautiful 
marbles,  mural  paintings  and  costly  decor- 
ations from  Greek  and  East  Indian  mau- 
soleums and  temples,  rare  ceramics,  mosaics, 
vases,  gems,  bas-reliefs,  statuary,  bronzes 
and  coin  mintings,  but  a  vast  array  of 
personal  ornaments,  together  with  unique 
household  utensils  and  the  more  homely, 
but  often  elaborate  figured  pottery  and 
relief  ware.  Our  art  galleries,  museums 
and  archaeological  institutes  today  are  full 
of  the  spoil  of  early  days,  drawn  from  the 
recovered  art  treasures  of  the  Graeco- 
Roman  world,  from  ancient  Babylonia, 
Assyria,  Phoenicia,  Persia,  Egypt,  Ceylon, 


India,  China  and  Japan,  together  with 
specimens  of  Anglo-Saxon  art  and  of  the 
tools,  implements,  weapons  and  mural 
remains  from  our  own  continent.  For 
details  of  this  interesting  subject  of  archae- 
ology, see  the  many  works  (chiefly  English 
and  German)  treating  of  the  science,  and 
the  archaeological  records  of  the  various 
lands,  nations  and  peoples,  with  an  account 
of  their  early  ethnological  eras. 

Archangel  (ark-dn'jel),  a  Russian  city 
on  the  River  Dvina,  750  miles  northeast  of 
St.  Petersburg.  It  has  a  large  trade  in 
timber,  tallow  and  tar;  it  is  connected  with 
the  interior  by  river  and  canal.  Popula- 
tion, 35,000.  An  English  sailor,  driven 
ashore  by  a  storm,  once  took  refuge  in  a 
monastery  on  the  site  of  Archangel.  As 
the  result  of  his  visit,  an  English  factory 
was  started  there  in  1584.  For  a  long  time 
Archangel  was  the  only  seaport  of  Russia, 
and  became  very  prosperous.  It  still  has 
a  very  large  import  and  coast  trade.  The 
shortest  day  here  is  only  three  hours  and 
twelve  minutes  in  length,  the  longest  is 
twenty-one  hours  and  forty-eight  minutes. 
Archangel  also  is  a  province  of  northern 
Russia;  area,  326,063  square  miles;  popu- 
lation, 437,800. 

Ar'chego'nium.  The  female  organ  of 
certain  groups  of  plants,  namely,  the  Brya- 
nt phytes  (mosses,  etc.), 
the  Pteridophyte  s 
(ferns,  etc.),  and  the 
gymnosperms  (pines, 
etc.).  In  general  it  is 
a  flask-shaped  struc- 
ture. In  the  bulbous 
part  of  the  flask  the 
solitary  egg  is  devel- 
oped; while  through 
the  open  and  often 
elongated  neck  the 
sperms  pass  for  fer- 
tilization. So  char- 
acteristic is  this  organ 
that  the  three  groups 
which  possess  it  are 
often  classed  together 
under  the  name  Ar- 
chegoniates. 

Ar'  chespo'  rium.  In 
plants  a  developing 
spore-vessel  sets  apart 
certain  cells  from  all 
others  to  produce  the 
spores.  The  first  cells 
which  can  be  disting- 
uished in  this  way, 
and  which  give  rise 
to  all  of  the  tissues 
which  produce  spores,  are  known  collectively 
as  the  archesporium.  The  archesporium  is 
a  prominent  feature  in  the  history  of  the 
sporangia  of  all  higher  groups  of  plants. 

Archibald,  Hon.  A.  Q.,  born  in  Truro. 
Nova  Scotia,  in  1814.  A  member  of  the 


ARCHEGONIUM 
MOSS 


ARCHIMEDES 


ARCHITECTURE 


executive  council  as  attorney  general  of 
Nova  Scotia  in  1856  and  again  in  1860. 
A  delegate  to  England  to  arrange  terms  of 
settlement  with  the  British  government  as  to 
Nova  Scotia  mines,  and  to  learn  the  views 
of  the  British  government  on  the  question 
of  union  of  the  provinces.  Also  attended 
the  final  conference  in  London  to  complete 
terms  of  union  (1866-7).  IQ  J867  Secre- 
tary of  State  for  the  provinces.  Lieutenant 
Governor  of  Manitoba  in  1870-3.  From 
1873  to  1883  Lieutenant  Governor  of  Nova 
Scotia.  A  Director  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway.  Styled  one  of  the  Fathers  of 
Confederation . 

Archimedes  (dr-kt-me'dez),  a  Grecian  en- 
gineer, physicist,  and  mathematician,  born 
at  Syracuse,  on  the  island  of  Sicily,  about 
the  year  287  B.  C.  What  little  is  known 
concerning  the  details  of  his  life  is  con- 
tained in  the  histories  of  Polybius,  Plutarch 
and  Livy  and  in  the  treatise  on  architecture 
by  Vitruvius. 

Like  many  men  of  science  belonging  to 
this  period,  he  was  educated  at  Alexandria. 

His  principal  contributions  to  learning 
are  (i)  a  large  number  of  geometrical 
theorems;  (2)  a  short  treatise  on  arith- 
metic called  Psammites,  because  grains  of 
sand  were  used  in  the  computations;  (3) 
a  determination  of  the  centers  of  gravity  in 
bodies  of  various  shapes,  a  work  which  may 
be  fairly  called  the  foundation  of  modern 
statics;  (4)  a  treatise  on  floating  bodies;  (5) 
in  addition  to  the  above,  it  is  probable  that 
he  invented  the  screw  which  goes  by  his 
name  and  that  he  devised  a  hydrometer  by 
which  he  could  compare  the  densities  of 
liquids. 

Many  stories  have  come  down  to  us  con- 
cerning his  engineering  feats  at  Syracuse 
while  that  city  was  besieged  by  the  Romans 
during  the  second  Punic  War.  Most  of 
these  stories  are  not  well  authenticated. 

The  best  known  perhaps  -is  that  told  by 
Vitruvius.  Having  been  assigned  the 
problem  of  determining  whether  a  certain 
crown  supposed  to  be  made  of  pure  gold 
had  been  alloyed  with  silver,  he  devised  the 
following  method:  First  he  measured  the 
volume  of  a  mass  of  gold  just  equal  to  the 
mass  of  the  crown.  This  he  did  by  putting 
the  gold  in  a  vessel  of  water  and  measuring 
the  overflow.  The  second  step  was  to 
measure,  in  the  same  way,  the  volume  of  a 
mass  of  silver  just  equal  to  the  mass  of 
the  crown.  Lastly  he  measured  the  volume 
of  the  crown  which  proved  to  be  inter- 
mediate between  that  of  the  gold  and  that 
of  the  silver.  From  these  data  it  was  a 
simple  matter  to  compute  the  percentage 
of  silver  in  the  crown.  This  method,  it  is 
said,  suggested  itself  to  him  as  he  was 
getting  into  his  bath,  where  he  observed 
that  the  rise  of  water  on  the  sides  of  the 
tub  was  apparently  proportional  to  the 
volume  of  his  body  immersed. 


The  story  goes  on  to  relate  that  Archi- 
medes announced  this  discovery  by  run- 
ning through  the  streets,  clothed  principally 
with  enthusiasm,  and  shouting  "Eureka! 
Eureka!"  (I  have  found  it.) 

Architecture  (dr'ki-tek'tur),  is  the  art 
of  building.  All  the  different  styles  of  con- 
structing and  decorating  buildings  can  be 
traced  back  to  two  early  forms,  used  accord- 
ing as  the  material  was  either  wood  or  stone. 
The  form  used  for  wooden  buildings  was 
two  upright  pillars  and  a  crossbeam  at  the 
top.  The  arch  with  its  strong  abutments 
was  the  form  generally  used  for  stone  build- 
ings. The  oldest  architectural  remains  are 
thoste  of  the  Egyptians.  They  are  rough 
and  stiff,  and  show  that  men  had  only 
begun  to  think  about  the  rules  of  building 
and  to  ask  what  makes  any  structure 
beautiful.  The  most  noticeable  features  in 
Egyptian  buildings  are  their  immense  size 
and  their  simplicity  and  regular  outline. 
How  the  immense  blocks  of  stone  used  in 
them  were  moved  and  raised  to  their  place 
is  a  cause  of  wonder  today.  Most  of  the 
temple  remains  are  in  Upper  Egypt,  though 


EGYPTIAN FRONT  OF  TEMPLE  OF  ISIS  AT 

PHIL.* 

the  greater  part  of  them  were  destroyed  by 
the  Persians  in  500  B.  C.  The  walls  ancl 
pillars  were  usually  ornamented  with  hiero- 
glyphics and  with  outlines  of  different 
sorts;  but  they  had  little  of  the  grace  and 
Elegance  of  the  later  Greek  architects.  Be- 
sides the  temples,  the  most  interesting 
structures  are  the  pyramids,  which  are 
supposed  to  be  the  tombs  of  Egyptian  kings. 
They  are  built  of  immense  blocks  of  stone 
put  together  in  regular  form,  gradually 
narrowing  from  the  broad  base  to  the  small- 
pointed  apex.  The  largest  of  them  is  693 
feet  square  at  the  base  and  498  feet  high. 
Herodotus  states  that  it  was  built  by  Cheops, 
who  kept  one  hundred  thousand  men  work- 
ing on  it  for  twenty-years.  The  obelisks 
are  single  four-cornered  shafts  of  great 
height,  usually  of  red  granite  and  com- 
monly cut  from  the  quarry  in  a  single 
block.  They  were  placed  at  the  entrances 
of  temples  or  palaces,  covered  with  hiero- 
glyphics and  figures  illustrating  the  vic- 
tories and  great  deeds  of  their  kings. 


+niiiiiii iiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiniin iiiiiioiiiiiiinio iiioiiiiu uiiiiiiiuiiiu iiiiiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiniii::* 

Q 

How  Sculpture  and  Painting 

Grew  Out  of  Architecture 

= 

WHY  did  the  Egyptian  sculptor  attach  that  curious  block 
of  stone  to  his  statue  of  Rameses  II?     The  question 
long  puzzled  Egyptian  scholars.   Finally  they  found  the       = 
answer    in    comparing    Egyptian   statues    with    the    carvings       g 
on  the  temples  and  tombs.      The  earlier  sculptors,  you  see, 
simply  cut  the  figure  into  the  stone.     In  the  course  of  time       § 
came    the    next   step — the   figure   stood   out    from   the   wall.       = 
Then  followed  the  idea  of  a  figure  entirely  independent  of      1 


Rameses  and  Fa 

the  wall.  But 
among  Orientals, 
where  custom  is  sa- 
cred, they  felt  it  to 
be  wrong  to  make 
figures  without  some 
reminder  of  the  wall 
— hence  those  curi- 
ous and  apparently 
meaningless  blocks 
of  stone.  Notice  in 
the  figures  from 
Notre  Dame  in  Paris 
how  Christian  sculp- 
tors again  con- 
nected sculptured 


Thotn  Presenting  Svmtnl  of  Everlasting  Life  to  King  Seti      5 


Wall  Decoration  from  Notre  Dime.  Pa 


figures     with     temple 
walls. 

The  first  paintings 
were  also  made  upon 
walls,  as  in  this  wall 
painting  from  Hercu- 
laneum,  "T  e  1  e  p  h  u  s 
Nursed  by  the  Hind," 
now  in  the  National 
Museum  at  Naples.  On 
the  right,  in  the  paint- 
ing by  the  English 
artist,  Poynter,  "Egyp- 
tian Girl  Feeding  the 
Sacred  Ibis,"  you  can 
see  the  whole  story  of 
the  relation  between 
architecture,  painting 
and  sculpture  epito- 
mized. 


Early  Wall  Decoration 


Feeding  the  Sacred  Ibis 


=  fcarly   Wall  Llecoration  Q 

•&C:III!IIIIIIIIIIIIIOIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIII:JIIIIIIIIIIIO 


Hhniiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiiimniu  jtUQl 


ICS    1H 


niiiiimiiiiiimraiiiimiiiiniimiiiiiiin* 


Doric  Ionic  Corinthian 

The  Three  Types  of  Greek  Capitals 


The  Parthenon 

THIS  picture  group  shows  the  Parthe- 
non, the  most  famous  piece  of  archi- 
tecture in  the  world ;  the  altar  of  St. 
Mark's,    the    classic    type    of    Byzantine 


«"in  i     m- 


Basilica  of  St.  Mark's,  Showing  Altar 


architecture;  two  types  of  medieval  archi- 
tecture —  the  wonderful  cathedrals  at 
Rheims  and  Cologne  —  and  a  brilliant  ex- 
ample of  modern  architecture,  the  in- 
terior of  the  $5,000,000  Grand  Opera 
House  in  Paris  on  the  opening  night. 


Original   in  the  Luxembourg1,   Paris 

Inauguration  of  the  Grand  Opera  House.   Painting  by 

Edouard  Detaille  ( French  b.  1848) 


Notre  Dame  Cathedral  of  Rteims,  France 


Cologne  Cathedral,  Germany 


!lll!!llllll[3IIIIIIIIIIOIIIIIIIIIIOIIII!lll!ll[:!llllllim 


ARCHITECTURE 


93 


ARCOT 


In  Assyria  anu.  Persia  are  found  the  ruins 
of  great  palaces;  among  the  oldest  is  the 
northwest  palace  of  Nimrod,  built  about 
884  B.  C.  A  palace  at  Susa,  Persia,  was 


ROMANESQUE CATHEDRAL   OF   WORMS 

evidently  built  of  brick  and  faced  with 
colors  in  enamel.  The  Greeks  are  thought 
to  have  taken  some  of  their  ideas  in  build- 
ing from  Assyria  and  Persia.  But  it  is  in 
Greece  that  we  find  the  greatest  number 
and  most  perfect  specimens  of  ancient 
architecture.  The  temples  and  theaters  of 
Asia  Minor  and  Greece  were  of  great  mag- 
nificence and  wonderful  for  their  grace  and 
delicacy  of  outline.  (See  ATHENS.) 

There  are  three  styles  of  Grecian  archi- 
tecture, called  the  Doric,  the  Ionic  and  the 
Corinthian,  the  most  important  difference 
being  in  the  head  or  capital,  as  it  is  called, 
of  the  pillar.  The  most  flourishing  period 
of  Greek  architecture  was  from  650  to 
324  B.  C. 

The  Romans  borrowed  mainly  from  the 
Greeks,  but  used  their  architecture  not  only 


GRECIAN  DORIC TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER  AT 

OLYMPIA 

upon  temples  and  theaters,  but  on  many 
other  kinds  of  buildings,  such  as  baths, 
bridges,  aqueducts,  triumphal  arches  and 


private  houses.  They  borrowed  the  round 
arch  from  the  Etruscans,  and  soon  made 
use  of  its  principle  to  construct  immense 
circular  domes  or  vaults.  Many  great 
Roman  buildings  still  remain.  When  Byzan- 
tium became  the  capital  of  the  Roman 
empire,  Roman  architecture  was  in  use 
there.  The  dome  was  specially  affected  by 
the  Byzantines.  In  the  reign  of  Constan- 
tine  the  Christians  were  allowed  to  build 
churches,  and  the  term  Byzantine  designates 
the  architecture  of  the  Christian  churches  of 
eastern  Europe  and  Asia  Minor  of  that 
period.  One  of  the  finest  of  these  churches 
is  that  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople. 

Romanesque  is  the  name  given  to  the 
various  round-arched  styles  which  arose  in 
Europe  after  the  inroads  of  the  northern 
barbarians.  The  Saxon  style  of  building 
was  rude  and  simple.  It  was  followed  in 
England  by  the  Norman,  which  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  rich  and  odd  carving  on 
the  doorways  and  arches.  Most  of  the 
best-known  buildings  in  England  and  Scot- 
land belong  to  this  style.  The  Gothic  or 
pointed  style  followed,  with  its  three  periods. 
In  the  first  we  find  the  narrow,  pointed 
windows  and  high  gables  and  roofs.  A  part 
of  Westminster  Abbey  is  built  in  this  style. 
In  the  second  period,  the  windows  are 
divided  into  small  panes,  the  upper  part 
filled  with  beautiful  tracery  in  waving  lines. 
The  third  period  is  called  the  perpendicular 
period.  The  tracery  is  no  longer  in  wavy, 
but  in  straight,  lines.  The  doorways  have 
square  tops  over  pointed  arches.  West- 
minster Hall  in  London  is  a  good  example 
of  this  style,  which  lasted  from  the  end  of 
the  1 4th  to  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century. 
At  the  time  of  the  great  revival  of  learning 
in  Italy,  in  the  1 5th  century,  the  old  Roman 
style  of  architecture,  in  a  slightly  altered 
form,  was  revived.  This  style  is  called  the 
Italian  Renaissance.  St.  Peter's  at  Rome 
and  the  Louvre  and  the  Tuileries  at  Paris 
are  good  examples  of  it. 

Another  style  of  building  is  the  Moorish 
or  Saracenic,  which  dates  back  to  the  gih 
century.  It  is  noted  for  its  graceful  towers, 
beautiful  domes,  the  slender  pillars  which 
support  the  walls  and  for  the  frequent 
use  of  the  arch.  The  Moorish  palace  of 
the  Alhambra  well  illustrates  this  style. 

Modern  architecture  is  the  name  em- 
ployed for  all  varieties  of  building  in  use 
since  the  Renaissance.  In  the  i8th  century 
Greek  forms  were  copied,  and  in  the  ipth 
century  the  Gothic  form  was  popular.  All 
modern  architecture  is  in  imitation  of  the 
older  forms.  Churches  are  largely  imita- 
tions of  the  Gothic,  while  private  buildings 
are  of  the  Renaissance  type. 

Arcot  (dr-kof),  a  city  of  Hindustan,  once 
the  capital  of  the  Carnatic,  is  situated  on 
the  Palar,  about  70  miles  southwest  of 
Madras.  In  it  are  many  ruins,  among  them 
the  palace  of  its  princes,  who  were  called 


ARCTIC  CIRCLE 


94 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 


nabobs.  The  people  are,  in  the  main, 
Mohammedans.  Arcot  was  taken  by  Clive 
in  1751,  in  the  wars  with  the  French,  and 
finally  became  a  British  city  in  1801.  Popu- 
lation, 12,000. 

Arctic  Circle,  one  of  the  smaller  circles 
of  the  globe,  is  twenty-three  and  a  half 
degrees  from  the  North  Pole. 

Arctic  Exploration.  See  POLAR  EX- 
PLORATION. 

Arctic  Ocean  is  that  part  of  the  ocean 
within  the  Arctic  Circle.  The  main  rivers 
flowing  into  it  are  the  Mackenzie  and  Black 
in  America,  the  Obi,  Yenesei  and  Lena  in 
Asia.  Its  largest  islands  are  Spitzbergen, 
Wongatz  and  Nova  Zembla  in  Europe, 
those  of  New  Siberia  in  Asia  and  the  Polar 
archipelago  in  America.  An  expanse  of  ice  of 
nearly  4,000,000  square  miles  extends  dur- 
ing an  eight-months'  winter  round  the  pole, 
and  even  in  summer  the  temperature  is 
still  at  the  freezing  point.  From  this  region 
come  the  icebergs  which  in  spring  and 
summer  drift  into  the  Atlantic.  In  the  last 
three  hundred  years  many  voyages  have 
been  made  to  make  discoveries  in  this 
region  or  to  find  a  passage  through  it,  but 
we  know  almost  nothing  about  it.  Besides 
the  great  dangers  of  ice,  the  sailor,  often 
blinded  by  fogs  and  snow,  has  to  face  with- 
out guide  or  sea-room,  storms,  tides  and 
currents  of  unknown  waters.  The  highest 

Faint  ever  reached  was  by  Lieutenant 
eary,  who  in  1906  reached  a  point  206 
miles  distant  from  the  north  pole.  See 
POLAR  EXPLORATION. 

Ardmore,  Oklahoma,  a  city  on  the 
Gulf,  Colorado  and  Santa  Fe  and  Choctaw, 
Oklahoma  and  Gulf  railroads.  About  ao 
miles  north  of  the  Red  River.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Hargrove  College.  Its  commercial 
activities  embrace  cotton,  coal  and  asphalt. 
Population,  10,462. 

Areop'agus  (d-re-op'a-gus),  the  hill  of 
Ares  or  Mars  in  ancient  Athens,  near  the 
Acropolis.  It  was  the  seat  of  the  court 
called  by  the  same  name,  which  was  the 
most  famous  court  in  Greece.  It  dates 
back  to  the  earliest  days  of  Athens,  and 
plays  an  important  part  in  its  history. 
At  first  it  was  a  criminal  court,  but  Solon 
gave  it  so  much  power  that  it  reached 
everything  in  the  state.  Pericles  took  away 
most  of  its  power;  but  its  fame  lived  on, 
even  as  late  as  the  era  of  the  Emperor 
Theodosius.  Its  members  were  the  men 
who  had  been  archons,  or  highest  officers, 
in  Athens,  and  they  served  for  life.  Here 
Paul  made  his  address  to  the  Athenians, 
as  given  in  Acts. 

Arequipa  (d'rd-ke'pa).  A  department  in 
the  South  American  republic  of  Peru.  It  lies 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  republic,  between 
Lake  Titicaca  and  the  Pacific.  Its  area  is  2 1 , 
947  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  229, 
007.  Its  capital  is  the  city  of  Arequipa  which 
lies  in  a  fertile  valley  near  the  volcano  of 


Misti  (sometimes  called  Arequipa),  which 
rises  to  a  height  of  20,260  feet.  Notabla 
buildings  are  the  cathedral,  public  library, 
hospital,  astronomical  and  meteorological 
observatories.  The  meteorological  station 
is  16,280  feet  above  sea  level,  the  highest 
in  the  world.  Its  exports  include  (besides 
minerals)  cotton,  coffee,  hides,  rice,  cocaine, 
wool  and  sugar.  The  province,  being  on 
the  Andean  range,  is  mountainous.  A 
railway  connects  it  with  Mollendo,  its  port 
on  the  Pacific,  while  a  line  connects  it  east- 
ward with  Puno  on  Lake  Titicaca.  Popu- 
lation, 35,000. 

Argentine  Republic  is,  next  to  Brazil, 
the  largest  of  the  political  divisions  of 
South  America,  and  with  Chile  on  the  west 
occupies  the  southern  part  of  the  continent. 
It  has  an  area  of  1,135,840  square  miles, 
a  little  more  than  one  seventh  of  the  area 
of  the  continent  and  one  third  that  of 
Brazil.  It  extends  from  the  27th  to  the 
57th  parallel  of  latitude,  a  distance  as 
great  as  from  Hudson  Bay  to  the  southern 
Smit  of  Florida.  The  northern  half  has  an 
average  width  of  about  eight  hundred 
miles  and  the  southern  part  narrows  to 
about  two  hundred  miles.  It  could  be 
divided  into  twenty-two  states  each  the 
size  of  New  York.  Its  population  is  6,- 
489,023. 

_  Surface.  In  the  northern  part  of  Argen- 
tine is  the  basin  of  the  Parana  River. 
Here  are  large  tracts  of  prairie  or  pampas, 
producing  wheat  and  pasturage,  with  rich 
cultivated  districts  near  the  Parana  and 
Paraguay  Rivers  and  sugar  lands  and 
timber  tracts  further  north.  In  the  central 
section  are  the  great  pampas  or  plains, 
extending  from  the  mountain  range  on 
the  west  to  the  Atlantic  on  the  east.  The 
soil  is  very  rich,  from  three  to  six  feet 
in  depth,  and  here  are  the  great  wheat 
fields  and  cattle  ranges  for  which  the 
republic  is  famous.  In  the  southern  sec- 
tion are  wide  sandy  plains,  once  the  bed 
of  an  ocean  which  extended  to  the  Andes. 
South  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan  is  the  island 
of  Terra  del  Fuego,  a  part  of  which  belongs 
to  Argentine.  The  republic  may  be  char- 
acterized as  a  country  of  vast  plains,  yet 
in  its  western  border  rises  the  great  Andean 
mountain  range,  which  here  shows  its 
loftiest  peaks,  including  Aconcagua  22,860 
feet,  the  highest  mountain  in  America; 
Mercedario  22,315  feet;  Tupangato  20,280 
feet;  San  Juan  20,020  feet. 

Rivers.  The  Plata  River,  on  which 
Buenos  Ayres,  the  capital  of  the  republic, 
is  situated,  receives  the  waters  of  10,000 
miles  of  waterways,  the  second  largest  river 
system  in  the  world,  and  discharges  into 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  a  volume  of  water 
nearly  double  that  discharged  by  the  Mis- 
sissippi into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
Plata  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the 
Parana  and  Uruguay  Rivers.  It  is  too 


ARGON 


95 


miles  long  and  from  35  to  4*  miles  wide. 
The  Parana  is  over  2,500  miles  long  and 
in  many  places  25  miles  wide.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  vessels  of  19  feet  draught  to 
Rosario,  a  port  380  miles  from  the  sea, 
and  some  of  its  branches  are  navigable 
for  vessels  of  8  feet  draught  to  points  over 
2,000  miles  inland.  By  this  river  system 
not  only  all  of  northern  Argentine,  but 
parts  of  Brazil,  Uruguay,  Paraguay  and 
Bolivia  are  made  accessible  to  Buenos 
Ayres.  South  of  the  Plata  are  a  number 
of  rivers  of  minor  importance  emptying 
into  the  Atlantic.  There  are  12,274  miles 
of  railway  in  Argentine.  Trunk  lines  con- 
nect Buenos  Ayres,  which  is  the  center  of 
the  system,  with  all  parts  of  the  country. 

Cities.  The  chief  ports  of  Argentine  are 
Buenos  Ayres,  the  capital,  population 
1,3!  9, 747;  Rosario  in  province  of  Santa  Fe, 
population  176,076;  Bahia  Blanca  in  the 
province  of  Buenos  Ayres,  population  50,- 
138;  La  Plata  100,608  and  Santa  Fe  48,600. 
The  chief  interior  cities  are  Cordoba,  popu- 
lation, 70,380;  Tucuman,  population  74,- 
865;  Mendoza,  population  42,496.  Other 
towns  of  considerable  importance  are  Salta, 
population  23,284;  Corrientes,  population 
23,904;  Santiago,  population  14,340;  Guale- 
guacha,  population  13,000;  Rio  Cuarto, 
population  12,000;  San  Juan,  population 
15,262;  and  Jujuy,  population  10,000. 

Resources.  The  resources  of  the  Argentine 
Republic  are  largely  agricultural  and  pas- 
toral. Its  vast  area  of  fertile  territory,  its 
varied  climate  suitable  to  the  growth  of 
every  product  of  the  temperate  zone  and 
the  tropics,  its  great  rivers  and  a  sea  coast 
1,500  miles  in  extent,  giving  ample  trans- 
portation facilities,  together  present  con- 
ditions which  must  make  this  one  of  the 
great  producing  nations  of  the  world.  The 
area  at  present  under  cultivation,  about 
47,000,000  acres,  is  less  than  a  fifth  of  the 
area  available  for  agriculture.  By  the 
latest  census  the  wealth  of  the  nation  is 
invested  as  follows:  transportation,  $511,- 
588,527;  stockraising,  $336,546,748;  trade, 
$300,696,958;  manufactures,  $145,407,647; 
agriculture,  $139,352,746.  Minerals  of  many 
kinds  are  found,  including  gold,  silver, 
copper,  lead,  tin,  iron  and  coal,  but  these 
resources  are  mostly  undeveloped.  There 
are  considerable  areas  of  valuable  forests. 
Imports  in  1909,  $302,756,095;  exports, 
$397,350,528. 

Government.  Argentine  is  a  republic  com- 
posed of  a  federal  district,  14  provinces  and 
10  territories.  Its  constitution  is  modeled 
after  that  of  the  United  States.  The  presi- 
dent is  elected  for  a  term  of  six  years  by 
an  electoral  college.  There  is  a  national 
congress,  consisting  of  a  senate  and  a 
chamber  of  deputies.  Each  province  has 
a  governor  and  a  provincial  legislature. 
There  are  federal  and  provincial  courts 
similar  in  powers  and  functions  to  the 


federal  and  state  eeurts  of  the  United 
States. 

History.  The  first  Europeans  who  visited 
the  country  were  a  party  of  Spanish  ex- 
plorers in  search  of  a  southwest  passage  to 
the  East  Indies.  Their  leader,  with  a  small 
company,  landed  in  1516.  They  are  said 
to  have  been  treacherously  killed  and  then 
cooked  and  eaten  in  sight  of  their  comrades 
on  board  the  ships.  The  first  settlement 
was  made  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1527,  in 
the  name  of  Spain.  Other  expeditions 
followed,  the  main  rivers  were  ascended, 
forts  were  built,  wars  were  fought  with  the 
Indians,  and  after  a  vast  expenditure  of 
blood  and  treasure  the  Spaniards  were 
finally  established  in  the  land.  In  1776, 
Buenos  Ayres  was  made  the  capital  of  a 
vice-royalty.  In  1806,  when  Spain  was  at 
war  with  England,  a  body  of  troops  landed 
from  a  British  fleet  and  captured  Buenos 
Ayres,  but  it  was  soon  retaken  and  the 
English  troops  were  forced  to  surrender. 
Two  years  later  an  English  army  of  8,000 
again  attacked  the  city.  The  houses  were 
built  with  their  windows  looking  on  the 
streets,  guarded  with  strong  iron  railings, 
like  prison  bars,  and  with  their  flat  roofs 
filled  with  defenders,  so  that  each  house 
was  a  fortress.  After  suffering  terrible 
slaughter  in  their  march  through  the  streets, 
the  British  surrendered.  It  was  these  suc- 
cesses against  the  English  that  gave  the 
people  courage  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of 
Spain.  On  the  25th  of  May,  1810,  what 
was  called  the  provisional  government  was 
set  up.  This  is  usually  held  to  be  the  be- 
ginning of  the  independence  of  the  country. 
The  whole  of  the  vice-royalty  did  not 
acknowledge  the  authority  of  this  govern- 
ment. Bolivia,  Paraguay  and  Uruguay 
made  themselves  into  separate  republics. 
A  struggle  with  Spain  followed,,  lasting  till 
1824.  Since  then  there  have  been  many 
civil  wars  between  the  leaders  of  the  two 
political  parties,  the  Unitarians  and  the 
Federals. 

Ar'gon,  a  gaseous  element  discovered  in 
1895  by  Lord  Rayleigh  and  Professor 
Ramsay  of  England.  It  exists  in  the  air 
to  the  amount  of  about  one  per  cent.  It 
is  somewhat  heavier  than  air.  All  efforts 
to  make  it  combine  chemically  with  other 
elements  have  failed.  In  this  inertness  it 
differs  from  every  known  element  except 
four  others  recently  discovered,  called 
helium,  neon,  krypton  and  xenon,  that  are 
associated  with  it  in  the  air  in  extremely 
minute  quantities. 

Argonauts  (ar1 'go-no.?) ,  in  Greek  story, 
the  band  of  heroes  who  sailed,  before  the 
Trojan  war  in  the  ship  Argo,  in  search  of 
the  golden  fleece ;  Argonauts  meaning  sailors 
of  the  Argo.  Pelias,  king  of  lolcus  in 
Thessaly,  was  warned  by  an  oracle  to  fear 
his  nephew,  Jason,  and  so,  hoping  he  would 
be  killed,  he  sent  him  to  capture  and  bring 


ARGOS 


96 


ARIOSTO 


home  the  fleece  of  the  ram  which  had 
carried  off  the  brother  and  sister,  Phrixus 
and  Helle,  and  which  Phrixus  had  sacrificed 
to  Jupiter.  Phrixus  had  nailed  the  fleece 
to  an  oak  in  the  grove  of  Mars  in  Colchis, 
where  it  was  guarded  by  a  sleepless  dragon 
and  by  fire-breathing  bulls.  Jason  set  sail 
with  the  principal  heroes  of  Greece,  among 
them  Castor  and  Pollux,  Hercules  and 
Orpheus.  After  various  adventures  in 
Lemnos,  Mysia  and  the  land  of  the 
Bebryces,  and  after  successfully  passing 
between  the  floating  islands  of  the  Symple- 
gades,  which  were  dreaded  because  of  their 
custom  of  dashing  to  pieces  whatever  came 
in  their  way,  the  Argonauts  reached  Colchis. 
The  king  of  Colchis  promised  Jason  the 
golden  fleece  if  he  would  yoke  the  fire- 
breathing  bulls  to  the  plow  and  sow  the 
dragon's  teeth,  from  which  warriors  always 
sprang  up  to  kill  the  sower.  With  the  aid 
of  Medea,  the  king's  daughter,  a  powerful 
enchantress,  who  had  fallen  in  love  with 
Jason,  the  latter  achieved  these  tasks. 
Finding  the  king  plotting  against  him,  he 
seized  the  fleece  and  set  sail  with  Medea 
and  her  brother,  Absyrtus.  When  the  king 
pursued  them,  Medea  killed  her  brother, 
and  throwing  his  body  into  the  sea,  piece 
by  piece,  so  delayed  her  father,  that  the 
Argo  escaped,  though,  because  of  their 
crime,  they  suffered  many  things  on  their 
homeward  journey. 

Ar'gos,  an  important  city  of  ancient 
Greece,  in  Argolis.  It  was  believed  to  be 
the  oldest  city  in  Greece,  dating  back  as 
far  as  1500  B.  C.  At  the  time  of  the 
Trojan  War  it  was  a  famous  capital,  and 
from  it  the  Greeks  were  often  called  Argives 
(ar'jivz).  Before  the  rise  of  Sparta,  Argos 
was  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  league  of 
Doric  cities,  but  in  later  Greek  history  it 
plays  little  part.  Its  site  is  occupied  by 
a  modern  town  of  the  same  name,  which 
has  a  population  of  about  10,000.  Here  are 
remains  of  ancient  cyclopean  structures, 
among  them  a  grand  amphitheater  hewn 
in  the  rock  and  a  large  aqueduct. 

Argyle  (ar-glV),  George  Douglas 
Campbell,  eighth  duke  of,  was  born  April 
30,  1823,  and  died  April  24,  1900.  He 
held  important  offices  in  the  English  gov- 
ernment, and  was  a  liberal  in  politics. 
He  also  wrote  valuable  religious  and  scien- 
tific works,  among  them  The  Reign  of  Law, 
and  Primeval  Man.  His  eldest  son,  the 
Marquis  of  Lome,  married  the  Princess 
Louise,  daughter  of  the  late  Queen  Victoria. 
This  is  the  first  instance  of  the  marriage  of 
a  daughter  of  a  reigning  sovereign  of  Eng- 
land to  a  subject.  The  marquis  succeeded 
to  the  dukedom  on  the  death  of  his  father. 

Argyll,  John  Douglas  Sutherland 
Campbell,  ninth  duke  of,  long  known  as 
Marquis  of  Lome,  husband  of  H.  R.  H. 
Princess  Louise,  fourth  daughter  of  the  late 
Queen  Victoria,  was  born  in  1845  m  Lon- 


don and  educated  at  St.  Andrews  Uni- 
versity and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
From  1868  to  1878  he  represented  Argyll- 
shire in  Parliament  as  Liberal  member, 
and  later  sat  for  South  Manchester.  In 
1871  he  married  Princess  Louise,  and  was 
governor-general  of  Canada  from  1878  to 
1883.  In  1900  he  succeeded  to  the  duke- 
dom of  Argyll  and  has  since  sat  in  the 
House  of  Peers.  His  writings  include  A 
Trip  to  the  Tropics,  Guido  and  Lita,  The 
Psalms  Literally  Rendered  in  Verse,  a  work 
on  Imperial  Federation  and  a  Life  of  Queen 
Victoria. 

Ariad'ne.     See  THESEUS. 

Aries  (d'ri-ez),  a  northern  constellation, 
known  as  the  ram.  It  is  the  first  of 
the  twelve  signs  in  the  zodiac,  which  the 
sun  enters  at  the  vernal  equinox  (March 
21).  Owing  to  the  precession  of  the  equi- 
noxes, the  constellation  now  is  not  within 
the  limits  of  the  sign. 

Ari'on,  a  poet  and  musician  of  Lesbos, 
Greece,  who  lived  about  625  B.  C.  He  is 
said  to  have  invented  a  new  form  of  verse; 
but  all  we  know  of  him  is  the  pretty  story 
told  of  him  by  the  historian  Herodotus. 
Arion  had  traveled  all  over  the  world  and 
gained  great  fame  and  a  large  sum  of  money 
by  his  skill  in  singing.  On  the  homeward 
voyage  the  sight  of  his  treasure  roused 
the  cupidity  of  the  sailors,  and  they  decided 
to  kill  him.  He  was  told  he  must  either 
die  by  his  own  hand  on  shipboard  or  throw 
himself  into  the  sea.  He  chose  the  latter, 
but  first  asked  leave  to  sing  one  last  song. 
The  sailors  agreed,  and  Arion,  standing 
on  the  deck,  sang  a  dirge,  accompanying 
himself  on  the  lyre.  He  then  jumped  over- 
board, but  instead  of  drowning  was  borne 
up  by  a  dolphin  that  had  been  charmed 
by  the  music.  The  dolphin  carried  him 
to  the  coast,  from  which  he  reached  home 
before  the  ship.  He  told  his  story  to  the 
prince,  who  hardly  believed  him.  On  the 
landing  of  the  sailors,  they  first  said  that 
they  had  left  Arion  behind;  but  when  they 
saw  him,  they  quickly  confessed  and  were 
punished. 

Arios'to,  Ludovico,  a  famous  Italian 
poet,  was  born  at  Reggio  near  Modena  in 
1474,  the  eldest  of  ten  children.  As  a  boy 
he  showed  ability  and  taste  in  composition, 
but  at  the  wish  of  his  father  he  studied 
law.  After  a  trial  of  five  years  he  gave 
up  the  attempt,  and  turned  to  the  study 
of  the  classics,  and  devoted  himself  to 
literature  as  a  profession.  A  few  lyrical 
poems  gained  him  as  a  patron  the  son  of 
the  Duke  of  Ferrara,  and  he  spent  some 
years  in  his  service.  The  death  of  his 
father  left  him  to  support  the  family,  and 
compelled  him  to  give  more  time  to  the 
service  of  his  patron,  but  meanwhile  he 
was  producing  his  great  poem  Orlando 
Furioso,  a  work  at  which  he  toiled  for 
some  ten  years.  Its  appearance  made  him 


ARISTIDES 


97 


ARITHMETIC 


famous.  His  patron  alone  treated  the  poem 
with  contempt,  and  soon  dismissed  Ariosto 
from  his  service.  The  Duke  of  Ferrara 
then  became  his  patron,  and  made  him 
governor  of  a  small  district.  After  three 
years  of  successful  rule  he  returned  to 
Ferrara,  where  he  lived  till  his  death  in 
I533-  Besides  his  great  poem,  he  wrote 
a  number  of  comedies  and  satires,  and  a 
theater  was  built  for  the  playing  of  his 

fieces.     The  Orlando  Furioso  still  stands  in 
taly  at  the  head  of  all  poems  of  chivalry, 
and   has   been    translated   into   many   lan- 
guages.    The  plot  is  taken  from  the  wars 
of  the  time  of  Charles  the  Great. 

Aristi'des  (dr'is-ti'dez),  called  the  Just, 
was  one  of  the  statesmen  of  Athens,  and 
helped  to  build  up  the  greatness  of  his 
city.  At  the  battle  of  Marathon,  490  B.  C., 
he  was  one  of  the  ten  generals  of  the  Athen- 
ians. He  persuaded  the  others  to  give  up 
their  day  of  command  to  Miltiades,  who 
was  the  most  skillful  commander.  His 
rival  at  Athens  was  Themistocles  and  the 
contest  between  the  two  leaders  grew  so 
bitter,  that  it  was  deemed  best  to  exile 
one  of  them  by  vote.  When  the  vote  was 
being  taken,  a  man  who  did  not  know 
Aristides  asked  him  to  write  for  him  the 
name  Aristides  on  the  shell  which  was  used 
as  a  ballot.  "  Has  he  done  you  any  in- 
jury?" asked  Aristides.  "No,"  was  the 
reply,  "but  I  am  tired  of  hearing  him  called 
'Aristides  the  Just.'  "  Aristides  was  ban- 
ished for  ten  years;  but  in  480,  when  his 
country  was  in  great  danger  from  the 
Persians,  he  returned  on  the  eve  of  the 
battle  of  Salamis,  and  helped  his  rival 
Themistocles.  He  also  commanded  the 
Athenians  at  the  battle  of  Plataea.  When 
many  of  the  states  decided  to  form  an 
alliance  against  Persia,  with  Athens  at  its 
head,  Aristides,  because  of  his  well-known 
honesty  and  fairness,  was  chosen  to  make 
the  arrangements  and  to  assess  the 
expenses  of  the  war  on  the  different  states. 
He  died  so  poor  about  the  year  468  B.  C. 
that  he  was  buried  at  the  public  cost;  but 
he  had  done  so  much  for  Athens  that  the 
government  gave  his  daughters  dowries  and 
his  son  a  landed  estate. 

Aristophanes  (dr-is-tofa-nez),  the  great- 
est Greek  writer  of  comedies.  Little  is 
known  of  his  life,  although  his  writings 
have  made  him  famous.  He  was  born  at 
Athens,  probably  about  448  B.  C.  He 
began  writing  when  very  young,  and  his 
first  plays  were  brought  out  under  another 
name,  because  he  was  not  old  enough  to 
contend  for  the  prize.  He  wrote,  in  all, 
fifty-four  comedies,  but  only  eleven  have 
come  down  to  us.  The  Knights  and  The 
Clouds  are  among  his  most  admired  pieces. 
Others  are  The  Wasps,  The  Birds  and  The 
Frogs.  Aristophanes  laughed  at  everything 
and  everybody,  especially  .  at  everything 
new.  He  liked  old  Athens,  "as  it  had 


been  in  the  days  of  the  Persian  wars," 
and  thus  failed  to  see  the  good  in  men 
like  Socrates.  One  of  his  finest  plays,  The 
Clouds,  is  a  satire  against  Socrates.  His 
plays  have  in  them  specimens  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  finished  poetry.  He  died 
about  380  B.  C. 

Aristotle  (dr'is-tot-l) ,  the  greatest  of 
all  the  Greek  philosophers,  was  born  at 
Stageira  in  Thrace,  384  B.  C.  His  father 
was  a  physician,  and  his  own  early  educa- 
tion was  in  that  direction.  In  his  eight- 
eenth year  he  went  to  Athens  and  be- 
came the  pupil  of  Plato,  who  called  him 
the  "Intellect  of  the  School."  He  stayed 
at  Athens  twenty  years,  until  the  death 
of  Plato,  347  B.  C.,  when  he  went  to  Atar- 
neas  in  Mysia  and  afterward  to  Mitylene. 
In  the  year  342  B.  C.,  he  was  invited  by 
Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  to  educate  his 
son  Alexander  in  Macedonia.  When 
Alexander  set  out  on  his  expedition  to 
Asia,  334  B.  C.,  Aristotle  returned  to 
Athens,  where  at  the  age  of  fifty,  he  opened 
a  school  called  the  Lyceum,  from  its  near- 
ness to  the  temple  of  Apollo  Lyceius.  His 
school  and  pupils  were  called  the  Peri- 
patetics, from  his  habit  of  walking  up  and 
down  in  the  garden  while  giving  his  lectures. 
After  the  death  of  Alexander,  he  was 
accused  of  impiety  by  the  party  in  power. 
With  the  fate  of  Socrates  before  his  eyes, 
he  chose  a  timely  escape  and  fled  to  Chalcis 
in  Eubcea,  where  he  died  322  B.  C.  Many 
of  his  writings  are  lost;  of  those  that  remain, 
his  Logic,  Rhetoric,  Poetics  and  Meteoro- 
logies are  the  most  important.  He  almost 
created  the  science  of  logic  and  also  that 
of  natural  science.  In  philosophy  no  one 
can  be  named  whose  influence  has  been 
greater  or  more  lasting. 

Arithmetic  has  been  greatly  influenced 
by  modern  educational  thought,  the  same 
as  other  studies.  Until  very  recent  years 
the  principal  change  taking  place  in  the 
study  consisted  in  a  growing  willingness  to 
omit  topics  that  had  no  close  relation  to 
our  own  lives.  For  instance,  topics  now 
wholly  omitted  or  neglected  are  the  sur- 
veyor's table,  apothecaries'  weight  and 
troy  weight;  G.C.D.  and  L.C.M.  as  special 
topics,  complex  and  compound  fractions, 
except  those  of  a  very  simple  nature; 
annual  interest  and  most  of  compound 
interest;  partial  payments,  except  under 
the  United  States  rule,  and  with  problems 
involving  common  amounts,  as  a  principal 
of  $100  with  payments  like  $  10  and  $25, 
rather  than  amounts  like  $251.42  and 
$19.79;  profit  and  loss  as  a  special  topic; 
equation  of  payments;  partnership;  longi- 
tude and  time,  except  problems  based  on 
the  15°  scheme  and  a  few  others;  and  cube 
root.  The  conviction  has  been  growing  that 
there  are  too  many  quantitative  matters  inti- 
mately related  to  our  lives  to  allow  time  to  be 
spent  on  others  that  lack  such  relationship 


ARITHMETIC 


ARITHMETIC 


But  more  recently  new  topics  have  been 
accepted  and  other  older  ones  have  been 
receiving  a  new  emphasis,  according  as 
such  topics  are  intimately  concerned  with 
our  welfare.  For  example,  new  topics  or 
topics  newly  emphasized  are  insurance, 
stocks  and  bonds,  government  revenues 
and  expenditures,  the  banking  business 
and  taxes.  These  are  subjects  for  chil- 
dren studying  somewhat  advanced  arith- 
metic. But  a  similar  change  is  also  affect- 
ing the  problems  for  younger  pupils. 
Problems  dealing  with  actual  situations  are 
more  and  more  in  demand  for  all  ages  of 
pupils,  such  as  those  dealing  with  farm- 
ing, fishing,  lumbering,  mining,  manu- 
facturing, transportation  of  goods,  trade 
and  facts  of  daily  interest. 

Knowledge  of  mental  processes  is  in- 
sisted upon  as  heretofore;  but  insight  into 
the  quantitative  conditions  of  social  life 
is  also  aimed  at  through  the  study  of 
arithmetic.  The  old  style  of  problems 
began  usually  with  "*/,"  being  supposed 
cases,  and  the  pupil  was  scolded  if  he 
worked  for  the  answer.  We  are  now 
slowly  reaching  the  point  where  problems 
are  selected  for  children  whose  answers  are 
of  real  interest  and,  therefore,  worth  work- 
ing for;  then  the  children  are  expected  to 
work  for  the  answer,  just  as  adults  always 
have  worked  for  them.  It  is  the  modern 
doctrine  of  interest  (see  INTEREST)  that  has 
been  greatly  influencing  teachers  here. 
The  increased  interest  in  the  problem  in- 
creases the  pupils'  concentration  of  atten- 
tion, and  thus  results  in  a  better  knowl- 
edge of  processes  and  more  accurate  work 
in  general.  It  is  very  difficult  for  arith- 
metics to  realize  this  ideal  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, but  recent  text-books  plainly  show 
a  movement  in  this  direction.  In  be- 
ginning arithmetic  many  good  teachers 
make  no  attempt  to  follow  the  Grube'  plan, 
by  teaching  the  four  fundamental  opera- 
tions touching  one  number  before  con- 
sidering the  next  higher  number.  In  fact, 
many  superintendents  now  make  no  at- 
tempt toward  systematic  instruction  in 
arithmetic  to  pupils  during  the  first  year 
of  school.  The  reason  for  this  is  that 
formal  instruction  in  the  subject  accom- 
plishes little  with  pupils  so  young,  and 
they  ordinarily  have  too  much  formal 
instruction  in  other  subjects  the  first  school 
year  anyway. 

Counting  is  one  of  the  first  kinds  of 
work,  such  as  the  counting  of  objects, 
"keeping  score"  in  games,  etc.  Measuring, 
involving  single  facts  in  the  table  of  com- 
pound numbers,  such  as  the  relation  be- 
tween inch  and  foot,  foot  and  yard,  pint 
and  quart,  ounce  and  pound,  etc.,  simple 
fractions,  such  as  J  and  \,  and  the  symbols 
of  +,  — ,  X,  •*-,  may  well  be  taught  the 
first  year  arithmetic  is  studied.  That  is, 
fractions  and  various  other  topics  need 


not  be  delayed  until  a  certain  year  is 
reached;  but  the  pupil  should  take  up 
whatever  facts  his  interests  suggest.  The 
fraction  J  is  just  as  naturally  used  by  a 
six-year-old  child  as  the  combination  2X2. 
In  teaching  addition  teachers  are  not 
limited  to  any  one  device.  In  explaining 
a  process  involving  some  mental  retention 
of  number,  as  in  "carrying,"  it  is  advis- 
able to  use  sticks  in  bundles  of  10,  as  is 
often  done,  and  to  adopt,  also,  such  de- 
vices as 

26  —  20  +    6  26 

39  -3°+   9  39 


50  +  15=65 


IS 

5° 

65 


Such  devices  help  greatly  to  make  the 
steps  clear.  In  general,  the  use  of  splints 
and  other  objects  is  very  helpful  in  ap- 
proaching new  facts.  They  can  well  be 
used  in  the  first  two  years  of  instruction, 
along  with  diagramming  and  other  con- 
crete helps,  and  also  later  in  the  beginning 
study  of  fractions.  But  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  these  are  only  temporary  helps 
and  that  the  pupil  should  soon  be  able  to 
dispense  with  such  concrete  aid.  The  use 
of  the  fingers  in  counting  should  be  dis- 
couraged, because  they  cannot  later  be 
removed  entirely  from  reach  when  not 
wanted.  In  subtraction  the  "making 
change"  method  should  be  used.  For 
example,  if  you  have  10  cents  and  buy  a 
pencil  for  3  cents,  the  child  should  see 
that  you  have  7  cents  left,  because  3  cents 
+  7  cents  =  10  cents.  This  is  the  method 
used  at  any  store,  and  in  business  in  gen- 
eral. The  Austrian  method  of  subtraction 
is  the  one  that  now  is  most  commonly 
favored.  The  example  just  given  follows 
that  method,  one  advantage  being  that  it 
dispenses  with  the  necessity  of  learning 
any  subtraction  table.  An  example  like 
52-27,  might  be  worked  as  follows: 
52  =50  +  2  Add  10  to  each  50  +  12 
27=20  +  7  which  leaves  the  30+7 
difference  the  same  20+  5 

No  number  added  to  7  will  make  2.  But 
5  added  to  7  makes  12.  We  have  now 
increased  52  by  10,  and  we  must  add  10 
to  27,  so  as  not  to  change  the  difference. 
3  (tens)  and  2  (tens)  are  5  (tens).  Hence, 
the  difference  is  25. 

The  details  of  such  presentations  vary 
greatly,  and  a  teacher  should  follow  the 
plan  that  best  satisfies  her. 

In  short  division  it  is  often  advisable  to  use 
the  "long  division"  form,  showing  that  the 
former  is  only  an  abbreviation  of  the 
latter. 

A  text-book  in  arithmetic  is  hardly 
desirable  before  the  third  year  of  school. 


ARITHMETIC 


99 


ARITHMETIC 


At  least  its  earlier  use  tends  strongly  to 
make  the  work  too  formal. 

There  is  little  object  in  carrying  the 
multiplication  table  beyond  10  X  10.  In 
compound  numbers  reduction  "ascending" 
and  "descending"  should  be  confined  to 
numbers  of  not  more  than  three  denomina- 
tions. The  reasons  for  this  are  that  in 
practical  life  we  rarely  use  more  than 
two  denominations,  as  feet  and  inches 
or  pounds  and  ounces;  and  that,  if  one  has 
learned  to  perform  reduction  with  two 
and  three  denominations,  he  can  easily 
perform  those  with  more  if  occasion  re- 
quired. 

Quantitative  facts  are  so  much  more 
often  expressed  decimally  now  than  for- 
merly, that  much  more  attention  to  decimal 
fractions  is  in  place. 

The  addition  and  subtraction  of  decimals 
need  offer  no  difficulties.  In  multiplication 
the  most  approved  forms  are  the  following : 
i.  6.25  EXPLANATION  —  Since  5 

5 .  times    hundredths    are    hun- 

•  dredths,  the  right  hand  num- 

31.25  ber  of  the  product  is  placed 

under  hundredths.  The  rest 
of  the  work  is  identical  with  that  of  in- 
tegers, the  decimal  point  going  under  the 
others. 

EXPLANATION — Since  hun- 
dredths multiplied  by  tenths 
is  thousandths,  the  right- 
hand  figure  of  the  product 
goes  in  the  thousandths  place. 
EXPLANATION — Since  hun- 
dredths multiplied  by  hun- 
dredths are  ten-thousandths, 
the  right-hand  figure  of  the 
product  goes  in  the  ten- 
thousandths  place. 


125° 
1-5625 


Operations  with  decimals  should  be 
limited  to  fractions  having  not  over  three 
places,  and  answers  need  not  be  carried 
beyond  three  places. 

Division  of  decimals  should  be  taught  as 
suggested  in  the  following  Austrian  method : 

Required  to  divide  6.275  by  2.5 — 

OLD   METHOD 

'     -I  .    "  Point  off  as  many  places 

— —  in  the  quotient  as  the  num- 

ber of  decimal  places  in  the 
dividend  exceeds  that  in 
the  divisor." 


COMMON   AUSTRIAN   METHOD 


Dividend  and  divisor  having 
been  multiplied  by  such  a  power 
of  10  as  makes  the  divisor  a 
whole  number,  the  decimal 
point  in  the  quotient  simply 
goes  above  that  in  the  dividend. 


The   following  method   is   recommended 
for  the  early  work: 

2-51 

25)^2.75 

5° 


The  entire  remainder  is  brought  down 
each  time,  and  the  decimal  point  is  pre- 
terved  throughout. 

In  more  advanced  arithmetic,  including 
the  last  two  or  three  years  of  the  elemen- 
tary school,  the  value  of  the  work  must 
lie  largely  in  the  character  of  the  problems, 
as  previously  suggested.  By  the  time  a 
child  has  reached  the  sixth  year  of  school, 
he  has  usually  acquainted  himself  with  the 
various  arithmetical  processes,  and  he  is 
now  ready  for  their  various  applications  to 
actual  conditions  in  life.  Correlation  with 
geography,  manual  training  and  other 
studies  is,  therefore,  of  much  importance. 

Percentage,  formerly  a  topic  by  itself,  is 
merely  one  phase  of  decimal  fractions,  and 
should  be  so  treated.  A  large  part  of 
business  arithmetic  involves  the  finding  of 
per  cents,  so  that  the  method  is  continually 
applied  after  it  is  once  presented.  The 
treatment  of  the  subject  by  "cases,"  and 
the  learning  of  definitions  of  terms  like 
"amount,"  "difference"  or  even  "per- 
centage" may  be  considered  obsolete. 
There  is  need  to  know  what  "per  cent." 
means,  namely  "hundredths"  ("hundredth" 
or  "of  a  hundredth,"  as  in  6%,  i%,  $%), 
and  there  is  occasionally  some  value  in 
using  the  term  "base."  But  the  two  lead- 
ing problems  of  the  subject  are  illustrated 
by  two  examples  not  requiring  any  elab- 
orate vocabulary,  namely: 

1.  6%  of  $250  is  how  much? 

2.  If  104%  of  x    -   $7.28,  what  does  x 
equal? 

Practical  problems  in  percentage  rarely 
require  any  other  forms. 

The  explanation  of  problems  should  con- 
sist of  no  carefully  learned  formula,  but 
should  be  nothing  more  than  an  explana- 
tion of  the  steps  involved,  with  the  reasons. 
Some  use  of  the  equation,  with  x  to  repre- 
sent the  unknown  quantity,  is  fully  in  place. 

In  general  in  the  study  of  arithmetic 
pupils  are  tempted  to  "figure"  too  much, 
and  to  allow  the  formal  side  to  dominate 
the  "thinking"  side.  To  overcome  this 
difficulty  it  is  well  to  have  much  oral  work 
in  the  solution  of  problems,  without  any 
figuring.  To  emphasize  the  thought  side  of 
arithmetic  properly,  children  (i)  should 
often  read  a  problem  a  second  or  third 
time  carefully,  to  get  the  exact  conditions; 
(2)  should  then  restate  the  problem  in  their 
own  words,  to  make  fully  sure  that  they 
understand  its  condition!  (3)  should  state 


ARIZONA 


ZOO 


ARKANSAS 


the  number  of  steps  required  for  the  solu- 
tion and  show  the  character  of  each;  (4) 
should  then  give  the  approximate  answer. 
Figuring  for  the  correct  answer  should 
often  follow;  but  frequently  this  fifth  piece 
of  work  should  be  omitted. 

It  is  hardly  wise  to  allow  children  to 
study  their  arithmetic  and  receive  help 
upon  it  at  home.  The  reason  for  this 
statement  is  that  parents  and  other  home 
friends  usually  have  different  ways  of 
solving  problems  from  those  employed  at 
school.  Sometimes  these  home  methods  are 
worse,  sometimes  better,  than  those  used 
at  school.  But  they  are  almost  bound  to 
be  a  source  of  confusion.  It  is  generally 
best,  if  home  help  seems  necessary,  for  the 
helper  to  try  to  understand  and  follow  the 
school  method. 

Reference  books:  Mathematics  in  the 
Elementary  School]  Teachers  College  Record, 
Columbia  University;  Teaching  of  Ele- 
mentary Mathematics,  D.  E.  Smith;  Special 
Method  in  Elementary  Arithmetic,  C.  A. 
McMurry;  The  Psychology  of  Number,  Mc- 
Lellan  and  Dewey. 

F.  M.  McMuRRY. 

Arizo'na,  a  southwestern  state  of  the 
United  States,  is  as  large  as  Italy  or  New 
York  and  New  England  combined;  area, 
112,920  square  miles.  It  is  made  up  of 
great  plains,  mountains  and  canons.  The 
highest  peak  is  Mt.  San  Francisco,  12,561 
feet.  The  Colorado  River,  1,100  miles  long, 
runs  through  the  mightiest  series  of  chasms 
in  the  world,  with  walls  of  marble  and 
granite  1,000  to  6,500  feet  high.  Where  it 
is  highest  it  is  called  the  Grand  Canon. 
The  Gila  River  is  650  miles  long,  and  with 
its  tributaries  entirely  crosses  the  southern 
portion  of  the  territory. 

Climate.  There  is  a  difference  of  both 
temperature  and  rainfall  between  the 
northern  and  southern  sections,  owing  to 
their  altitudes.  Although  the  sandy  region 
around  Yuma  is  the  hottest  district  north  of 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  the  dry  atmosphere 
keeps  the  summer's  heat  from  being  very 
oppressive  and  makes  the  winter  climate 
delightful. 

Minerals.  Arizona  is  rich  in  minerals, 
and  mining  is  the  chief  business.  Jerome 
is  a  very  active  mining  town  in  the  copper 
region;  there  has  also  been  considerable 
development  of  gold  mines.  Coal,  mica, 
nickel  ores,  wolframite,  from  which  tung- 
sten is  made,  limestone,  marble,  granite, 
sandstone,  vanadium,  turquoise  and  garnet 
occur. 

In  Navajo  County  is  a  wonderful  chal- 
cedony forest.  The  cracked  trunks  of  this 
petrified  wood  are  sometimes  four  feet 
thick,  and  show  the  most  exquisite  colors. 
This  forest  is  now  a  part  of  the  national 
park  system  of  the  United  States. 

Forests.  The  mountain  areas  of  Arizona 
are  covered  with  forests  of  pine,  cedar  and 


other  timber,  while  the  cottonwood  follows 
every  stream.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  San 
Francisco  Mountains  the  Vimber  industry 
is  quite  important,  but  in  this  and  other 
sections  the  government  has  set  aside  vast 
timber  tracts. 

Agriculture.  Because  of  lack  of  water, 
agricultural  development  has  been  greatly 
retarded.  The  valleys  are  remarkably  fer- 
tile, and  much  is  expected  from  the  arid 
sections  with  the  construction  of  the  gov- 
ernment reservoirs  and  extension  of  irrigated 
areas.  The  products  at  present  embrace 
wheat,  barley,  alfalfa,  apricots,  oranges, 
olives,  etc.  Experiments  are  being  con- 
ducted in  the  cultivation  of  Egyptian  cotton 
and  dates,  thus  utilizing  the  arid  lands  of 
the  south. 

Manufactures.  Little  as  yet  is  being  done 
in  this  line,  but  the  chief  manufacturing 
interests  are  mining,  smelting,  lumber  and 
the  car  shop  works. 

Education.  The  public  school  system  is 
good,  and  education  is  compulsory.  Illiter- 
acy is  high  owing  to  the  Mexican,  Indian, 
Chinese  and  Japanese  inhabitants.  There 
are  private  and  sectarian  schools,  a  state 
university  at  Tucson,  normal  schools  at 
Tempe  and  Flagstaff,  high  schools  at  Phoenix, 
Prescott  and  Mesa,  and  the  government 
maintains  several  Indian  schools.  The 
state  maintains  an  asylum  for  the  insane 
near  Phoenix,  and  an  industrial  school  at 
Benson. 

Government  and  History.  The  capital  is 
Phoenix  (population  11,134).  Tucson, 
Jerome  and  Prescott  are  other  large  towns. 
An  Italian  friar  and  a  freed  African  slave 
were  the  modern  discoverers  of  Arizona, 
going  there  from  Mexico  in  1539  as  mis- 
sionaries. They  found  traces  of  a  great 
and  populous  race,  that  had  once  lived 
there,  either  of  the  Pueblo  or  Aztec  stock. 
The  Jesuits  followed  these  discoverers,  but 
all  their  work  was  swept  away  by  the 
Apache  forays  in  1828.  That  part  of  the 
state  north  of  the  Gila  River  was  ceded 
to  the  United  States  by  Mexico  in  1848 
and  the  remainder  in  1853  by  the  Gadsden 
purchase.  Arizona  was  organized  as  a  terri- 
tory in  1863,  having  previously  been  part 
of  New  Mexico.  With  its  admission  as  a 
state,  Feb.  14,  1912,  the  last  territory 
passed,  and  continental  America  became 
wholly  a  union  of  states.  Population, 
259,666. 

Arkansas  (dr'kdnsa'),  a  state  which  takes 
its  name  from  the  Arkansas  Indians.  By 
act  of  the  legislature  some  years  ago  it  was 
declared  that  the  correct  pronunciation  of 
the  word  is  Ar'kansa/  It  has  the  Missis- 
sippi River  on  the  east,  Missouri  on  the 
north,  Oklahoma  on  the  west  and  Louisiana 
on  the  south.  The  state  is  larger  than 
New  York:  area  53,845  square  miles. 

Surface.  The  surface  of  Arkansas  varies 
in  elevation  from  the  lowlands  of  the  Mis- 


ARKANSAS 


101 


ARKANSAS 


sissippi  Valley  in  the  east,  only  a  few 
feet  above  the  sea  level,  to  the  Ozark 
Mountains  in  the  northwest,  appreaching 
an  elevation  of  2,000  feet.  Extending  from 
Helena  in  the  southeast  due  north  to  the 
northern  limit  of  the  state  is  an  elevation 
known  as  Crowley's  Ridge,  varying  in 
width  from  one  to  fourteen  miles  and 
having  an  average  elevation  of  400  feet. 
On  this  ridge  are  situated  most  of  the  im- 

Sjrtant  towns  in  eastern  Arkansas.  Mt. 
agazine  is  the  highest  point  in  the  state, 
reaching  an  elevation  of  over  3,000  feet. 
The  central  part  of  the  state  is  level  or 
rolling,  much  of  it  being  extensive  prairies. 

Rivers  and  Lakes.  The  Arkansas,  White, 
St.  Francis,  Ouachita  and  Red  Rivers  are 
the  principal  streams.  In  the  higher  regions 
they  are  swift  and  afford  excellent  water- 
power  for  milling  interests.  There  are  many 
lakes  in  the  state,  and  these,  together  with 
the  rivers,  abound  in  various  kinds  of  game 
fish. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  Arkansas  is 
equable,  though  in  the  mountainous  re- 
gions the  winters  are  somewhat  rigorous. 
Snow  rarely  falls  south  of  the  Ozark  Mount- 
ains. The  mean  annual  temperature  is  about 
63°  F.  The  yearly  rainfall  is  about  42 
inches.  In  the  river  bottoms  malarial 
influences  render  the  climate  somewhat 
unhealthful,  but  aside  from  this  the  climate 
is  remarkably  salubrious.  Some  of  the 
finest  springs  in  the  Union  may  be  found 
within  its  borders,  notably,  the  famous 
Hot  Springs  where  there  are  annually 
more  than  50,000  visitors,  Potash  Sulphur 
Springs,  White  Sulphur  Springs,  Eureka 
Springs  and  Mammoth  Spring,  whose 
waters  form  a  large  lake  and  furnish  water- 
power  for  several  mills. 

Natural  Resources.  The  forests  of  Ar- 
kansas cover  large  areas,  and  furnish  vast 
supplies  of  pine,  cypress  and  hardwood 
of  many  varieties.  In  the  northwest  part 
of  the  state  are  vast  beds  of  coal  of  the  best 
quality.  The  zinc  mines  of  the  north  are 
attracting  the  attention  of  capitalists,  and 
the  ore,  found  in  large  quantities,  is  of  a 
very  high  grade.  Bauxite  is  found  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  state  and  large  quan- 
tities are  exported.  Valuable  deposits 
of  manganese  are  to  be  found  in  several 
counties.  Vast  beds  of  the  finest  quality 
of  slate  are  located  in  the  western  part  of 
the  state.  A  very  high  grade  of  clay, 
suitable  for  pottery  and  tiling,  is  widely 
distributed  in  the  southwest.  Iron,  an- 
timony, novacuVite  and  other  minerals  are 
to  be  found.  The  quarries  furnish  prac- 
tically inexhaustible  supplies  of  marble 
and  building  stones  A  superior  quality 
of  onyx  is  found  in  Carroll  County. 

Industries.  As  an  agricultural  and  hor- 
ticultural state  Arkansas  takes  high  rank. 
The  fertile  river-bottoms  yield  immense 
crops  of  cotton  and  corn.  In  1909,  718,117 


bales  of  cotton  and  50,400,000  bushels  of 
corn  were  raised.  Wheat,  oats,  barley 
and  other  cereals  are  grown.  Alfalfa  is 
produced  in  large  quantities  in  many  locali- 
ties. Fruit-growing  is  becoming  an  im- 
portant industry.  The  shipment  of  straw- 
berries from  Crawford  County  will  average 
in  value  $250,000,  and  the  apple  crop  of 
Washington  County  at  $2,000,000.  The 
vast  acreage  of  peaches,  some  orchards 
containing  over  three  hundred  acres,  adds 
much  to  the  wealth  of  the  state.  The 
shipment  of  potatoes  also  reaches  large 
proportions.  A  few  years  ago  the  United 
States  government  began  experiments  in 
the  culture  of  rice  on  the  prairies  east  of 
Little  Rock.  The  success  of  the  effort  has 
been  marked.  The  land  is  irrigated  from 
pumps  sunk  to  a  depth  of  less  than  200 
feet,  where  abundant  water-supply  is  found. 
The  yield  of  rice  averages  about  forty 
bushels  to  the  acre,  and  the  acreage  has 
been  very  largely  increased.  The  exten- 
sive prairies  furnish  excellent  facilities  for 
raising  cattle,  sheep  and  horses  at  mod- 
erate cost,  and  these  are  exported  in  large 
numbers. 

Manufactures.  The  manufacturing  in- 
terests of  the  state  are  being  steadily  de- 
veloped. Some  of  the  largest  lumber  mills 
in  the  south  are  located  in  this  state,  and 
the  export  of  lumber  is  large.  The  largest 
oar  factory  in  the  world  is  located  at  De- 
valls  Bluff,  while  another  of  much  import- 
ance may  be  found  at  Clarendon.  Immense 
stave  and  hub  factories  may  be  found  in 
the  northeastern  part  of  the  state,  and 
the  manufacture  of  sash,  doors,  blinds  and 
furniture  is  carried  on  in  many  places. 
Mining  forms  an  important  industry  in  the 
western  part  of  the  state,  covering  an  area 
of  2,000  square  miles.  The  output  of  coal 
in  the  year  1909,  was  2,122,462  tons,  which 
was  the  lowest  in  five  years,  owing  to  fail- 
ure to  operate  the  mines  for  several  weeks 
on  account  of  local  troubles.  Hot  Springs 
has  the  unique  distinction  of  having  an 
ostrich  farm  where  over  one  hundred  and 
fifty  birds  are  kept,  and  the  number  is 
being  steadily  increased;  also  an  alligator 
farm  where  hundreds  of  these  saurians 
varying  in  size  from  a  few  inches  in  length 
to  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  are  found.  The 
sale  of  ostrich  plumes  and  of  alligator  hides 
produces  considerable  revenue  for  the 
promoters  of  these  interests.  The  leading 
cities  of  Arkansas  are  Little  Rock,  Fort 
Smith,  Pine  Bluff,  Hot  Springs,  Texarkana 
and  Jonesborc.  The  state  charitable  in- 
stitutions are  located  at  the  capital. 

Railroads.  The  Iron  Mountain,  Frisco, 
Kansas  City  Southern,  Cotton  Belt  and 
Rock  Island  have  trunk  lines  crossing  the 
state,  while  many  tributary  lines  afford 
easy  means  of  access  to  all  parts  of  the  state. 

Education.  Since  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution  of  1874,  education  has  been 


ARKANSAS  CITY 


102 


ARKWRIGHT 


steadily  advancing.  The  state  university, 
located  a*,  Fayetteville,  has  an  enrollment 
of  1,000  students.  The  law  and  medical 
schools,  under  the  control  of  this  institution, 
are  located  in  Little  Rock,  and  each  enrolls 
about  three  hundred  students.  The  Branch 
normal  school  for  negroes  is  located  at 
Pine  Bluff.  The  leading  denominational 
schools  are  Henderson  College  (Methodist) 
and  Ouachita  College  (Baptist),  located 
at  Arkadelphia;  Searcy  Female  Institute 
and  Galloway  College  (Methodist),  located 
at  Searcy;  Hendrix  College  (Methodist) 
and  Central  College  (Baptist),  located  at 
Conway;  Arkansas  College  (Presbyterian), 
located  at  Batesville.  The  Arkansas  Mili- 
tary Academy  is  located  at  Little  Rock. 
Besides  these  there  are  about  eighty  private 
academies  and  high  schools.  All  these 
institutions  enjoy  a  liberal  patronage. 
There  are  separate  schools  for  the  white 
and  black  races,  but  the  laws  contemplate 
that  there  shall  be  no  difference  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  educational  facilities  offered. 
In  the  negro  districts  the  colored  race  is 
represented  on  the  school  boards,  and  the 
attendance  is  as  regular  as  that  of  the  white 
schools.  Twenty-five  per  cent  of  local  school 
expenses  are  borne  by  the  state  and  there  is  a 
permanent  school  fund  derived  from  the  Hand 
grants  made  to  the  state  by  the  national 
government. 

History.  Possibly  the  earliest  settle- 
ment in  the  state  was  made  in  1686,  at 
Arkansas  Post  by  the  French.  By  the 
purchase  of  the  Louisiana  Territory  in  1803, 
the  United  States  acquired  its  title  to  the 
territory,  though  it  was  not  till  1824  that 
the  Indian  <  claims  were  finally  adjusted. 
Arkansas  became  a  territory  in  1819  and  a 
state  in  1836.  It  withdrew  from  the  Union 
in  1861,  and  was  not  readmitted  till  1868. 
During  the  "Carpet  Bag"  administration 
the  state  suffered  much,  but  since  the 
Brooks  and  Baxter  War,  occasioned  by 
rival  claims  to  the  office  of  governor,  and 
adoption  of  the  present  constitution  in 
1874,  the  progress  of  the  state  has  been 
marked.  Population  1,753,033. 

Arkansas  City,  a  city  in  Cowley  County, 
Southern  Kansas,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Walnut  River  with  the  Arkansas..  A 
canal  uniting  these  two  streams  furnishes 
the  city  with  water-power  for  manufacturing 
purposes.  Settled  in  1870,  the  city  was 
incorporated  in  the  following  year.  Its 
trade  consists  largely  of  agricultural  im- 
plements, windmills,  wire  and  mattress 
factories,  flour,  oil,  lumber  mills,  etc.  The 
purchasers  include  the  Indian  posts  and 
agencies  in  Oklahoma.  The  U.  S.  Indian 
school  is  located  near  here,  besides  high 
and  primary  schools  for  whites.  It  is  also 
well  furnished  with  other  public  buildings, 
theaters  and  opera  houses.  Its  trade  is 
served  by  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa 
Fe,  the  Missouri  Pacific,  the  St.  Louis  & 


SIR  RICHARD  ARKWRIGHT 


&  San  Francisco  Railways.  Population 
9,000. 

Arkansas  (ar'kan-saw),  a  river  of  the 
United  States  and,  next  to  the  Missouri, 
the  longest  tributary  of  the  Mississippi 
It  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  lias 
a  length  of  over  2,000  miles.  After  break- 
ing through  the  Colorado  canons,  it  flows 
through  Kansas,  Oklahoma  and  Indian 
Territory,  and  cuts  Arkansas  into  nearly 
equal  parts.  It  is  navigable  to  Fort  Smith 
and,  in  high  water,  to  Fort  Gibson,  463 
miles. 

Arkwright,  Sir 
Richard.  On  a 
stormy  night  in 
the  year  1765,  « 
foot- traveler 
knocked  at.  the 
door  of  a  thatch- 
ed cottage  in  the 
village  of  Stan- 
hill,  Lancashire. 
(England,  and 
asked  for  shelter 
from  the  weatn- 
'er.  The  light  of 
a  candle  and  the 
whirring  of  a 
wheel  guided  him 
to  that  dwelling 

rather  than  to  any  other  of  the  group.  A 
cotton- spinner  was  there  lengthening  his 
day  of  toil,  while  his  neighbors  slept.  At 
the  knock  the  candle  was  blown  out  and  the 
noise  stopped.  After  a  moment  a  voice 
asked: 

"Who  knocks?" 
"Dick  Arkwright." 
"A  spinner?" 

"No,  a  barber  and  hair  buyer  from  Bol- 
ton.  I  can  pay  for  a  lodging  for  the  night." 
When  the  stranger  was  admitted  and 
the  candle  had  been  relighted,  there  was 
disclosed  a  strange  spinning-wheel  with 
eight  spindles.  The  host  was  James  Har- 
greaves,  and  this  was  his  newly  invented 
spinning  jenny  which  he  used  secretly  be- 
cause his  ignorant  neighbors,  fearing  such 
a  machine  would  make  work  scarce,  had 
destroyed  his  first  model.  In  the  itinerant 
barber  he  feared  no  rival,  and  he  founa  a 
sympathetic  listener.  From  this  chance 
encounter  of  two  poor,  unlettered  laborers 
resulted  inventions  that  made  England  the 
greatest  cotton-manufacturing  country  in 
the  world,  and  revolutionized  the  methods 
of  the  industry 

Richard  Arkwright  was  at  that  tima 
thirty-three  years  old.  He  was  bom  in 
Preston,  a  seaport  town  north  of  Liverpool, 
in  1732,  the  youngest  of  thirteen  children 
of  a  poor  laborer.  At  the  age  of  ten  he 
was  apprenticed  to  a  barber  in  Bolton. 
and  for  twenty  years  his  life  was  passed 
in  a  cellar  shop,  shaving  workingmen  at  a 
penny  a  shave.  It  is  doubtful  it  he  could 


ARLINGTON,  MASS. 


103 


ARMADA,  SPANISH 


read  and  write,  "nevertheless,"  as  Thomas 
Carlyle  says  of  him,  "the  man  had  notions 
in  his  own  rough  head."  His  discovery 
of  a  method  of  preparing  and  dyeing  hair 
for  the  wig-maker,  lifted  him  out  ©f  the 
cellar-shop  and  into  the  highway.  Hair- 
buying  took  him  among  the  poorest  work- 
men in  the  cotton  spinning  district.  As  he 
went  from  hamlet  to  hamlet  he  heard  talk 
of  the  need  for  a  better  and  more  rapid 
method  of  spinning.  The  yarn  was  not 
only  insufficient  in  quantity  but  was  so 
poor  in  quality  that  flax  had  to  be  used 
for  warp.  The  all-cotton  fabrics  had  to  be 
imported  from  India,  and  were  very  ex- 
pensive. Arkwright  saw  that  Hargreave's 
jenny  could  spin  eight  threads  at  once,  but 
that  the  yarn  was  still  inferior. 

He  had  once  been  through  a  rolling  mill 
and  seen  iron  bars  lengthened  and  strength- 
ened by  being  forced  through  rolls.  Why 
not  apply  the  process  to  cotton?  He  had  a 
little  money  laid  by,  but  he  had  no  knowl- 
edge of  mechanics.  So  he  employed  a 
clock-maker  to  construct  his  machine 
The  first  part  of  it  consisted  of  two  sets  of 
rolls  turning  on  each  other  like  those  of  a 
clothes  wringer.  One  roll  of  each  pair  was 
of  steel,  finely  ground,  the  other  was  cov- 
ered with  leather.  The  filaments  of  the 
cotton  plant  were  drawn  through  the 
grooves,  spun  and  compressed.  Spindles 
then  took  the  yarn  and  stretched  and 
twisted  it.  Fearing  the  spinning  frame  he 
had  invented  might  be  destroyed,  he  took 
it  to  Nottingham  and  began  to  use  his 
yarn  in  hosiery  mills.  He  obtained  his 
first  patent  the  same  year,  1769,  that  Watt 
secured  his  on  the  separate  condenser 
stationary  engine.  And  Arkwright  was 
one  of  the  first  to  operate  a  factory  by 
steam  power.  He  made  the  first  all-cotton 
fabrics  produced  in  England.  His  wonder- 
ful invention  inspired  the  jealousy  of  rivals, 
his  patents  were  attacked  and  declared 
void,  and  he  was  compelled  to  pay  duty 
by  having  his  goods  classed  as  East  Indian 
calicoes.  His  spinning  frame  was  copied 
with  impunity.  However,  they  "couldn't 
copy  his  mind."  In  1775,  Arkwright  took 
out  new  patents  on  machines  for  equipping 
an  entire  textile  factory.  It  is  said  that 
no  other  patent  ever  issued  was  so  com- 
prehensive, and  covered  so  many  distinct 
mechanical  inventions,  all  necessary  to  the 
processes  of  one  industry.  It  covered 
every  stage  of  manufacture  from  the  raw 
fibre  to  the  finished  fabric  ready  for  the 
merchants'  shelves,  and  provided  for  various 
weaves  and  mixtures  of  cotton  with  wool, 
silk  and  flax. 

Many  biographers  have  scant  apprecia- 
tion of  the  man,  while  admitting  his  genius 
and  the  value  of  his  inventions.  He  won  a 
fortune  and  a  knighthood,  and  he  educated 
himself  to  fit  his  new  station  in  life,  em- 
ploying private  tutors  and  giving  an  hour 


each  day  to  study  after  he  was  fifty  years 
old.  His  force  of  character  and  executive 
ability  are  shown  in  his  organizing  the 
factory  system.  Before  Arkwright's  time 
spinning  was  a  cottage  industry,  and  much 
of  the  weaving  was  also  done  in  private 
houses.  The  workmen  labored  irregularly, 
and  the  product  was  far  from  uniform  in 
quality.  Arkwright  brought  his  workmen 
under  a  factory  roof,  compelled  cleanliness, 
order  and  regularity  of  hours,  and  estab- 
lished standards  in  quality  and  quantity 
of  fabrics  produced.  His  cotton  factory 
at  Crawford  became  the  model  system 
which  other  plants  that  were  to  prosper 
had  to  adopt.  He  put  into  practice  the 
principles  of  industrial  economy  that  Adam 
Smith  taught — the  saving  accomplished  by 
organized,  disciplined  division  of  labor. 

Aside  from  London,  the  county  of  Lan- 
cashire is  to-day  the  most  populous  and 
prosperous  part  of  England.  When  Ark- 
wright patented  his  invention,  the  county 
had  only  600,000  people.  To-day  Liver- 
pool, the  greatest  cotton  market  in  the 
world,  has  a  greater  population;  and  Man- 
chester, the  largest  cotton  manufacturing 
city,  has  nearly  as  many.  Tne  county  has 
a  population  of  nearly  7,000,000.  For  a 
century  and  a  quarter  Lancashire  has 
grown  and  thriven  chiefly  on  Arkwright's 
inventions,  and  there  are  few  people  on 
the  globe  who  have  not  profited  by  them 
It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  the 
inventor  was  not  disinterested.  He  never 
sacrificed  his  own  interests  or  did  anything 
by  intention  to  endear  himself  to  an  ad- 
miring and  grateful  world.  See  Heroes  of 
Science,  by  T.  C.  Lewis,  M.A. 

Arlington,  Mass.,  an  attractive  residen- 
tial town  in  Middlesex  County,  situated 
on  the  Boston  &  Maine  R.  R.,  about  seven 
miles  northwest  of  Boston  and  connected 
with  it  by  an  electric  railway.  It  has 
numerous  fine  buildings,  including  a  well- 
equipped  public  library.  Its  chief  in- 
dustries besides  market  gardening,  are  ice- 
cutting  and  ice-tool  manufacturing.  Set- 
tled about  the  year  1650,  it  received  its 
present  name  in  1867.  See  Cutter's  His- 
tory of  the  Town  of  Arlington.  The  population 
of  Arlington  is  12,811. 

Arma'da,  Spanish,  the  great  expedi- 
tion sent  out  against  England  in  1588  by 
Philip  of  Spain.  England  was  at  this 
time  the  bulwark  of  the  Protestant  faith, 
and  for  this  reason  Philip,  who  was  the 
great  Catholic  champion,  desired  to  crush 
her.  For  many  months  the  Spanish  nation 
used  all  its  energies  in  gathering  a  mighty 
force,  and  in  July,  1588,  the  fleet,  of  150 
vessels,  carrying  over  19,000  soldiers  and 
8,460  sailors,  besides  slaves  as  rowers,  and. 
armed  with  2,431  cannon,  set  sail  from 
Spain,  under  command  of  the  Duke  of 
Medina-Sidonia.  His  project  was  to  sail 
through  the  Channel  and  pick  up  at  Flanders 


ARMADILLO 


104 


ARMINIUS 


the  Duke  of  Parma,  who  was  lying  there 
with  35,000  men.  Forces  were  then  to 
be  landed  on  a  different  part  of  the  English 
coast,  while  the  Armada  kept  the  Channel 
clear. 

Meanwhile,  the  English  had  not  been 
idle.  Drake,  by  a  bold  dash  at  the  Spanish 
fleet  in  the  port  of  Cadiz,  had  delayed  the 
attack,  and  when  the  news  came  that  the 
great  fleet  was  about  to  sail,  forces  gathered 
around  the  Earl  of  Leicester  to  oppose  the 
landing  of  Parma,  while  the  best  mariners 
of  the  age,  Drake,  Hawkins,  Frobisher 
and  others  gathered  around  the  English 
Admiral  Howard.  They  took  their  station 
at  Plymouth,  and,  as  the  Spanish  fleet 
sailed  up  the  Channel,  in  the  form  of  a 
crescent,  seven  miles  long,  the  English 
took  their  place  to  windward.  The  next 
day  the  Spaniards  attacked,  but  the  English 
ships  were  managed  with  such  skill  that  no 
harm  could  be  inflicted.  Dismayed  at 
their  failure,  they  stood  off  up  the  Channel, 
pursued  and  harassed  by  the  English, 
and  cast  anchor  at  Calais.  From  here  they 
were  driven  by  means  of  fireships  put  into 
the  open  sea,  a  large  number  of  ships  were 
destroyed  and  almost  the  whole  fleet  was 
forced  on  the  coast  of  Flanders.  The 
hopes  of  the  Spaniards  were  now  broken, 
and  they  resolved  to  give  up  the  expedi- 
tion. Rather  than  go  back  through  the 
vigilantly  guarded  lines  of  their  persistent 
enemies,  they  set  out  on  the  perilous 
voyage  by  the  North  Sea;  but  the  fierce 
northern  gales  scattered  the  fleet  and  drove 
them  on  the  coast  of  Ireland  and  Scotland, 
where  those  escaping  from  the  wreck  were 
killed  by  the  natives.  Of  the  vast  Armada 
only  a  shattered  remnant  of  fifty-four  ves- 
sels, with  about  ten  thousand  men,  reached 
Spain. 

Armadil'lo,  a  curious  animal  of  burrow- 
ing habits,  living  in  Mexico,  Central  and 
South  America.  It  sometimes  crosses  the 
Mexican  border  into  southern  Texas.  It 
is  covered  by  an  armor  of  bony  plates, 
which  are  so  jointed,  that  when  annoyed 

the  animal  can 
roll  itself  into 
a  ball  for  pro- 
tection. Not- 
withstanding 
its  short  legs, 
it  is  said  to  be 
able  to  outrun 
YELLOW-FOOTED  ARMADILLO  a  man,  and 

can  bury  itself  in  an  incredibly  short  time 
by  the  use  of  its  long,  powerful  claws.  It 
is  about  thirty  inches  m  length;  in  color, 
brownish -black  marked  with  yellow,  and 
underne...,h  a  yellowish- white.  It  is  an 
habitual  digger,  makes  its  burrows  in  the 
dry  soil  of  arid  regions,  comes  forth  chiefly 
at  night.  It  feeds  on  insects,  worms,  roots, 
fruit  and  sometimes  carrion.  In  the  woods 
and  pampas  large  numbers  are  found. 


Armature,  pieces  of  soft  iron  or  other 
magnetizable  substance  placed  as  the 
"Keepers"  at  the  extremities  of  poles  of 
magnets  to  preserve  their  magnetic  power, 
by  completing  the  magnetic  circuit  through 
the  two  poles  when  the  electric  current  is 
sent  through  their  coils.  The  armature 
in  a  dynamo  is  the  coil  of  wire  in  which  the 
current  is  generated. 

Arme'nia,  formerly  a  large  country  of 
western  Asia,  is  now  divided  between  Tur- 
key, Russia  and  Persia.  Its  boundaries 
have  been  changed  much,  but  in  general 
it  extends  north  and  south  from  the  Cau- 
casus to  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan  and 
east  and  west  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to 
Asia  Minor.  From  very  early  times  a 
distinction  was  made  between  Greater 
Armenia,  east  of  the  Euphrates,  and  Lesser 
Armenia,  lying  to  the  west.  Greater  Ar- 
menia is  usually  meant  when  speaking  of 
Armenia.  It  is  mostly  a  high  tableland, 
7,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Mt. 
Ararat  is  the  only  lofty  peak.  Its  main 
rivers  are  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates. 
The  country  is  naturally  fertile;  but  now 
much  of  it  is  uncultivated.  During  its 
prosperity  it  had  many  flourishing  towns, 
and  its  capital  for  centuries  was  Armavir. 
The  Armenians  became  free  from  Macedonia 
in  317  B.  C.  Before  that  nothing  really 
certain  is  known  of  their  history,  though 
it  has  recently  been  asserted  that  the  Hittites 
were  their  ancestors.  Since  then,  though  at 
times  ruled  by  their  own  kings,  the  greatest 
of  whom  were  Valarsaces,  a  brother  of  the 
Parthian  Mithradates  the  Great,  and  Tig- 
ranes  II,  their  history  is  in  the  main  one  of 
conquest.  Syria,  Mark  Antony,  Persia,  the 
Greek  empire,  the  Mohammedans,  the  Mame- 
lukes, the  Kurds,  the  Turks,  Timour  the 
Great  and  the  Russians  have  at  different 
times  conquered  Armenia  in  whole  or  in 
part.  The  Armenians,  once  a  warlike  people, 
are  now  noted  for  their  peaceful  character. 
The  area  of  modern  Armenia  and  Kurdistan 
is  71,990  square  miles,  with  a  population 
estimated  at  nearly  two  and  one  half 
millions.  Chief  town,  Erzerum,  popula- 
tion, 80,000. 

Armin'ius,  prince  of  the  Cherusci,  a 
German  tribe,  was  born  about  18  B.  C., 
and  died  by  assassination  in  21  A.  D.  When 
a  boy  le  became  a  Roman  citizen  and 
served  c*s  a  soldier  in  the  Roman  army. 
Coming  home,  he  found  the  whole  country 
stirred  up  by  the  cruelties  of  Varus,  the 
Roman  governor,  and  became  the  head  of 
a  conspiracy.  He  induced  the  Roman 
general  to  scatter  his  troops  in  small  de- 
tachments, saying  that  it  would  keep 
better  order  among  the  Germans.  News 
of  the  conspiracy  caused  yams  to  march 
into  the  interior.  Arminius  struck  the 
match,  the  scattered  Roman  troops  were 
murdered,  and  the  main  body  was  surround- 
ed. They  fought  their  way  for  three  days,  till 


ARMOR 


105 


ARMOR-PLATE 


they  were  killed  almost  to  a  man,  Varus 
taking  his  own  life.  Rome  was  filled  with 
shame.  The  Emperor  Augustus  kept  cry- 
ing for  days:  "Varus,  give  me  back  my 
legions!"  Germanicus  marched  against  the 
Cherusci,  but  accomplished  nothing.  The 
next  year  he  marched  again  with  80,000 
men  and  a  fleet;  Arminius  artfully  led  him 
into  narrow  passes,  then,  falling  upon  him, 
cut  off  his  cavalry,  almost  destroyed  four 
legions  and  forced  him  to  retreat.  The 
next  year  the  undaunted  Germanicus  came 
with  100,000  men  and  1,000  ships.  On  a 
plain  called  No-man's  Meadow  a  great 
battle  was  fought.  The  Germans  were 
beaten,  but  the  next  morning  they  fought 
again  and  compelled  the  Romans  to  re- 
treat. No  Roman  army  ever  again  marched 


beyond  the  Rhine,  and  Arminius  is  there- 


fore justly  called  the  German  Liberator. 

Ar'mor,  a  protection  once  used  for  the 
warior  in  battle.  Armor  of  some  sort 
was  used  by  almost  every  nation  from  the 
earliest  times  until  the  gradual  improve- 
ment in  firearms  made  it  useless.  Except 
in  very  early  times,  when  skin  was  used, 
armor  has  always  been  made  of  metal, 
usually  brass  or  bronze.  This  was  the 
sort  used  in  the  contest  between  Goliath 
and  David,  which  is  the  most  ancient 


whole     body.     They     also     clothed     their 
horses  with  this  armor. 

But  it  was  in  western  Europe,  in  the 
middle  ages,  that  complete  defensive  ar- 
mor was  brought  to  its  greatest  perfec- 
tion. The  earliest  armor  was  made  of 
metal  rings,  then  sewn  closely  together 
upon  leather,  or  simply  of  rings  woven 
together  like  the  modern  curb-chain.  But 
this  mail,  as  it  was  called,  could  be  driven 
by  a  hard  blow  into  the  flesh,  and  so,  piece 
by  piece,  plate  armor  was  adopted.  For 
200  years  this  change  went  on,  until,  by 
the  time  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VII  of 
England,  the  best  and  most  beautiful 
armor  ever  wrought  was  worn.  The  whole 
suit  of  armor,  completely  covering  the 
body,  was  fluted,  the  helmet  fitted  the 
head,  and,  with  the  plates  guarding  the 


ROMAN   CUIRASS  GREEK  ARMOR 

(Art  Armor) 

allusion  in  history  to  armor.  The  armor 
of  the  Greeks  consisted  of  a  crested  helmet, 
which  could  be  drawn  down  so  as  fully 'to 
cover  the  face;  a  small  breastplate  worn 
so  low  as  to  leave  the  throat  and  neck 
exposed;  a  plated  waistband  from  which 
hung  a  short  kilt  of  cloth  or  leather  cov- 
ered with  metallic  plates;  and  greaves  or  a 
sheath  of  solid  metal  for  the  legs  from 
knee  to  ankle.  The  shield  was  a  round  one, 
at  first  large  enough  to  cover  the  entire 


body  of  the  warrior,  but  later  a  small  one 
was  used  of  the  same  shape.  The  Roman 
soldier's  armor  was  much  the  same,  except 
that  his  shield  was  oblong,  and  he  often 
fought  without  greaves.  The  earlier  nations 
used  armor  made  of  overlapping  scales 
of  metal  sewn  upon  leather,  fitting  the 


neck,   adapted   itself   to   every   movement. 
Every    part    of    the    body    was    piotected, 
and    yet    motion    was    comparatively    free. 
The  shields  were  of  various  shapes.     The 
heads  and  bodies  of  the  horses  were  also 
protected  by  solid  steel.     So  hard  was  it 
to   pierce    these    splendid    suits    of    armor, 
that    at    one    time    two    armies     in     Italy 
fought  from  9  o'clock  in  the  morning  until 
4  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  without  a  single 
person    being    killed    or    wounded.     After 
firearms  were  in- 
vented,    armor 
was  discarded  as 
useless,   until   at 
the  beginning  of 
the  i Qth  century 
the   only   troops 
still  wearing  ar- 
mor    were     the 
heavy  cavalry  of 
the   Austrian, 
Russian     and 
French  armies, 
who  were  all  cuir- 
assiers. Ships-of- 
war  are  now  cov- 

ROMAN  CUIRASS    CHAIN  ARMOR    ered  with  plates, 
(Scale  Armor)  called     armor- 

plates.  See  NAVY. 

Armor-Plate,  the  metallic  sheathing  of 
a  ship-of-war  or  of  a  fortification,  used  as 
a  protection  against  artillery  fire.  It  is 
claimed  that  John  Stevens  of  Hoboken, 
New  Jersey,  was  the  first  to  suggest  the 
use  of  armor,  but  the  first  practical  use 
was  in  1855  by  the  French  on  their  ships- 
of-war.  Armor-plate  manufacture  has  gone 
through  several  stages.  The  first  plates 
were  made  of  wrought  iron,  but  the  inven- 
tion of  rifled  cannon  made  it  possible  to 


pierce    any    single    thickness    of    wrought 


iron  that  could  be   then  made. 


1873 


C.  Cammell  &  Co.  invented  the  compound 
plate,  which  was  prepared  by  pouring 
liquid  steel  on  to  hot  iron  plates.  Then 
Schneider  &  Co.,  of  Creusot,  France,  dem- 
onstrated that  steel  plates  are  preferable, 


ARMOUR,  PHILIP  D. 


106 


ARMS 


About  1890  experiments  made  by  the 
United  States  government  at  Annapolis 
showed  that  a  plate  made  of  an  alloy  of 
steel  and  nickel  is  far  superior  to  the  sim- 
ple steel.  More  recently,  the  resisting 
power  of  steel  armor-plate  has  been  in- 
creased 25  per  cent,  by  the  process  invented 
by  Harvey,  an  American.  This  consists 
in  face-hardening  the  plates,  by  causing 
the  outer  layers  of  the  metal  to  take  up  a 
greater  percentage  of  carbon.  The  Krupp 
firm  of  Essen,  Germany,  discovered  a  new 
process,  which  is  kept  secret,  for  harden- 
ing both  steel  and  nickel-steel  plates,  by 
which  a  product  of  unexcelled  quality  is 
turned  out.  Its  resistance  is  20  per  cent, 
greater  than  that  of  harveyized  steel.  One 
foot  of  the  best  armor  made  to-day  has  more 
endurance  than  two  feet  of  the  best  armor 
in  1880.  It  is  said  that  the  principal 
armor-plate  makers  of  America,  England, 
and  France  are  now  using  this  process, 
under  agreement  with  Krupp.  The  steel 
is  subjected,  while  hot,  to  hydraulic  forg- 
ing. This  renders  the  whole  mass  more 
homogeneous  than  old  methods,  making 
it  stronger  and  freer  from  flaws.  It  is 
next  sawed  or  planed  into  plates  of  the 
required  size,  and  then  harveyized  by 
cementation,  hardening  and  tempering. 
Krupp 's  process  carries  the  hardening 
deeper  into  the  plate,  because  chrome, 
probably,  as  well  as  nickel  is  used  in  the 
steel.  Hardening  the  steel  increases  the 
brittleness  and  the  liability  of  the  plate 
to  crack,  but  its  back  remains  extremely 
tough,  and  so  the  risk  of  cracking  is  lessened. 
Krupp  plates  resist  ordinary  projectiles 
better  than  Harvey  armor  does,  but 
Harvey  plates  resist  capped  projectiles 
better  and  are  not  liable  to  crack.  Krupp 
armor  12  inches  thick  withstands  and 
smashes  1 2-inch  shells,  though  dented  four 
or  six  inches,  but  is  cracked  by  i,8oo-lb. 
torpedo  shells.  On  May  27,  1908,  the 
1 1 -inch  armor  plate  of  the  Florida,  a 
United  States  monitor,  successfully  re- 
sisted 12-inch  shells  containing  a  new  high 
explosive.  The  first  plates  used  were 
less  than  five  inches  thick.  By  1876 
solid  steel  plates  of  22-inch  thickness  had 
been  produced.  Fully  4,000  tons  of  armor- 
plate  are  used  on  the  exposed  sides  and 
turrets  of  some  modern  battleships. 

Ar'mour,  Philip  D.,  a  Chicago  merchant, 
head  for  many  years  of  the  great  firm 
of  Armour  &  Co.,  pork-packers  and  dealers 
in  dressed  meats  and  provisions,  was  born 
at  Stockbridge,  N.  Y.,  May  16,  1832,  and 
died  at  Chicago,  January  6,  1001.  The 
house  with  which  he  was  long  identified, 
and  through  the  successful  operations  of 
which  Mr.  Armour  amassed  a  large  fortune, 
was  founded  in  1862  by  Herman  O.  Armour, 
Philip  D.  Armour  joining  the  Chicago  con- 
cern in  1875.  The  volume  of  its  business, 
which  gave  employment  to  more  than 


11,000  persons,  exceeded  a  hundred  millions 
a  year.  Much  of  his  large  income  Mr. 
Armour  gave  away  in  private  and  public 
charities.  The  chief  object  of  his  benevo- 
lence was  the  Armour  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology in  Chicago,  which  was  opened  in 
1893,  and  now  has  68  instructors  and  an 
enrollment  of  1,800  students.  Connected 
with  this  were  a  mission  and  a  group  of 
apartment  buildings,  rented  to  working- 
men  and  their  families,  known  as  the 
Armour  flats.  Mr.  Armour's  enterprises 
included,  besides  the  great  dressed-meat 
factory,  a  grain  business  of  large  volume 
and  ownership  in  a  great  railway  system. 
His  wealth  was  estimated  at  his  death  at 
about  forty  millions. 

Armour,  Hon.  John  Douglas,  born 
county  of  Peterborough  (Ontario),  1830, 
son  of  the  Reverend  Samuel  Armour.  Edu- 
cated at  Upper  Canada  College  and  Toronto 
University.  Studied  law  with  Chancellor 
Vankoughnet  and  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1853.  His  progress  at  the  bar  was 
rapid.  Appointed  judge  (Court  of  Queen's 
Bench),  1877.  Made  president  of  the 
court  in  1887.  Declined  knighthood.  One 
of  the  ablest  of  Canadian  judges.  Ap- 
pointed one  of  His  Majesty's  Commis- 
sioners in  the  Alaska  Boundary  case.  He 
died  in  1903,^1  England,  when  on  a  public 
mission. 

Arms,  weapons  of  defense.  Just  as  the 
invention  of  powder  made  armor  useless, 
so  it  changed  the  kinds  of  weapons  used, 
which  differentiates  weapons  into  ancient 
and  modern  arms.  Of  ancient  arms,  the 
most  common  in  the  earliest  wars  were 
missiles  to  be  used  at  long  range.  Thus, 
in  the  time  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  bow 
and  the  javelin  were  the  favorite  weapons 
of  oriental  races,  while  for  close  fighting 
merely  straight  daggers  were  used.  Among 
the  Greeks  the  chiefs  used  a  long  and  heavy 
spear,  which  they  threw  as  a  missile,  often 
ending  their  combats  by  a  duel  with  short 
swords.  The  masses  fought  with  a  pike, 
in  close  column  or  in  a  phalanx,  which 
afterward  became  so  famous  in  the  Mace- 
donian phalanx  with  which  Alexander 
the  Great  conquered  the  world.  The  pike 
was  twenty-four  feet  long,  held  in  the  hand, 
and  the  men  were  so  drawn  up  as  to  present 
a  solid  front  of  glittering  spear-points.  The 
Romans  used  a  short  massive  javelin,  six 
feet  long,  which  they  hurled  at  the  enemy 
at  a  distance  of  ten  or  fifteen  paces,  and 
then  closed  on  them  with  their  short  two- 
edged  broadswords.  They  depended  largely 
on  the  broadsword,  and  the  lines  were  so 
drawn  up  that  each  man  had  room  for  full 
play  with  it  in  single  combats,  in  which  the 
training  of  the  Romans  almost  always 
secured  them  the  victory. 

In  the  middle  ages  steel-clad  caralry 
were  the  main  strength  of  the  armies. 
Their  arms  were '  the  lance,  mace,  battle- 


ARMSTRONG 


107 


ARMY 


axe  and  the  two-handed  sword;  but  they 
relied  mainly  on  the  lance.  This  was  a 
heavy  weapon,  eighteen  feet  in  length, 
balanced  by  the  weight  of  its  butt  end, 
which  was  often  a  foot  in  diameter  at  twenty 
inches  from  the  extremity,  and  made  to 
fit  the  arm  of  the  champion  as  it  was  laid 
in  rest.  The  infantry  carried  at  this  time 
the  famous  cloth-yard  bow;  the  bills,  like 
a  heavy  scythe  blade,  set  erect  on  a 
four-foot  shaft!  the  leaden  mallets  and 
long  knives  of  the  Anglo-Normans;  the 
pikes  and  halberds  of  the  Swiss;  the 
crossbows  of  the  Genoese;  and  the  Scottish 
spear. 

Modern  arms  begin  with  the  battle  of 
Pavia  in  1525,  when  the  matcklock  was  first 
used  so  as  to  be  of  any  real  service,  though 
it  was  awkward  and  had  to  be  used  from 
a  rest.  It  was  gradually  improved,  and 
at  the  beginning  of  the  lyth  century  the 
bayonet  was  added,  which  made  it  much 
more  complete,  as  it  gave  the  musketeer  a 
means  of  defense  at  close  quarters.  The 
rifle  was  brought  into  prominence  in  the 
American  Revolution  and  in  the  Revolution 
in  France.  Since  that  time  improvement 
has  been  rapid,  and  the  invention  of  the 
simple  modern  percussion  lock,  of  the 
minie-rifle  bullet,  of  revolving-chamber 

Eistols  and  of  breechloading  of  every  kind 
as  greatly  increased  the  destructive  char- 
acter of  warfare.. 

The  greatest^  attention  and  most  experi- 
menting are  given  to  field  artillery.  Old 
systems  and  types  passed  away  with  1892, 
and  in  1900  the  weapon  used  in  1890  was 
not  considered  good  enough.  Machine- 
guns  that  load,  fire  and  extract  by  ma- 
chinery are  the  weapons  of  to-day.  Some 
are  operated  by  hand-power,  others  by  the 
action  of  the  powder-gases  on  a  piston  or 
through  the  recoil  of  the  barrel.  The  in- 
vention of  smokeless  powder,  the  applica- 
tion of  electricity  and  the  use  of  powerful 
explosives  in  shells  have  in  recent  years 
doubled  the  efficiency  of  arms.  The  speed 
at  which  they  can  be  discharged  has  also 
increased  greatly,  the  U.  S.  warship  Georgia, 
five  years  younger  than  the  Oregon,  being 
able  to  fire  nearly  three  and  a  half  times 
faster.  Smoke  and  fouling  have  been 
done  away  with.  The  size  of  weapons  and 
their  recoil  from  firing  have  been  lessened. 
Pressure  in  the  ammunition  chamber  has 
been  diminished.  Soldiers  as  well  as  gunners 
can  aim  now  without  exposing  themselves, 
for  not  only  is  the  telescope  used  for  sight- 
ing by  fastening  it  to  the  weapon,  but 
there  is  an  invention,  called  the  hyposcope, 
consisting  of  a  series  of  mirrors  in  a  tube 
below  the  line  of  sight. 

To-day,  the  United  States  regular  in- 
fantry and  cavalry  are  armed  with  the 
short  U.  S.  rifle,  Springfield  model  1903, 
which  superseded  the  Krag-Jorgensen.  See 
ARTILLERY  and  GUNNERY. 


Armstrong,  Samuel  Chapman,  an  educa- 
tional philanthropist,  was  born  in  1839  in 
the  Hawaiian  Islands,  where  his  father  was 
a  missionary,  and  died  at  Hampton,  Va., 
May  ii,  1893.  In  l862  he  entered  the 
Union  army  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier-general. During  the  war  he  took  a 
hearty  interest  in  the  Freedmen's  Bureau, 
and  in  1868  he  founded  and  became  prin- 
cipal of  the  Hampton  Institute  of  Vir- 
ginia for  the  education  of  negroes  and  In- 
dians. 

Ar'my,  a  body  of  armed  men,  so  or- 
ganized and  disciplined  as  to  become  a 
vast,  movable  military  engine. 

ANCIENT  ARMIES.  Sesostris  of  Egypt, 
about  sixteen  centuries  before  Christ,  is 
the  first  conqueror  who  is  said  to  have 
maintained  a  regular  army.  He  divided 
his  kingdom  into  thirty-six  military  prov- 
inces, and  established  a  militia  with  which 
he  overran  Asia  as  far  as  India.  Some 
centuries  later  the  great  Persian  kings 
formed  a  vast  standing  army,  apportioned 
as  garrisons  among  the  provinces,  under 
control  of  military  governors.  In  time 
of  war  this  army  was  increased  by  a  general 
levy  from  the  barbarian  peoples  that  had 
been  conquered.  The  Greeks,  who  alone 
could  resist  these  vast  barbarian  hosts, 
kept  no  standing  army,  but  maintained 
militia  in  each  small  state  which  united 
in  times  of  foreign  war.  They  did  much, 
however,  for  military  science;  the  Spartans 
invented  the  phalanx;  the  Athenians  added 
their  light-armed  troops  and  cavalry  to 
cover  the  front  and  to  harass  the  enemy 
in  the  rear.  Miltiades  is  said  to  have  first 
used  the  "double  step,"  to  increase  the 
momentum  of  attack,  while  the  Thebans 
first  made  use  of  the  long  and  narrow  col- 
umn to  pierce  the  lines  of  the  enemy. 
The  rise  of  the  great  Macedonian  power 
marks  the  next  standing  army,  which  under 
Philip  and  Alexander  conquered  the  world. 
Rome  introduced  changes  in  army  mat- 
ters that  have  influenced  the  whole  civil- 
ized world.  About  200  B.  C.  every  Roman 
from  the  age  of  seventeen  to  forty-six 
was  liable  to  be  called  upon  to  serve  as  a 
soldier.  The  levies  passed  through  a  severe 
course  of  discipline.  Every  year  the  mag- 
istrates sent  up  the  names  of  the  men  liable 
to  service,  from  which  their  legions  were 
chosen,  and  the  Roman  legion  in  its  best 
days  excelled  all  other  troops  in  discipline 
and  valor. 

ARMIES  OP  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  When 
the  feudal  system  arose,  national  armies 
gave  place  to  the  small  armies  gathered 
around  each  chief,  whose  little  conflicts 
make  up  the  greater  part  of  the  wars  of 
the  middle  ages.  The  crusades  first  united 
these  troops  into  an  army  against  a  com- 
mon foe,  and  showed  the  need  of  organiza- 
tion and  discipline;  and  from  this  time 
foot-soldiers  began  to  take  the  place  of  the 


ARMY 


sod 


ARMY 


mounted    chivalry   which   had    carried  on 

the  warfare  of  the  previous  few  centuries. 

MODERN  ARMIES.  With  the  use  of  fire- 
arms began  the  gradual  change  in  army 
methods  which  has  resulted  in  the  modern 
military  system.  During  the  Thirty  Years' 
war  (1618-48)  Gustavus  Adolphus  experi- 
mented with  methods  of  dealing  with  in- 
fantry; the  long  wars  of  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV  brought  in  the  grouping  of  armies 
into  brigades  and  divisions;  while  Frederick 
the  Great  in  the  next  century  carried 
tactics  and  drill  to  such  a  point  of  perfection 
that  nearly  all  his  victories  were  won  by 
manceuvering.  Horse  artillery  was  first 
used  during  this  period.  The  French 
Revolution  so  exhausted  the  resources  of 
France  that  she  was  compelled  to  pass  a 
law  in  1798,  making  military  service  com- 
pulsory. Every  citizen  was  made  liable 
to  four  years'  service,  and  all  between  the 
ages  of  twenty  and  twenty-five  were  en- 
rolled. This  irresistible  power  gave  Na- 
poleon such  an  advantage  that  the  other 
European  powers,  except  England,  followed 
her  example;  and  Prussia  added  the  reserve 
system.  Now,  in  most  nations,  will  be 
found  a  standing  army,  with  its  several 
corps  and  body  of  cavalry,  and  an  army 
of  reserves,  of  two  classes,  those  awaiting 
immediate  call  to  arms  and  the  militia 
or  second  line  of  reserves.  Among  European 
nations,  all  except  Great  Britain,  have  com- 
pulsory service.  Under  compulsory  service 
the  pay  of  the  soldier  is  small  so  that  at  a  given 
expense  more  men  are  kept  under  arms  than 
under  the  volunteer  system  and  the  state  has, 
in  time  of  war,  its  entire  mass  of  able-bodied 
men  to  draw  upon.  The  theory  that  volun- 
teers fight  with  more  enthusiasm  than  con- 
scripts is  not  borne  out  by  facts,  results  depend- 
ing rather  upon  the  national  attitude  toward 
army  service  and  the  state.  As  to  the  en- 
thusiastic attitude  of  the  Germans  toward 
army  service,  see  Collier's  Germany  and  the 
Germans. 

UNITED  STATES  ARMY.  The  United  States 
has  been  notable  for  its  small  standing-army 
in  time  of  peace  as  compared  with  European 
nations.  Before  the  Civil  War  the  army 
numbered  but  12,000  men.  During  the 
Civil  War,  in  various  levies,  a  total  of 
2,859,132  men  were  mustered  in  for  various 
periods  of  service.  This  immense  army 
was  quickly  disbanded  at  the  close  of  the 
war,  and  in  1874  a  law  was  passed  which 
fixed  the  maximunv  strength  of  the  army 
at  25,000  enlisted  men.  The  exigency  of 
the  Spanish  -  American  war,  however,  was 
provided  for  by  an  increase  of  the  regular 
army  and  the  organization  of  a  volunteer 
army,  which  reached  a  maximum  of  58,688 
regulars  and  216,029  volunteers,  an  aggre- 
gate of  274,717.  _  In  1901  a  law  was  passed 
by  Congress  which  increased  the  standing- 
army  to  provide  for  the  needs  of  the  gov- 
ernment under  new  conditions. 

On  June  3,  1916,  a  federal  law  was  passed 


providing  for  the  gradual  increase  of  the 
national  guard  from  an  immediate  strength 
of  200  men  for  each  senator  and  represen- 
tative in  congress  to  a  strength  of  800  for 
each  senator  and  representative,  making 
a  total  of  400,000.  While  the  old  law  "re- 
quested" the  militia  of  the  different  States 
to  adopt  the  physical  standards  and  dis- 
cipline of  the  United  States  army,  the  new 
law  requires  it;  and  the  progress  of  each 
organization  is  kept  before  the  proper  au- 
thorities by  means  of  a  system  of  reports  and 
records,  supplementing  the  annual  inspec- 
tion. While,  previous  to  this  enactment 
the  president  could  call  out  the  guard  only 
to  repel  invasion  or  suppress  insurrection 
or  rebellion,  this  law  provides  that  members 
of  the  guard  can  be  drafted  into  the  military 
service  and  that  their  service  is  not  limited  "to 
any  particular  class  of  duty  or  to  any  particular 
territory,"  thus  giving  the  central  government 
absolute  control  of  the  guard  in  time  of  war. 

General  Staff.  By  act  of  Congress, 
approved  February  14,  1903,  the  position 
of  commanding  general  of  the  army  was 
abolished  and  a  general  staff  corps  was 
established,  to  be  composed  of  officers 
detailed  from  the  army.  The  general  staff 
corps  consists  of  one  chief  of  staff  and  two 
general  officers  to  be  detailed  by  the  presi- 
dent, four  colonels,  six  lieutenant-colonels, 
twelve  majors  and  twenty  captains.  The 
duties  of  the  staff  are  to  prepare  plans  for 
the  national  defense  and  for  the  mobiliza- 
tion of  the  military  forces  in  time  of  war; 
to  consider  all  questions  relating  to  the 
efficiency  of  the  army  and  its  state  of  prepa- 
ration for  military  service;  to  render  pro- 
fessional aid  to  the  secretary  of  war  and 
superior  commanders  and  to  act  as  their 
agents  in  informing  and  co-ordinating  the 
action  of  all  the  different  officers  to  the 
supervision  of  the  chief  of  staff;  and  to  per- 
form such  other  duties  as  may  be  prescribed 
by  the  president. 

ARMY  PAY. 

Annual  salaries  of  officers  are  as  follows: 

Grade.  Active.  Retired. 

Lieutenant-general $i  1,000  $8,250 

Major-general 8,000  6,000 

Brigadier-general 6,000  4,500 

Colonel 4,000  3,000 

Lieutenant-colonel 3,500  2,625 

Major. 3,000  2,250 

Captain,  mounted -.  2,400  1,800 

Captain,  unmounted 2,200 

First  lieutenant,  mounted.  ......  2,000  1,500 

First  lieutenant,  unmounted  ....  1,900 

Second  lieutenant,  mounted 1,700  1,275 

Second  lieutenant,  unmounted. . .  1,600 

After  five  years'  service  10  per  cent,  is 
added  to  the  salaries  at  intervals  of  five 
years  until  the  increase  amounts  to  40  per 
cent,  of  the  pay  of  the  grade.  Thus  a  col- 
onel after  twenty  years'  service  gets  $4,800 
a  year. 

Non-commisioned  officers  are  paid  from 
$18  to  $45  a'  month,  and  private  soldiers 
$15.  Officers  and  enlisted  men  serving 


ARMY-WORM 


109 


ARNOLD,  BENEDICT 


in  Alaska  and  the  island  possessions  are  paid 
10  and  20  per  cent,  additional,  respectively. 

The  president  (q.  v.)  is  officially  the  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  both  the  army  and  navy 
and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  states  when 
they  are  called  into  actual  service  of  the  U.  S. 
His  position  is  much  like  that  of  the  president 
of  a  manufacturing  corporation  who  usually 
does  not  understand  the  technical  processes  of 
the  business  but  whose  services  are  of  great 
value  in  maintaining  a  general  supervision 
over  policies  and  results.  Congress  may  be 
compared  to  the  board  of  directors  of  such  a 
corporation  for  it  has  the  power  (Constitution 
Art.  I,  Sec.  8)  to  provide  for  the  common 
defense,  declare  war,  raise  and  support  armies, 
provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia,  to  execute 
the  laws  and  for  organizing,  arming  and  dis- 
ciplining the  militia  and  governing  it  when 
employed  in  the  services  of  the  United  States. 

In  monarchial  countries  the  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  is  the  sovereign  but,  as  in  the 
United  States,  the  control  of  army  matters  is 
more  or  less  in  the  hands  of  the  representatives 
of  the  people,  depending  upon  the  extent  to 
which  the  monarchy  approaches  absolutism  in 
those  countries. 

Army- Worm,  the  larva  of  a  very  common 
destructive  moth.  It  appears  every  year  in 
the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, but  attracts  attention  only  when  it 
appears  in  great  numbers.  Then  it  marches, 
like  an  army,  from  one  field  to  another, 
destroying  the  crops  in  its  path.  The 
worm  is  one  and  one-half  inches  long  when 
full  grown,  and  striped  with  black,  yellow 
and  green.  Fields  of  grain  are  protected 
by  surrounding  them  with  ditches  with 
vertical  sides,  into  which  the  worms  fall 
and  cannot  get  out.  Their  numbers  are 
largely  kept  down  by  fungous  diseases 
and  parasitic  insects. 

Arndt  (drnt),  Ernest  Moritz,  a  German 
poet  and  patriot,  was  born  in  1769  on  the 
island  of  Rugen.  The  son  of  a  former 
serf,  he  yet  received  a  good  education  with 
a  view  of  entering  the  ministry;  but  after 
traveling  over  a  great  part  of  Europe  he 
became  professor  of  history  at  Greifswald. 
He  assisted  in  the  abolition  of  serfdom 
by  his  writings;  and  an  attack  on  Napo- 
leon in  another  work  compelled  Arndt  to 
flee  to  Stockholm  after  the  battle  of  Jena. 
Returning  after  a  few  years  to  Germany, 
he  was  active  in  stirring  up  the  national 
feeling  of  his  countrymen  and  in  preparing 
them  to  throw  off  the  foreign  yoke.  His 
songs,  poems  and  other  writings  kept  up 
the  spirit  of  the  Germans  during  the  war 
of  liberation.  His  famous  song,  Was  ist  das 
Deutschen  Vaterland  (What  is  the  German 
Fatherland?),  is  sung  wherever  German 
is  spoken.  In  January,  1818,  he  became 
professor  of  history  in  the  then  new  Uni- 
versity of  Bonn,  from  which  position  he 
was  suspended  because  of  his  energy  in  re- 
forms, but  restored  in  1840.  He  was  at 


one  time  a  member  of  the  national  assem- 
bly. Vigorous  in  mind  and  body,  be- 
loved by  the  whole  German  nation  as 
Father  Arndt,  he  died  at  the  age  of  90 
in  January,  1860. 

Arnim,  Bettina  von,  famous  for  her 
acquaintance  and  correspondence  with 
Goethe,  was  born  at  Frankfort,  April  4, 
1785.  Her  intimacy  with  Goethe  lasted 
from  1807  to  1811.  Shortly  after  his 
death  she  published  a  mass  of  correspond- 
ence said  to  have  passed  between  them. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  Bettina  put  a  large 
amount  of  new  matter  into  Goethe's  let- 
ters, and  some  of  them  he  never  wrote 
at  all.  However,  Bettina's  freshness  and 
power  as  a  writer  make  them  interesting 
and  valuable.  Her  correspondence  with 
the  friend  of  her  youth,  Caroline  von 
Giinderode,  and  with  her  brother  Clemens 
Brentano,  probably  equally  fictitious,  while 
not  as  famous  as  her  correspondence  with 
Goethe,  is  of  high  value.  She  died  in  1859. 
Ar'no,  next  to  the  Tiber  the  most  im- 
portant river  of  Central  Italy,  rises  on 
Mount  Falterona,  at  a  height  of  4,444 
feet  above  the  sea.  It  flows  westward 
140  miles  and  empties  into  the  sea,  eleven 
miles  below  Pisa.  At  Florence  it  is  400 
feet  wide,  but  can  be  forded  in  summer; 
at  other  times  it  can  be  navigated  by  barges 
thus  far.  It  is  noted  for  its  rapid  and 
destructive  floods. 

Ar'nofd,  Benedict,  a  brilliant  and 
dashing  American  general,  but  a  traitor 
to  his  country.  He  was  born  in  Norwich, 
Conn.,  January  14,  1741.  Reckless  and 
fond  of  adventure,  he  ran  away  from 

home  when  fif- 
teen years  old, 
and  joined  the 
American  forces 
in  the  French 
and  Indian  War 
but  soon  de- 
serted. On  the 
breaking  out  of 
the  Revolution- 
a  r  y  War,  he 
helped  Ethan 
Allen  and  his 
Green  Moun- 
tain Boys  to 
BENEDICT  ARNOLD  capture  Fort 

Ticonderoga;  took  a  gallant  part  in  the 
disastrous  siege  of  Quebec,  where  he  was 
wounded,  and  for  his  bravery  was  made  a 
brigadier-general;  and  handled  with  skill 
a  flotilla  in  the  battle  of  Valcour  Island. 
Arnold  had  a  violent  temper,  and  when, 
in  1777,  five  of  his  inferiors  in  rank  were 
made  major-generals,  he  was  very  angry, 
but  kept  on  fighting  in  the  colonial  _  cause 
showing  his  usual  skill  and  bravery  in  the 
battle  of  Ridgefield,  where  his  conduct 
gained  him  the  rank  of  major-general, 
and  in  the  battle  of  Saratoga,  where  his 


ARNOLD,  SIR  EDWIN 


1X0 


AROOSTOOK  WAR 


horse  was  killed  tinder  him  and  he  him- 
self was  severely  wounded.  Disabled  by 
his  wound,  he  spent  much  of  the  winter 
of  1777-78  in  the  hospital  at  Albany,  and 
the  next  spring  was  placed  in  command 
of  Philadelphia.  Here  he  met  Major  An- 
dr6,  with  whom  he  formed  an  acquaint- 
ance which  ended  disastrously  for  both. 
In  1780,  Arnold,  at  his  own  request,  was 
given  command  of  West  Point  on  the 
Hudson,  one  of  the  most  important  points 
in  the  colonies,  which  he  traitorously  agreed 
to  betray  into  the  hands  of  the  British. 
After  his  secret  interview  with  Andr6, 
and  the  capture  of  that  officer,  Arnold 
fled  to  the  British  army,  in  which  he  was 
given  a  command.  In  the  latter  part  of 
the  war  he  led  an  attack  against  his  native 
state,  and  when  peace  was  declared,  went 
to  London,  where  he  lived  in  obscurity 
until  his  death  on  June  14,  1801. 

Ar'nold,  Sir  Edwin,  an  English  poet, 
scholar  and  journalist,  was  born  June  10, 
1832,  the  son  of  a  Sussex  magistrate.  He 
studied  at  Rochester  and  at  King's  Col- 
lege, London;  was  elected  to  a  scholarship 
at  University  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
won  the  Newdigate  prize  by  a  poem  on 
Belshazzar's  Feast.  He  taught  at  Bir- 
mingham, and  was  principal  of  the  govern- 
ment Sanskrit  College,  at  Poona,  India. 
In  1861  he  became  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  Daily  Telegraph,  London;  and,  in  con- 
nection with  it,  to  him  was  largely  due 
the  sending  of  Mr.  George  Smith  to  Assy- 
ria for  exploratory  purposes  and  of  Stanley 
to  Lake  Victoria  and  down  the  Congo.  His 
writings,  chiefly  poems,  include.  The  In- 
dian Song  of  Songs,  Indian  Poetry,  Pearls 
of  the  Faith,  The  Song  Celestial,  The  Light 
of  Asia  and  The  Light  of  the  World,  He 
died  March  24,  1904. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  an  eminent  English 
poet,  essayist  and  critic.  He  was  born  at 
Laleham,  Decembei  24,  1822,  the  eldest 
son  of  Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby.  He  studied 
at  Winchester,  Rugby  and  Balliol  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  and 
was  made  a  fel- 
low of  Oriel.  Af- 
ter acting  for 
some  years  as  a 
private  secreta- 
ry, he  was  made 
government  in- 
spector  of 
schools.  In  1857 
he  was  elected 
professor  of  poe- 
t  try  at  Oxford. 
>  In  1883  he  lec- 
t  u  r  e  d  in  the 
United  States. 
Arnold's  poeti- 
cal works  place 
him  in  the  front 
As  a  critic  his 


MATTHEW  ARNOLD 

rank    of    modern    poets. 


literary  judgments  have  long  been  received 
by  the  literary  world  with  a  higher  respect 
than  is  given  to  the  criticisms  of  most 
other  writers.  His  prose  works  include 
Essays  in  Criticism,  Culture  and  Anarchy, 
Literature  and  Dogma,  Irish  Essays  and 
Last  Essays  on  Church  and  Religion.  He 
died  suddenly  at  Liverpool  on  April  15, 1888. 
See  Letters  of  M.  Arnold  (1848-88),  collected 
by  G.  W.  E.  Russell  and  the  monograph 
by  George  Saintsbury. 

Arnold,  Thomas,  headmaster  of  Rugby, 
was  born   June    13,    1795,   on   the   Isle  of 
Wight.     He     studied     at     Corpus     Christi 
College,  Oxford,  and  hi  1815    was    elected 
a  fellow  of  Oriel  College.     As  a  boy  he  was 
shy   and   retiring,    as   a   youth    somewhat 
bold  and  unsettled  in  his  opinions,  but  in 
his  studies  he  took  a  high  rank.     The  next 
few  years  were  spent  in  fitting  pupils  for 
the  university,  in  beginning  his  History  of 
Rome   and  in  the  quiet  study  and  thought 
which    gave   him   those   positive   ideas   o* 
Christian  belief  and  life  which  were  strongly 
expres  ed   in   his   later  years.     From   this 
life   he   was   called   to   be   headmaster   at 
Rugby,  a  position  which  made  him  famous 
as  a  teacher  of  boys.     He  had  the  tact 
to   make   himself  both   loved   and   feared. 
He  made  it  a  practice  to  believe  his  scholars. 
"If  you  say  so,  that  is  enough;  of  course,  I 
believe  your  word."     And   so  there  grew 
up  a  feeling  among  the  boys  that  it  was 
a  shame  to  tell  him  a  lie.     Once  when  he 
had  sent  away  several  boys,  he  said:    "It 
is  not  necessary  that  this  should  be  a  school 
of    three     hundred,     or    one    hundred    or 
fifty  boys;  but  it  is  necessary  that  it  should 
be  a  school  of  Christian   gentlemen."     In 
1841    he    was  made  professor  of  modern 
history  at  Oxford,  and  he  was  just  enter- 
ing with  enthusiasm  upon  his  new  duties, 
when   he  died   suddenly,   June   12,    1842. 
He    was    buried    in    Rugby    chapel.      His 
great    work,     the     History    of    Rome,    was 
broken  off  at  the  end  of  the  second  Punic 
War  by  his   death.      The  story  of  his  life 
has   been    told    by    one    of   his   old   pupils, 
Dean  Stanley,   in  his  Life  and  Correspond- 
ence of  Arnold;  but  he  will  be  best  known 
as  the  schoolmaster  in  Tom  Brown's  School- 
Days,  by  Thomas   Hughes,   another  of  his 
pupils. 

A'roids,  the  common  name  of  the  great 
plant  family  Aracece,  which  contains  about 
1,000  species.  The  great  display  of  aroids 
is  hi  the  tropics,  where  they  are  remarkably 
diversified.  In  our  own  flora,  Jack-in- 
the-pulpit,  sweet  flag  and  skunk  cabbage 
may  be  taken  as  representatives.  One 
of  the  best  known  forms  is  the  cultivated 
calla-lily.  The  feature  of  the  group  is 
the  huge  enveloping  bract  or  spathe, 
which  incloses  the  fleshy  spike  of  incon- 
spicuous flowers. 

Aroostook  (a-rdos'took)  War,  a  some- 
what jocular  name  given  the  boundary 


\RPAD 


III 


ARSENAL 


dispute  arising  between  the  province  of 
New  Brunswick,  Canada,  and  the  state 
of  Maine,  reaching  its  crisis  in  1839  and 
settled  amicably  in  1842.  By  the  treaty 
acknowledging  American  independence  in 
1783,  the  boundary  between  the  two  coun- 
tries was  loosely  defined  to  be  the  St. 
Croix  River,  eked  out  by  a  line  from  its 
source  to  the  watershed  between 'the  streams 
flowing  to  the  St.  Lawrence  and  those  to 
the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  United  States 
set  up  for  boundary  a  stream  far  ^to  the 
east  of  the  river,  only  to  have  their  con- 
tention disproved  by  the  discovery  of 
Champlain's  little  colony  on  the  island  at 
the  true  river's  mouth.  A  branch  to  the 
east  was  then  seized  upon,  but  commis- 
sioners agreed  upon  the  most  westerly 
branch  and  there,  in  1798,  set  a  stone 
monument  The  watershed  then  fell  into 
dispute;  tbe  United  States  asserted  that 
it  skirted  the  St.  Lawrence  valley,  a  hun- 
dred miles  north.  The  district  became 
known  as  the  disputed  territory.  In 
1829  the  king  of  the  Netherlands,  to 
whom  the  dispute  was  referred  for  arbitra- 
ment, refused  a  decision.  Ten  years  later, 
lumber-thieves  began  cutting  timber  there 
in  defiance  of  all  law.  The  Maine  authori- 
ties arrested  them,  and  were  in  turn  ar- 
rested by  New  Brunswick  lumbermen. 
Maine  sent  1,800  militia  to  the  Aroostook 
River,  and  a  call  was  issued  for  10,000 
more  to  take  possession.  Sir  John  Har- 
vey, governor  of  New  Brunswick,  occupied 
the  ground  with  two  regiments  of  regu- 
lars, artillery  and  several  bands  of  volun- 
teers. Nova  Scotia  voted  all  her  militia 
and  £100.000  in  aid.  At  this  crisis  ^Gen. 
Winfield  Scott  was  sent  on  by  President 
Van  Buren.  Harvey  had  fought  against 
htm  at  Lundy's  Lane  and  Stony  Creek, 
and  their  respect  was  mutual.  The  war- 
fever  abated,  and  the  question  was  referred 
to  a.  commission.  In  1842  Alexander 
Baring,  for  Great  Britain,  and  Daniel  Web- 
ster, for  the  United  States,  met  and  framed 
the  treaty  known  as  the  Ashburton,  from 
the  barony  soon  to  be  conferred  upon  Mr. 
Baring.  Under  it  a  line  was  continued 
due  north  from  the  monument  of  1798 
until  it  met  the  St.  John  River  somewhat 
beyond  the  mouth  of  the  Aroostook,  giving 
New  Brunswick  only  5,000  and  Maine 
7,000  square  miles  cf  the  land  in  dispute. 
When  the  treaty  came  up  for  confirma- 
tion in  tbe  United  States  senate,  ratifica- 
tion was  at  first  refused,  the  United  States 
wanting  all  the  territory.  But  when  Web- 
ster produced  a  map  which  had  been  in 
his  possession  all  the  time,  showing  that 
Franklin  himself  in  1783  had  agreed 
precisely  upon  the  boundaries  set  up  by 
New  Brunswick,  the  treaty  was  confirmed.. 
The  survey  in  pursuance  of  the  Ashburton 
treaty  is  not  yet  complete,  but  several 
tupposedly  American  towns  have  been 


compelled  to  transfer  their  allegiance  to 
New  Brunswick  as  it  has  proceeded. 

Ar'pad,  the  national  hero  of  Hungary, 
under  whom  the  Magyars  first  gained  a 
footing  in  the  country  about  the  year  884. 
Chosen  duke  en  his  father's  death,  he 
carried  on  an  incessant  warfare  with  the 
Bulgarians,  Wallachians  and  Moravians, 
and  made  several  successful  sallies  into 
Italy.  He  died  in  907,  leaving  his  power 
to  his  son.  The  Arpad  dynasty  ruled 
Hungary  as  dukes  until  1000,  and  as  kings 
from  ^that  year  until  1301.  Arpad  still 
lives  in  the  popular  songs  of  his  country, 
and  not  a  little  legend  has  gathered  around 
his  name. 

Arrhenius  (dr-re'nt-us'),  Svante,  a  dis- 
tinguished Swedish  chemist,  born  Feb- 
ruary 19,  1859.  At  the  age  of  19  he  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy 
at  the  University  of  Upsala.  Since  1895 
he  has  been  professor  of  physics  in  Stock- 
holm. His  most  important  contributions 
to  knowledge  are  in  the  domain  of  physical 
chemistry,  more  particularly  in  the  theory 
of  solutions.  The  explanation  which  he 
has  recently  offered  for  the  repulsion  which 
the  tails  of  comets  experience  on  approach- 
ing the  sun  is  probably  the  simplest  and 
most  satisfactory  ever  given. 

Ar'rowroot.  A  well-known  starch  ob- 
tained from  the  thick  underground  stems 
of  various  tropical  plants  related  to  Canna. 
Arrowroot  is  adulterated  with  the  starches 
of  potatoes  and  corn. 

Ar'senal,  a  government  establishment 
for  the  manufacture,  storing  and  issue 
of  arms,  gunpowder  and  other  munitions 
of  war  for  land  and  marine  forces.  In 
the  United  States  those  naval  arsenals 
which  provide  for  the  construction  and 
repair  of  war  vessels,  are  called  navy 
yards.  In  the  Old  World,  where  the  term 
is  more  familiar  and  is  equivalent  to  our 
navy  yard,  the  most  notable  is  the  Royal 
English  arsenal  at  Woolwich,  a  borough 
of  the  metropolis,  with  its  great  gun-fac- 
tories, military  carriage  and  transport 
departments,  laboratories  and  establish- 
ments for  the  manufacture  of  ordinance 
and  war  stores,  and  the  seat  also  of  the 
Royal  Military  Academy  for  the  education 
of  cadets  for  the  artillery  and  engineer 
service.  Besides  Woolwich,  there  are  also 
in  England  notable  naval  dock-yards  at 
Portsmouth,  Chatham,  Sheerness,  Mill- 
wall  and  the  West  India  docks  at  London, 
together  with  naval  stations  abroad  at 
Gibraltar,  Malta,  Ascension,  Bermuda,  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  Sydney,  Bombay  and 
Weihaiwei.  Other  Old  World  arsenals  em- 
brace those  of  France  at  Cherbourg,  Brest, 
Toulon,  and  Le  Orient ;  those  of  Germany 
at  Wilhelmshaven,  Kiel  and  Dantzic; 
those  of  Russia  at  Kronstadt,  Reval  and 
Sevastopol;  besides  Antwerp  in  Belgium, 
Cartagena  in  Spain  and  Venice  and  Spezia 


ARSENIC 


ZX2 


ART 


in  Italy.  In  the  United  States  the  home 
navy  yards,  are  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
Charlestown,  Mass.,  Kittery,  N.  H.,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  League  Island,  Pa.,  Ports- 
mouth, Va.,  Mare  Island,  Cal.  and  Puget 
Sound,  Wash.  Besides  these,  there  are 
naval  stations  at  Charleston  and  Port 
Royal,  S.  C.,  Key  West,  Fla.,  Algiers,  La., 
Pensacola,  Fla.  and  at  North  Chicago, 
111.,  for  the  Great  Lakes  service;  together 
with  torpedo  and  training  stations  at 
Newport,  R.  I.,  and  a  training  station  at 
Yerba  Buena  Island,  Cal.  In  foreign 
parts  the  United  States  have  naval  stations 
at  Tutuila,  Samoa;  at  the  Island  of  Guam; 
San  Juan,  Porto  Rico;  Culebra,  W.  I.; 
Guantanamo,  Cuba;  Honolulu,  Hawaii; 
and  Cavite,  Philippine  Islands.  At  home, 
Springfield,  Mass.,  has  from  the  Revolu- 
tionary era  been  the  seat  of  the  small- 
arms  manufacture;  Harper's  Ferry  at 
an  early  era  also  became  important  as  an 
arsenal,  with  others,  later  on  selected,  at 
Watertown,  Mass.,  Watervliet,  N.  Y.  and 
Rock  Island,  111.,  besides  a  powder  depot 
at  Dover,  N.  J.  and  a  proving  ground  at 
Sandy  Hook,  N.  J.  During  the  Civil  War, 
there  were  arsenals  at  Springfield,  Boston, 
Washington  and  elsewhere,  but  then,  as 
now,  for  powder,  small-arms  and  war  sup- 
plies, the  United  States  chiefly  depended 
and  depends  on  private  factories,  and  on 
the  larger  manufacturing  firms;  also  for 
the  heavy  guns  used  by  the  army  and 
navy. 

Ar'senic.     See  POISONS. 

Art.  When  we  think  of  "all  creation," 
we  think  of  the  sky  and  the  earth  and  all 
things  in  and  of  and  around  the  sky  and 
earth,  including,  finally,  people  and  the 
things  they  have  created.  To  this  whole 
concept  we  sometimes  apply  the  name 
of  Nature.  When  we  wish  to  distin- 
guish from  the  rest  of  nature  the  things 
that  human  beings  have  accomplished, 
we  sometimes  use  the  word  Art.  This 
word  is  used  in  other  senses,  too,  but  in 
its  largest  sense  it  includes  all  those  things 
that  have  been  added  by  man  to  nature 
as  he  found  her.  In  this  light  art  might 
be  said  to  begin  where  nature  leaves  off — 
to  be,  in  other  words,  "all  but  nature." 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  we  know 
that  nature  never  does  and  never  will 
"leave  off"  so  long  as  man  "keeps  on," 
and  that  art  is  simply  our  name  for  Nature, 
when  she  works  through  man's  intention. 

The  stem  A  R  from  which  the  word  art  is 
descended  is  probably  the  same  stem 
from  which  we  get  such  words  as  articu- 
late, "to  fashion,"  "to  join,"  and  arith- 
metic, fundamentally,  "a  putting  together," 
as  well  as  artificial  and  artisan.  The  word 
Art  •ig»ifi««  «  doing,  a  making,  a  fashion- 
ing or  a  putting  together,  and  it  usually  im- 
plies tkat  the  thing  is  accomplished  by 
human  skill. 


Dr.  Johnson's  definition  for  art  is  "The 
power  of  doing  something  which  is  not 
taught  by  nature  or  by  instinct;"  for  ex- 
ample we  say,  "the  art  of  making  violins." 
But  the  word  has  other  applications;  we 
have  already  seen  that  it  signifies  not  only 
the  power  of  doing,  but  also  the  doing  itself; 
as,  when  we  speak  of  "devoting  one's  life 
to  art,"  we  mean,  usually,  the  production 
of  works  of  art.  Besides  this  the  word 
may  mean  the  principles  which  govern  the 
doing;  as  in  the  phrase,  "a  training  in 
art."  Lastly,  the  word  is  used  with  ref- 
erence to  the  thing  done — and  we  speak  of 
"French  art"  when  we  mean  the  produc- 
tions of  the  artists  of  France. 

The  various  arts  are,  in  our  day  broadly 
divided  into  two  classes,  ordinarily  dis- 
tinguished as  the  useful  arts  and  the 
fine  arts.  The  meaning  of  the  former 
of  these  terms  is  self-evident  and  it,  in 
turn  covers  such  subdivisions  as  the  lib- 
eral arts,  industrial  arts,  manual  arts, 
household  arts  and  others.  The  second 
term,  the  fine  arts  (see  FINE  ARTS),  desig- 
nates those  activities  which  have  their 
root  in  man's  impulsive  nature,  with 
beauty  in  some  form  as  their  result. 

The  word  art  is  nowadays  often  applied 
to  fine  arts  alone;  thus  we  sometimes 
speak  of  "art-lovers,"  meaning  persons 
who  are  interested  in  the  fine  arts;  and 
sometimes  the  significance  of  the  term 
is  narrower  still  so  that  it  refers  simply  to 
sculpture  and  painting  or  even  to  paint- 
ing only. 

When  any  other  activity  than  the  fine 
arts  is  specifically  referred  to  as  "an  art," 
the  idea  of  excellence  is  usually  implied — 
either  in  the  end  to  be  attained  or  in  the 
mode  of  attaining  the  end;  as,  "the  art  of 
flying;"  "the  conjuror's  art;"  "the  art  of 
boiling  an  egg  " 

At  all  times  some  art  or  arts  have  been 
held  in  higher  esteem  than  others,  this 
often  being  due  to  the  fact  that  some 
arts  demand  a  more  complex  use  of  the 
faculties  than  others  and  sometimes  to 
the  circumstances  under  which  the  various 
arts  were  practiced.  Under  the  feudal 
system  for  instance,  warfare  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  highest  and  most  important 
of  arts.  In  communities  like  ancient 
Rome,  where  the  land  was  tilled  by  free 
cultivators,  agriculture  was  considered 
one  of  the  highest  arts.  In  Pompeii, 
where  the  art  of  painting  was  practiced 
by  the  slaves  exclusively,  this  came  to  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  meaner  arts.  In 
medieval  Italy,  where  commerce  and  manu- 
facturing became  highly  organized,  they 
wer«  ranked  among  the  "greater  arts, 
and  the  word  art  («rt*)  was  used  to  desig- 
nate the  guilds  or  companies  by  which 
these  activities  were  carried  on. 

There  is  standing  in  Florence  to  this 
day  a  beautiful  building,  erected  by  the 


ARTEMIS 


ARTEVELDE 


Arte  of  the  Wool  Merchants;  connected 
with  it  is  a  corn-warehouse  decorated 
with  statues  of  the  saints,  contributed  by 
the  arte  or  guilds  of  the  city,  and 
executed  by  the  best  artists  of  the  time. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  term  art  as  cov- 
ering all  human  activity.  We  have  thus 
far  avoided  any  special  reference  to  that 
form  of  human  activity  which  consists  in 
the  contemplation  and  analysis  of  nature — 
the  subject  which  we  call  science.  Never- 
theless, since  science  strictly  speaking, 
does  not  aim  to  produce  things,  but  only 
to  ascertain  truths,  it  is  clearly  to  be  seen 
that  it  can  be  included  only  in  the  broad- 
est interpretation  of  the  term  we  are  de- 
fining. If  we  can  show  what  part  of  the 
field  of  human  activity  belongs  to  science, 
we  may,  by  establishing  its  boundaries, 
find  out  just  what  is  the  field  of  art. 

With  what  material  does  science  deal? 
Our  premise  was  that  science  deals  with 
existing  fact;  all  facts  in  nature  fall  within 
the  scope  of  science.  What  is  it  that 
science  does  with  these  facts?  Science 
observes,  records,  and  in  so  far  as  possible 
explains  these  facts,  shows  their  relations, 
one  to  another,  and  makes  deductions 
from  them.  Now,  with  what  does  art 
deal?  Art,  since  it  adds  to  those  things 
which  nature  has  provided,  deals  with  the 
production  or  attainment  of  ends,  first 
assuming  the  desirability  of  such  ends. 
Architecture,  the  art  of  building,  for  in- 
stance, assumes  the  need  of  houses  and 
sets  about  producing  them.  Architecture 
calls  in  science  with  its  knowledge  of  the 
stone,  wood  and  clay  which  nature  has 
provided  and  its  knowledge  of  the  effects 
of  the  elements  upon  such  stone,  wood  and 
clay.  Having  obtained  this  knowledge 
from  science,  architecture  acts  upon  it. 
To  sum  up  the  functions  of  art  and  science : 
"Science  is  the  knowing,  art  is  the  doing. 
Art  evolves,  science  involves." 

It  is  thus  seen  that  art  cannot  go  on 
without  science.  Neither  can  science  ad- 
vance its  investigations  without  the  aid 
of  art — that  is  to  say,  human  activity — 
in  carrying  on  its  experiments  and  build- 
ing its  hypotheses.  Science  has  been 
described  as  in  the  indicative  mood,  ex- 
pressing itself  by  means  of  the  declara- 
tive sentence:  "Two  and  two  are  four." 
Art,  then,  is  in  the  imperative:  "Produce 
four."  While  science  deals  with  the  funda- 
mentals by  which  ends  are  to  be  attained, 
art  deals  with  the  ends  themselves,  and 
with  the  attaining  of  them. 

GEORGE  WILLIAM  EGGERS. 
Artemis.     See  DIANA. 
Ar'  tery,  the  name  of  the  tubular  vessels 
that  convey  blood  from  the  heart.     There 
are    two    sets    of    arteries:     (i)  The    great 
aorta,   springing  from  the  left  ventricle  of 
the    heart  and  reaching  by  numerous  sub- 
divisions  and   branches   all   the   tissues   of 


the  body.  (2)  The  pulmonary  artery, 
springing  from  the  right  ventricle  of  the 
heart  and  branching  through  the  lungs. 
The  former  is  the  systemic,  the  latter  the 
pulmonary  system.  The  pulmonary  ar- 
tery, of  course,  carries  venous  blood.  The 
arteries  are  elastic,  and,  when  filled  with 
blood,  are  stretched  and  exert  a  steady 
pressure  on  that  fluid.  This  causes  them 
to  force  most  of  the  blood  on  into  the 
veins  after  death,  and  led  the  ancient 
anatomists  to  believe  that  the  arteries 
were  air  tubes  and  the  veins  only  blood 
vessels.  The  arteries  and  veins  are  con- 
nected by  capillaries.  The  aorta  was 
named  by  Aristotle. 

Artesian    (dr-te'zhan)  Wells    are  borings 
straight    down    into    the    ground    through 
which  water  rises  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground.     The  possibility   of  getting  water 
in  this  way  depends  upon  the  rock  forma- 
tion   at    a   place.     There    is   more    or    less 
water  in  all  rocks.     Rocks  which  are  sandy 
and  easily  broken  up  part    with  a  greater 
or  less  portion  of  the  water  they  receive. 
For    example,    a   cubic    yard    of  pure  sea- 
sand  can  hold  about  one  third  its  bulk  of 
water.     It    would    part    with    nearly    the 
whole  of  this  into  a  well  sunk  in  it  and 
regularly  pumped   from.     Chalk,   which   is 
composed  of  fine  particles  closely  pressed 
together,  holds  as  large  a  proportion  of  water ; 
but  from  the  power  of  what  is  called  cap- 
illary    attraction — the    same    power    that 
,  lifts  the   sap   in   trees — little  water  would 
:  drain  into  a  well  sunk  in  such  a  rock.  Where 
porous  layers  of  rock  are  found  resting  on  a 
layer   which   is   impervious   to   water   and 
covered  by  another  layer  also  impervious, 
the  water  in  the  middle  layer  is  held  im- 
j  prisoned.     Where    these    three    layers    run 
!  across  a  valley  and  up  a  hill  on  each  side, 
ithey  will  be  exposed  to  the  air  at  the  top. 
I  The  falling  rain  is  carried  down  the  middle 
i  layer,   and   gathers   at   the  bottom   of  the 
i  valley,  and  in  time  the  whole  porous  layer 
becomes   water  logged,  and    the   water    at 
.the  center  is  under  strong  pressure.     Now, 
if  a  bore  is  made  at  the  bottom  of  the  val- 
ley into  the  water  logged  layer,  the  pressure 
will  force  the  water  above  the  surface.    The 
most  famous  artesian  well  is  that  at  Grenelle 
near  Paris,  which  was  bored  in  1833-1841. 
and  whose  water  is  brought  from  a  depth 
of    1,798    feet.     It    yields    516^    gallons   of 
water    a   minute,    which    is   forced    thirty- 
two  feet  above  the  surface.     The  Chinese 
and  Egyptians  knew  about  artesian  wells, 
and  they  have  been  bored  in  the  Sahara 
desert.     There  are  many  artesian  wells  ii» 
the  United  States,  where  they  are  utilized 
for   supplying   cities,    towns,    villages     and 
farms  with  water. 

Artevelde  (ar'ta-velt).  Jacob  Van,  a 
Flemish  leader  of  the  people  in  the  i4th 
century,  was  a  brewer  in  Ghent.  His 
wealth,  eloquence  and  talents  made  him 


ARTEVELDE 


114 


ARTHUR 


the  most  prominent  man  on  the  side  of  the 
citizens  in  their  struggles  against  Count 
Louis  of  Flanders.  The  people  of  Ghent 
made  him  commander  of  their  forces,  and 
he  banished  from  the  town  all  the  nobles 
and  friends  of  the  count.  His  power  was 
secure  for  ten  years,  but  in  1335  he  made 
a  treaty  with  Edward  III  of  England, 
persuading  him  to  assume  the  title  of  king 
of  France.  To  strengthen  this  alliance, 
he  tried  to  make  Edward  the  Black  Prince 
count  of  F\anders,  when  the  people  rose 
in  rebellion  and  Artevelde  was  slain  July, 
24,  1345- 

Artevelde,  Philip  Van,  son  of  the  above; 
born  in  1340.  In  1381  the  people  of 
Ghent,  who  had  driven  away  the  Count  of 
Flanders  and  plundered  his  house,  were 
closely  blockaded  by  the  count.  At  this 
juncture,  Philip,  as  the  son  of  the  great 
Artevelde,  was  asked  to  become  their  leader. 
The  count's  army  was  badly  defeated  and 
Bruges,  which  had  sided  with  the  count, 
was  plundered  and  submitted  to  Artevelde. 
His  power  only  lasted  a  year ;  a  French  army 
invading  Flanders  routed  the  forces  of 
Ghent,  and  many  thousands  were  killed, 
including  Artevelde.  His  death  occurred 
in  Belgium,  November  27,  1382. 

Arthrop'oda.  The  largest  sub-kingdom 
of  animals,  containing  an  immense  num- 
ber of  species.  They  are  known  by  having 
an  articulated  body  and  jointed  legs.  The 
group  embraces  four  great  divisions  or 
classes:  I.  Crustacea,  including  the  lob- 
sters, crabs,  crayfish,  shrimps  and  others. 
They  usually  live  in  the  water  and  breathe 
by  gills.  The  common  pill-bug  is  an  ex- 
ception. 2.  Arachnida,  the  spiders,  daddy- 
long-legs,  scorpions,  mites  and  others. 
In  this  class  the  head  and  thorax  are  united. 
They  have  four  walking  legs  and  no  antennae. 
The  representatives  are  air-breathers.  3. 
Myriapoda,  the  centipedes  and  thousand- 
legged  worms.  They  are  air-breathers, 
with  the  head  bearing  antennae  and  dis- 
tinct from  the  thorax.  The  latter  forms 
with  the  other  joint  of  the  body  a  contin- 
uous line  of  segments  fiom  six  to  two  hun- 
dred in  number.  Each  of  these  segments 
bears  a  pair  of  legs.  4.  Insecta,  the  largest 
class,  including  all  insects.  These  bieathe 
by  air  tubes  distributed  through  the  body. 
They  show  great  variety  of  form  and 
structure.  The  king  crabs,  the  fossil  trilo- 
bites  and  the  interesting  peripatus  (see 
INSECTA)  are  sometimes  separated  from 
the  other  Arthropoda  into  distinct  classes. 

Ar'thur,  a  prince  of  the  Britons,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  the  6th 
century.  He  is  pictured  in  legend  as  the 
champion  of  the  British  tribes  against  the 
Saxon  invaders  and  as  the  ideal  of  a  knightly 
hero.  The  son  of  King  Uther,  he  became 
leader  of  the  Britons  after  his  father's 
death.  He  married  Guenevere,  the  fair- 
est princess  in  the  land,  and  with  her  lived 


in  splendid  state  at  Caerleon  in  Wales, 
surrounded  by  hundreds  of  knights  and 
beautiful  ladies,  patterns  of  valor,  breeding 
and  grace  to  all  the  world.  Twelve  knights, 
the  bravest  of  the  throng,  formed  the  cen- 
ter of  the  retinue,  and  sat  with  the  king  at 
a  round  table,  known  as  the  famous  Knights 
of  the  Round  Table.  From  Arthur's  court 
knights  went  forth  to  all  countries  in  search 
of  adventure,  to  protect  women,  chastise 
oppressors,  liberate  the  enchanted  and 
to  enchain  giants  and  malevolent  dwarfs. 
Among  the  most  renowned  of  these  heroes 
of  legend  were  Percival,  Tristram,  Gal- 
lahad,  Lancelot  and.  the  enchanter,  Mer- 
lin. Arthur  was  killed  in  battle  by  _his 
nephew,  Modred,  who  had  revolted  against 
him.  His  body  was  carried  by  fairies  to 
the  Isle  ot  Avalon  to  be  cured,  whence  he 
was  expected  to  return  some  day  again  to 
lead  the  Britons  against  the  Saxons.  Many 
critics  doubt  the  existence  of  Arthur,  and, 
of  course,  the  stories  that  have  gathered 
about  his  name  are,  many  ^of  them,  only 
beautiful  legends.  His  fancied  adventures 
have  been  sung  in  many  languages,  but 
for  English  readers  they  are  told  most 
beautifully  in  Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the 
King.  At  Innsbruck,  in  the  Franciscan 
church,  is  a  magnificent  ideal,  life-sized, 
bronze  figure  of  Arthur. 

Arthur,  Chester  Alan,  the  twenty- 
first  president  of  the  United  States,  was 
born  at  Fairfield,  Vermont,  October  5,  1830. 
His  father  was  the  Rev.  W.  Arthur,  D.  D., 
a  Baptist  minister  and  a  native  of  the 
north  of  Ireland.  He  was  graduated  at 
Union  College,  New  York,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1853.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War  he  held  the  post  of 
inspector-general,  and  during  the  war  was 
quartermaster  -gen- 
eral  for  the  New  York 
forces.  When  he  re- 
turned to  the  law,  he 
was  head  of  an  emi- 
nent law  firm.  He 
took  a  prominent 
share  in  politics  on 
the  Republican  side. 
In  1871  President 
Grant  appointed  him 
collector  of  customs 
at  the  port  of  New 
York.  He  was 
elected  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  when  Garfield 
was  made  president.  The  death  of  Gar- 
field  called  Arthur  to  the  chief  mag- 
istracy, and  he  was  installed  as  president  on 
September  22,  1881,  and  held  the  office  till 
March,  1885,  when  he  was  succeeded  by 
Grover  Cleveland.  During  Arthur's  term 
of  office  two  important  measures  were 
passed  by  congress:  a  bill  dealing  with  the 
Mormon  question  and  one  for  the  exclusion 
of  the  Chinese.  His  administration  was 


CHESTER  A,  ARTHUR 


XI5 


ARTILLERY 


recognized  as  clean  and  conservative,  and 
he  retired  from  office  with  the  approba- 
tion of  his  party  and  the  respect  of  the 
nation  at  large.  He  died  November  18, 
1886. 

Arthur's   Seat.     See  EDINBURGH. 

AT' tides  of  Confed'era'tion.  In  1776 
the  Continental  Congress  appointed  a 
committee  to  draw  up  "Articles  of  Con- 
federation and  Perpetual  Union."  This 
committee  prepared  the  articles  of  con- 
federation and  submitted  them  to  Congress 
in  1776.  It  is  not  definitely  known  who 
wrote  them.  In  the  fall  of  1777  the  ar- 
ticles were  sent  to  the  legislatures  of  all 
the  states  for  consideration.  Within  a 
year  and  a  half  all  the  states,  excepting 
Maryland,  had  ratified  them.  Maryland 
refused  to  do  so  until  all  the  states  claim- 
ing any  of  the  northwestern  lands  should 
give  up  their  claims  to  the  Confederation. 
These  claims  were  finally  granted,  and 
Maryland  ratified  the  articles  in  1781. 

As  the  provisions  of  the  articles  went 
into  effect,  their  weakness  became  very 
apparent.  Congress  was  the  governing 
body,  and  in  it  each  state  had  one  vote. 
On  all  important  questions  the  approval 
of  nine  states  was  necessary  to  pass  an  act; 
thus  a  few  states  could  easily  defeat  any 
measure.  The  main  difficulty  with  this 
whole  plan  of  government  was  that  Con- 
gress could  only  recommend  to  the  various 
states  that  they  collect  certain  sums  of 
money,  or  raise  an  army  of  a  certain  size, 
or  perform  other  acts  for  the  good  of  the 
country;  but  had  no  means  of  enforcing 
its  recommendations.  There  was  no  well- 
defined  executive  department,  and  no 
courts  were  provided.  A  committee  which 
was  appointed  by  Congress  and  which 
contained  one  member  from  each  state 
acted  during  the  recess  of  Congress  and 
performed  such  duties  as  Congress  directed. 
The  difficulties  which  at  once  arose  from 
so  loose  and  incomplete  a  plan  of  govern- 
ment soon  became  so  serious  that  a  change 
was  necessary,  and  so  our  present  federal 
constitution  was  prepared  and  adopted. 

Artll'lery,  originally  any  projectile 
weapon  or  engine  of  war,  even  bows,  arrows 
and  slings,  now  it  signifies  either  cannon 
of  any  kind  or  the  'soldiers  who  manage 
them.  When  field-guns  began  to  be  used, 
it  was  necessary  to  have  a  special  body  of 
men  to  study  and  become  familiar  with 
the  flight  and  range  of  balls,  the  weight 
and  strength  of  cannon  and  the  manceuver- 
ing  of  heavy  masses  of  field  artillery.  This 
was  the  origin  of  the  artillery  corps.  After 
the  great  wars  of  the  nineteenth  century 
artillery  had  become  the  third  great  branch 
of  military  service,  ranking  with  the  in- 
fantry and  cavalry.  When  cannon  first 
came  into  use.  the  gunners  were  looked 
upon  as  mechanics  and  had  a  guild  of 
tneir  own.  When  a  war  broke  out,  the 


different  monarchs  hired  as  many  of  them 
as  they  wanted,  their  pay  being  four  times 
that  of  an  _  ordinary  soldier.  In  battle, 
artillery  tactics  consisted  simply  of  putting 
the  guns  in  position,  generally  in  front  of 
the  line,  but  taking  care  to  hide  them  as 
much  as  possible,  until  they  were  ready 
to  open  fire^  In  case  of  defeat  they  nearly 
always  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy, 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  moving  them. 
Louis  XIV  in  1671  was  the  first  sovereign 
to  create  a  special  artillery  force,  and  he 
also  founded  the  first  artillery  school  (1690). 
Among  those  nations  which  have  done 
most  to  improve  the  artillery  service  ar« 
the  Americans,  French  and  Germans,  the 
latter  standing  at  present  foremost  in  this 
line.  English  artillery  was  mainly  de. 
veloped  within  the  igth  century.  Field 
ordnance  has  become  very  effective  ol 
recent  years,  and,  being  lightened,  its 
mobility  has  been  greatly  increased.  The 
rapid-fire  field-gun  to-day  fires  more  aimed 
shots  in  a  minute  than  a  whole  battery 
of  the  old  field-guns  could.  The  new  Ameri- 
can artillery  combines  the  best  and  essen- 
tial features  of  the  Wheeler  and  Ehrhardt 
guns.  One  of  the  largest  guns  ever  built 
is  the  1 6-inch  breech-loading  rifle  of  the 
United  States  seacoast  cannon.  It  is  almost 
fifty  feet  long,  weighs  about  130  tons  and 
throws  a  2,400  Ib.  projectile  nearly  twenty- 
one  miles.  It  can  pierce  42  inches  of  the 
strongest  steel.  The  heaviest  guns  ever 
put  on  ships  are  the  great  guns  of  the 
British  Navy.  The  gatling  and  mitrail- 
leuse types  have  become  obsolete.  The 
rapid-firing,  single  shot  Hotchkiss  cannon, 
the  Maxim-Nordenfeldt  automatic  cannon 
and  the  Krupp,  Canet  and  Vickers-Maxim 
are  the  best-known  types  of  artillery  to- 
day. The  rapid-fire  guns  vary  from  one- 
pounders  to  13.5  rifles  and  from  one  round 
every  two  minutes  to  sixty  in  a  single  minute. 
Their  range  is  from  7,500  to  18,000  feet.  Now- 
adays gunners  crouching  behind  steel  shells 
never  see  the  object  at  which  they  are  firing. 
The  battery  commander  scientifically  finds 
the  range  for  them  and  the  accuracy  of  firing 
is  amazing,  as  illustrated  in  our  article  on 
AERONAUTICS  in  connection  with  air  scouting. 
In  time  of  peace  the  president  is  authorized 
to  reduce  the  battery  organization.  The 
law  requires  that  one  battery  in  each  regi- 
ment shall  be  mounted,  though  it  gives  the 
president  power  to  mount  as  many  others 
as  shall  seem  best  to  him.  When  not 
thus  mounted,  the  batteries  serve  as  heavy 
or  garrison  artillery,  mainly  in  the  seacoast 
fortifications.  Special  schools  for  artillery 
instruction  have  been  founded  in  different 
countries.  The  United  States  Artillery 
School  is  at  Fortress  Monroe,  Virginia. 
It  aims  at  a  course  of  training  which  shall 
not  merely  make  expert  artillerymen  but 
men  fitted  for  any  office,  however  high  in 
rank  or  command.  The  course  is  two 


ARUNDEL 


116 


ASBURY 


years,  and  is  properly  a  post-graduate 
course  with  referenqe  to  the  United  States 
Military  Academy. 

Ar'undel  Marbles,  part  of  a  collection 
of  ancient  sculptures  and  antiquities  gath- 
ered among  the  ruins  of  Greece  early  in  the 
1 7th  century  at  the  expense  of  the  Earl  of 
Arundel,  and  since  1667  in  the  possession 
of  the  University  of  Oxford.  The  most 
valuable  of  the  marbles  is  the  one  bearing 
the  Parian  Chronicle,  a  compendium  of  the 
chief  events  in  Grecian  and  Athenian  his- 
tory, covering  a  period  of  1,318  years  or 
from  the  reign  of  Cecrops  (1582  B.  C.)  to 
the  archonship  of  Diognetus  (264  B.  C.). 
The  Arundel  Society  of  London,  instituted 
in  1848  for  promoting  the  knowledge  of  art 
by  the  publication  of  facsimiles  and  photo- 
graphs, was  named  after  the  Earl  of  Arundel. 

Aryans  (dr'y&ns),  the  name  given  to  the 
parent  race  from  which  most  of  the  modern 
Europeans  are  supposed  to  have  descended. 
The  race,  possibly,  lived  originally  in  the 
highlands  of  Central  Asia  and  spoke  a  com- 
mon language.  Now  and  then  small  groups 
separated  from  the  parent  fold  and  traveled 
to  the  northwest.  The  first  of  these  groups 
were  the  Celts,  who  once  seem  to  have 
spread  over  a  large  part  of  Europe,  though 
the  Welsh  and  Irish  and  a  few  other  peoples 
are  all  that  is  left  of  them.  A  good  while 
later  the  ancestors  of  the  Italians,  the 
Greeks  and  the  Germans  started  westward 
and  settled  in  the  regions  which  these  nations 
now  occupy.  Other  tribes  that  set  out  in 
the  same  way  are  the  Slavs,  the  Persians 
and  the  upper  classes  of  Hindus.  The 
languages  of  these  different  peoples  are  now 
quite  different;  but  they  show  that  they 
were  once  all  part  of  the  same  root-tongue. 
The  parent  race  was  a  peaceful,  agricultural 
people,  having  a  definite  form  of  govern- 
ment. They  probably  lived  in  towns  and 
built  houses.  All  that  we  know  about  them 
comes  from  the  study  of  the  languages  of 
European  nations  and  of  the  Old-Persian 
and  the  high-caste  races  of  Hindustan.  The 
English  are  a  branch  of  the  Aryan  race 
through  the  Germans. 

Asa,  son  of  Abijah  and  great-grandson  of 
Solomon,  was  the  third  king  of  Judah  and 
reigned  from  about  929  to  873  B.  C.  He 
was  very  zealous  in  opposing  the  worship 
of  heathen  gods,  and  is  noted  for  the  wis- 
dom of  his  rule.  A  great  army  which  the 
king  of  Ethiopia  sent  against  him  he  com- 
pletely overthrew.  During  most  of  his 
reign  he  was  at  war  with  Baasha,  king  of 
Israel,  and  at  one  time  formed  an  alliance 
against  him  with  the  king  of  Damascus. 
His  son  Jehoshaphat  succeeded  him. 

A'saph,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  choir 
appointed  by  King  David  for  the  religious 
service.  His  position  probably  became 
hereditary,  his  descendants  thus  forming  a 
kind  of  religious  order.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  written  several  psalms. 


Asbes'tos,  an  incombustible  mineral  of 
a  flax-like,  fibrous  texture,  composed  of 
silica,  magnesia  and  lime,  and  usually 
occurring  in  veins  in  highly  metamorphic 
rocks.  The  sources  of  supply  of  commercial 
asbestos  are  deposits  of  two  distinct  min- 
erals: one  a  variety  of  serpentine  known 
as  chrysotile;  the  other  a  variety  of 
amphibole.  The  Canadian  product,  which 
is  much  prized,  is  of  the  chrysotile  variety, 
and  is  chiefly  found  in,  the  Thetford  dis- 
trict, in  the  province  of  Quebec.  There 
the  more  expensive  grades  have  a  value  of 
from  $150  to  $250  a  ton,  though  the  mill 
fibre  or  paper  stock  commands  but  $30 
or  so  a  ton.  The  yield  of  the  Canadian 
product  in  1910,  was  75,678  tons,  valued 
at  $2,458,929,  the  most  of  which  was 
exported,  only  a  small  part  being  reserved 
for  home  consumption.  The  sources  of  the 
supply  in  this  country  are  the  states  of 
Georgia  and  Wyoming,  Idaho  and  Vermont. 
In  the  United  States  the  yield  in  1910  was 
but  3,693  short  tons,  valued  at  $68,357. 
The  foreign  sources,  besides  Canada,  where 
asbestos  is  found,  are  Australia,  Russia, 
Corsica  and  the  Tyrol.  The  uses  are  now 
many  to  which  asbestos  is  put,  among 
them  the  manufacture  of  fireproof  clothing, 
lining  felt,  theater  curtains,  etc.,  where 
protection  is  sought  from  fire;  it  is  also 
in  use  for  incasing  steam  pipes,  pistons, 
hot-air  joints  and  furnace  pipes  as  well 
as  for  lampwicKS.  gas  stoves  and  fireproof 
safes.  It  is  valuable  also  for  its  heat-re- 
taining properties.  The  ancients  were  fa- 
miliar with  asbestos,  making  use  of  it  to 
envelope  corpses  on  the  funeral  pyre,  so  as  to 
retain  the  ashes. 

As'bury,  Francis,  the  first  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  church  ordained  in 
America.  He  was  born  in  Staffordshire, 
England,  August  20,  1745.  At  the  age  of 
fourteen  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  mechanic, 
but  two  years  later  was  led  to  begin  work 
as  a  local  preacher.  Later  he  joined  the 
itinerant  ministry,  and  after  three  years  of 
service  was  sent  as  a  missionary  to  America, 
being  appointed  in  the  following  year  gen- 
eral assistant  by  John  Wesley.  Here  he 
brought  new  life  into  the  work,  and  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  when  many 
other  ministers  returned  to  England,  he 
kept  on  in  his  labors.  At  the  end  of  the 
war,  it  was  decided  to  found  an  independent 
M.  E.  church  for  America,  and  he  was 
ordained  in  1784  as  bishop  by  his  colleagues 
who  had  already  been  ordained  by  Wesley 
in  England.  For  more  than  thirty  years  he 
worked  earnestly  and  successfully,  and  the 
wonderful  progress  of  Methodism  in  America 
was  largely  due  to  his  efforts  and  ability. 
In  many  respects  he  was  much  like  his 
teacher  and  chief,  John  Wesley.  He  helped 
to  lay  the  foundation  of  the  first  Methodist 
college  in  America  in  1785.  He  died  in 
Virginia  in  1816. 


ASCALON 


117 


ASH 


As'calon  or  Ashkelon,  one  of  the  five 
chief  cities  of  the  ancient  Philistines,  lying 
north  of  Gaza  on  the  Mediterranean.  It 
had  a  shrine  of  the  Syrian  fish-goddess 
Derketo,  and  was  the  birthplace  of  Herod 
the  Great.  In  Solomon's  time  it  was  sub- 
ject to  the  Jews,  but  later  became  inde- 
pendent. Under  the  Romans  it  was  a  kind 
of  republic  and  afterward  the  seat  of  a 
Christian  bishop.  The  Arabs  took  it  in 
637,  and  in  1099  the  crusaders,  under 
Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  gained  a  great  victory 
before  its  walls.  Recaptured  by  the  Mos- 
lems, it  was  retaken  after  five  months' 
siege  in  1157  by  Baldwin  III.  It  was 
dismantled  by  Saladin  in  1191,  and  com- 
pletely destroyed  in  1270  by  Sultan  Bibars. 

Ascension  (as-sen'  shun)  Island.  Origi- 
nally discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1501 
and  called  Concepcion  Island,  its  redis- 
covery on  Ascension  Day,  seven  years  later, 
procured  for  it  the  name  it  still  holds.  It 
is  of  volcanic  origin,  -j%  miles  long  and  with 
an  area  of  35  square  miles,  lying  in  latitude 
7°  55'  south,  longitude  14°  25'  west,  700 
miles  northwest  of  St.  Helena.  It  came 
into  possession  of  the  British  in  1815  and 
is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  admiralty, 
being  used  as  a  depot  for  coal,  stores  and 
provisions  for  ships  on  the  South  Atlantic 
station.  It  has  been  strongly  fortified 
recently,  and  the  discipline  of  a  man-of-war 
is  maintained.  The  population,  including 
about  1 60  Kroomen,  is  450.  Georgetown, 
on  the  northwest  coast,  is  the  garrison 
station  and  there  is  an  excellent  sanitarium 
up  Green  Mountain.  The  island  is  a  great 
resort  of  sea  turtle,  as  well  as  of  rabbits, 
wild  goats  and  partridge. 

Ascension,  Right,  in  astronomy,  a 
term  used  with  declination  (tending  down 
or  aside),  for  defining  the  position  of  points 
of  the  celestial  concave  and  indicating 
their  positions  relative  to  each  other,  right 
ascension  being  measured  on  the  equinoc- 
tial from  the  first  point  of  Aries  eastward, 
while  declination  measures  the  secondaries 
of  the  equinoctial  to  the  north  and  south 
poles  of  the  heavens  from  o  to  90.  Right 
ascension,  which  is  commonly  expressed 
in  time,  one  hour  corresponding  to  15°  on 
the  celestial  sphere,  is  invariably  measured 
from  west  to  east,  thus  corresponding  to 
longitude  on  the  earth,  while  declination 
corresponds  to  latitude.  The  right  ascen- 
sion of  a  star  or  other  'heavenly  body  is 
ascertained  by  a  transit  instrument  and 
a  clock. 

Ascham  (as'  karri),  Roger,  a  well-known 
scholar  and  teacher,  was  born  in  a  small 
English  village  about  1515,  and  was  taken 
into  the  family  of  a  nobleman  to  be  educated. 
While  there  he  showed  so  much  taste  for 
study,  that  in  1530  he  was  sent  to  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge.  He  was  specially 
fond  of  Latin  and  Greek,  and  soon  became 
known  as  a  scholar  in  those  languages. 


Soon  after  his  graduation  he  began  to  act 
as  a  tutor,  and  his  success  brought  to  him 
the  sons  of  many  noblemen.  He  was  then 
appointed  Greek  lecturer  at  the  university, 
and  in  1544  was  made  university  orator. 
He  was  very  fond  of  archery,  and  wrote  a 
book  about  the  right  way  to  use  the  bow. 
He  also  was  quite  a  musician  as  well  as  an 
artist.  In  1548  he  was  appointed  to  take 
charge  of  the  education  of  Princess,  after- 
ward Queen,  Elizabeth.  After  traveling  on 
the  continent  for  a  time,  he  became  Latin 
secretary  to  Queen  Mary,  and  when  Eliza- 
beth became  queen  he  spent  part  of  each 
day  with  her,  reading  Latin  and  Greek 
authors,  of  which  she  was  very  fond.  His 
success  as  a  teacher  led  him  to  write  his 
famous  book  called  The  Schoolmaster.  He 
died  at  London  in  1568. 

Ascomycetes  (as-ko-mi-se'  tez).  A  very 
large  group  of  low  plants  (Fungi),  among 
which  the  common  mildews  may  be  taken 
as  a  type.  The  mildews  are  surface  para- 
sites and  are  commonly  found  covering  the 
leaves  of  the  higher  plants  with  a  whitish 
covering.  The  leaves  of  the  lilac  are  very 
commonly  infested  by  this  parasite.  To 
this  group  also  belong  such  well-known 
forms  as  the  common  blue  mould  found  on 
bread,  fruit,  etc.;  the  common  fungus, 
whose  subterranean  body  produces  truffles; 
the  fungi  which  cause  the  diseases  known 
as  black  knot  of  plum  and  cherry;  forms 
which  cause  the  witch's  broom,  peach  curl, 
etc.;  while  to  the  same  group  belong  the 
common  cup-fungi  and  the  edible  morels; 
perhaps  the  common  yeast  is  an  ascomycete. 
The  name  of  the  group  is  derived  from 
the  fact  that  the  spores  are  developed  in 
delicate  sacs,  each  sac  being  called  an 
ascus;  while  the  spores  within  these  asci 
are  known  as  ascospores.  See  FUNGI. 

As'cospore  (in  plants).  An  asexual  spore 
produced  by  the  ascomycetes. 

As'cus  (in  plants).  A  sac  producing 
spores,  characteristic  of  the  ascomycetes. 

Asex'ual  Spore  (in  plants).  A  spore 
which  has  not  been  formed  by  the  union  of 
two  cells,  that  is,  in  a  sexual  way.  Ordinarily, 
the  asexual  spore  is  formed  by  cell  division. 
Its  power  of  reproduction  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  sexually  formed  spore,  the  differ- 
ence between  the  two  being  simply  one  of 
origin.  Asexual  spores  are  common  among 
all  groups  of  plants.  They  are  the  spores 
most  commonly  seen  in  connection  with  the 
flowerless  plants,  and  among  the  flowering 
plants,  the  so-called  pollen  grains  are 
asexual  spores.  See  SPORE. 

Ash,  a  tree  common  to  Europe  and  on 
the  North  American  continent,  of  the 
genus  Fracinus  and  family  Oleacea.  Accord- 
ing to  its  variety  it  is  valuable  economically 
as  timber  used  by  carpenters,  coachmakers 
and  wheelwrights,  as  well  as  picturesquely 
for  its  ornamental  and  shade  purposes. 
The  varieties  of  the  ash  are  many,  includ- 


ASHANTI 


118 


ASH  WEDNESDAY 


in*  the  common  ash,  native  to  the  British 
Isles;  the  white  or  American  ash,  with  a 
light  bark  and  pale  green  leaves,  abundant 
in  Canada  and  in  the  United  States  west 
to  Minnesota  and  Texas;  the  red  ash,  met 
with  in  swampy  ground  in  the  middle 
states  of  the  union:  the  black  ash,  native 
to  New  England  and  west  to  Missouri,  and 
with  its  soft  though  tough  wood,  useful 
for  barrel  hoops  and  staves;  besides  the 
green  ash,  prized  for  its  ornamental  beauty 
in  the  middle  states  and  the  west;  and 
the  mountain  ash  or  rowan  tree  (a  species 
of  Pyrus),  allied  to  the  ash  tree  proper  only 
in  its  leaves.  The  two  varieties  familiar  in 
the  middle  and  northern  states  are  the 
white  and  the  black  ash,  and  these  are 
the  most  useful  for  their  tough,  yet  easily 
worked  wood,  as  well  as  for  their  orna- 
mental purposes  as  a  shade  tree. 

Ashan'ti  or  Ashantee,  lately  a  negro 
kingdom  in  western  Africa,  on  the  north  of 
the  Gold  Coast.  Formerly,  it  was  shut  off 
from  the  seaboard  by  the  Gold  Coast  colony, 
eighty  miles  broad,  an  English  protectorate. 
Since  1896,  it  has  become  part  of  the  north- 
ern territories  of  the  Gold  Coast  under  a 
British  protectorate,  and  is  governed  by  a 
British  resident  agent.  Its  exports  are  gold, 
palm-oil  and  india-rubber.  Its  population 
is  from  one  to  one  and  one-half  millions, 
one  fifth  of  whom  are  warriors;  area  of 
Ashanti,  the  Gold  Coast  and  protectorate, 
about  82,000  square  miles.  The  land  is 
tilled  near  the  towns,  but  elsewhere  is  a 
dense  forest.  The  natives  manufacture 
beautiful  cottons,  earthenware  and  sword- 
blades.  They  have  been  wont  to  practice 
human  sacrifice  and  are  polygamists,  the 
king  being  allowed  3,333  wives.  The  capital 
is  Coomassie  (Kumas-i). 

The  people  of  Ashanti  probably  came 
from  north  of  the  Kong  Mountains.  They 
were  first  heard  of  in  1700,  when  a  powerful 
king,  Osai  Tutu,  conquered  several  neigh- 
boring states.  They  have  fought  two  wars 
with  the  English  and  lately  one  with  the 
French.  In  1900,  there  was  a  serious 
rising  c.t  Kumasi  against  the  English,  who 
for  a  time  were  besieged  in  the  city,  but 
were  relieved  by  a  force  from  the  coast. 

Progress  is  going  steadily  on,  Kumasi 
being  linked  with  Obassi  and  the  coast  at 
Sekondi  by  a  railway  168  miles  long,  built 
at  a  cost  of  $9,034,000.  The  census  of 
1911  estimates  the  population  in  the 
northern  territories  (those  beyond  the 
eighth  parallel  of  north  latitude)  at  357,- 
569,  distributed  over  a  territory^  between 
38,000  and  50,000  square  miles  in  extent. 
They  are  administered  by  a  commissioner 
and  commandant  with  headquarters  at 
Gambaga.  The  revenue  in  1910,  derived 
largely  from  caravan  taxes,  was  $188,105, 
the  expenditures  $586,990,  and  the  grant 
in  aid  $68,800.  Permanent  roads  are  being 
made,  light  steamers  are  plying  the  Volta, 


and  a  silver  currency  has  been  introduced 
with  increasing  benefits.  Kumasi,  the  chief 
town,  had  in  1905  a  population  of  5,940 

Ashe'ville,  N.  C.,  the  capital  of  Bun- 
combe County,  North  Carolina,  a  central 
railroad  point  in  the  state,  210  miles  west 
of  Raleigh.  Situated  in  the  Blue  Ridge 
Mountains  and  comparatively  close  to  the 
Smoky  Mountains  of  Tennessee,  it  has  be- 
come a  noted  health  resort.  Here  is  Ashe- 
ville  College  for  Women,  a  Methodist  institu- 
tion, founded  in  1843.  Asheville  is  the  seat 
of  an  extensive  trade  in  tobacco.  Popula- 
tion, including  suburbs,  34,000. 

Ash'land,  Ky.,  a  city  in  Boyd  County, 
on  the  Ohio  River,  opposite  to  and  a  little 
to  the  southeast  of  Ironton,  O.,  and  about 
145  miles  southeast  of  Cincinnati.  It 
is  reached  by  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio,  the 
Norfolk  &  Western  and  other  railroads  as 
well  as  by  steamers  on  the  Ohio.  Settled 
early  in  the  fifties,  Ashland  became  a  city 
in  1870  and  is  today  governed  by  the 
revised  charter  of  1894.  Besides  Central 
Park,  a  pretty,  recreative  area  of  50  acres 
in  the  heart  of  the  city,  it  has  other  pleasure 
resorts  without  the  city  limits,  especially 
Cliffside  Park.  The  town  is  important  as 
a  manufacturing  and  shipping  center,  and 
has  an  extensive  trade  in  coal,  iron  ore, 
sheet  steel,  wire  rods  and  nails,  brick, 
lumber,  furniture,  leather  and  other  prod- 
ucts of  its  industrial  establishments.  Pop- 
ulation, 8,688. 

Ashland,  Wis.,  capital  of  Ashland 
County,  Wis.,  in  the  northern  section  of 
the  state,  situated  on  Chequamegon  or  Ash 
land  Bay,  Lake  Superior,  60  miles  east  of 
Duluth,  1 80  miles  from  St.  Paul,  250  miles 
from  Milwaukee  and  410  miles  from 
Chicago.  It  is  the  center  of  a  large  lumber, 
brown  stone,  and  iron  mining  trade,  and 
its  position  on  the  lake  contributes  to  the 
commerce  and  expansion  of  the  city.  £t 
is,  moreover,  the  terminus  of  four  railroads. 
It  has  a  number  of  churches  and  schools 
and  several  charcoal  blast-furnaces  and 
other  industries.  Population,  11,594. 

Ash'  tabu'  la,  O.,  an  important  railway 
and  shipping  center  on  Lake  Erie,  55  miles 
east  of  Cleveland  and  about  midway  be- 
tween the  latter  and  Erie,  Pa.  It  possesses 
a  good  harbor,  and  has  a  large  trade  in  ship- 
ping coal  from  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  mines 
and  iron  ore  from  Northern  Michigan.  It  is  a 
station  on  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan 
Southern  Railroad,  and  has  railroad  connec- 
tions besides  with  the  New  York,  Chicago 
and  St.  Louis  and  with  the  Pittsburg,  Youngs- 
town  and  Ashtabula  division  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Lines,  It  has  become  an  important 
manufacturing  center.  The  town  has  some 
fine  public  buildings  and  has  electric  railroads 
and  other  modern  equipments.  Population 
21,000. 

Ash  Wednesday,  the  first  day  in  Lent; 
so  called  from  the  old  church  custom  of 


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ASIA 


119 


ASIA 


sprinkling  ashes  on  the  head  as  a  sign  of 
penitence.  The  ashes  are  those  of  the  palms 
consecrated  on  Palm  Sunday.  This  custom 
was  probably  established  by  Gregory  the 
Great  (590-604).  It  is  observed  by  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  church.  The  day,  but  not  the 
ceremony,  is  observed  in  the  Church  of 
England. 

Asia  (d'sht-a)  is  the  largest  continent  of 
the  globe.  Its  name  comes  probably  from 
an  Assyrian  or  Hebrew  word  meaning  "the 
rising  sun."  It  has  the  Arctic  Ocean  on 
the  north,  the  Pacific  on  the  east  and  the 
Indian  Ocean  on  the  south.  On  the  west 
is  Europe,  the  boundaries  being  the  Ural 
Mountains,  the  Caspian  Sea,  Caucasus 
Mountains,  the  Black,  Mediterranean  and 
Red  Seas.  It  is  joined  to  Africa  on  the 
southwest  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  and  on 
the  northeast  is  separated  from  America  by 
Bering  Strait.  The  immense  coast  line  of 
35,000  miles  is  very  irregular.  The  Red 
Sea,  bordering  Arabia,  has  become,  by  the 
building  of  the  Suez  Canal,  a  highway  of 
the  first  importance.  The  Arabian  Sea  and 
Bay  of  Bengal  are  wide,  open  divisions  of 
the  Indian  Ocean.  The  Persian  Gulf  is  shut 
in  by  deserts  and  mountains.  The  archi- 
pelagoes of  the  Pacific  form  the  two  China 
Seas,  which,  with  their  three  gulfs,  Siam, 
Tonquin  and  the  Yellow  Sea,  constitute 
the  Mediterranean  of  Asia.  It  is  these  seas 
that  are  visited  by  the  dreaded  storms 
called  typhoons.  In  the  north  are  the  seas 
of  Japan,  Okhotsk  and  Bering. 

Area.  The  length  of  the  continent  from 
north  to  south  is  about  5,300  miles  and 
from  east  to  west  over  5,500  miles.  The 
area,  including  islands,  is  estimated  at 
I7i256,ooo  square  miles,  one-third  of  the 
dry  land  of  the  globe.  The  peninsulas  of 
Asia  occupy  one-fifth  of  its  area.  On  the 
south  are  the  three  greatest  peninsulas, 
Arabia,  India  and  Indo  China.  On  the  west, 
Asia  Minor  projects  Europe-ward,  and  all 
but  closes  the  waters  of  the  Black  Sea  from 
the  Mediterranean.  In  the  east,  are  Kam- 
chatka, Korea  and  the  peninsula  of  Tchukt- 
chis.  The  islands  of  Asia  cover  one-sixth  of 
her  area.  In  the  south  and  east  they  form  a 
dotted  line  running  parallel  to  the  coast. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  Central  Asia  has 
been  called  the  roof  oi  the  world.  It  is  a 
region  of  lofty  mountain  ranges  and  wide 
plateaus,  the  highest  in  the  world.  North 
of  this  elevated  region  lies  the  great  plain 
of  Siberia,  extending  to  the  Arctic,  while 
east  and  south  are  narrower  plains  extend- 
ing to  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans.  Ex- 
tending northeast  and  southwest  are  moun- 
tain ranges  and  high  plateaus.  The  great 
mountains  of  Asia  are  the  Himalayas,  the 
highest  in  the  world.  They  are  2,000  miles 
in  length,  and  from  100  to  500  in  breadth, 
rising  along  their  whole  length  far  above 
the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  There  are  seve- 
ral peaks  20,000  feet  high  or  more,  the  lofties- 


that  has  been  measured,  Mount  Everest, 
being  more  than  29,000  feet.  The  Ural  and 
Caucasus  ranges  are  on  the  border  of  Asia. 

There  are  two  great  tablelands:  that  of 
western  Asia,  stretching  from  the  Black 
Sea  to  the  valley  of  the  Indus,  and  the 
higher  and  larger  tableland  of  eastern  Asia, 
stretching  from  the  Himalayas  to  the  north- 
eastern point  of  Asia,  where  it  meets  the 
great  central  tableland  of  North  America. 
The  plain  culminates  in  Tibet,  the  highest 
tableland  in  the  world,  its  lowest  valleys 
being  higher  than  Mont  Blanc.  These  great 
plains  separate  the  lowlands  of  Siberia  and 
the  Aral-Caspian  region  from  the  lowlands 
of  India  and  China.  Across  the  mountains 
to  the  north  of  Tibet  is  a  swamp,  Lake 
Lob- Nor.  which  once  was  a  huge  sea,  and 
whose  rapid  drying  up  was  probably  the 
cause  of  the  westward  migration  of  the 
Huns  and  Mongols. 

Drainage  systems  are  numerous,  but  only 
those  of  importance  demand  enumeration. 
They  include  continental  and  oceanic  drain- 
age. The  first,  4,900,000  square  miles  in 
area  includes  rivers  emptying,  as  in  Gobi 
desert,  Syro-Arabia  or  Tibet,  into  the  Aral, 
Caspian  or  Dead  Seas,  Lakes  Baikal,  Kalk- 
hash  or  Van,  or  the  numberless  lakes,  sinks 
or  swamps  of  Persia,  Siberia,  Turkestan. 
The  oceanic  systems  drain  to  the  Arctic, 
Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans  and  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  Arctic  area  covers  4,367,- 
ooo  miles,  the  Pacific  3,641,000  and  the 
Indian  2,873,000.  The  Lena,  Ob  and 
Yenisei  flow  into  the  Arctic,  these  rivers 
and  their  tributaries,  when  unfrozen,  giving 
navigation  throughout  Siberia.  China  and 
Tibet  contribute  the  Amur,  Hwang- Ho, 
Si-Kiang  and  Yang-Tsi-Kiang  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  Indo-China  gives  the  Mekong, 
Salwin  and  Irawadi  to  the  Indian  Ocean; 
India  the  Brahmaputra,  Ganges  and  Indus  j 
Armenia  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 

Climate  and  Rainfall.  On  the  tablelands 
and  north  of  the  main  mountains  the  climate 
is  very  dry  and  there  are  great  extremes  of 
temperature,  long  severe  winters  and  hot, 
short  summers.  South  of  the  mountains 
and  on  the  Pacific  the  climate  is  tropical 
but  modified  by  altitude  and  the  monsoons 
or  rain-winds  from  the  southern  seas.  The 
mean  temperature  ranges  from  nearly  zero 
in  Arctic  Siberia  to  nearly  90°  in  Arabia. 
The  lowest  temperature  is  100°  below  zero, 
the  highest  120°  above.  Rainfalls  vary 
from  five  inches  annually  over  the  Aral  to 
550  on  the  Khasiya  Mountains  near  Cal- 
cutta. 

Animal  and  Vegetable  Life.  Animals  of 
Asiatic  origin  include  the  ass,  buffalo,  camel, 
cobra,  crocodile,  dromedary,  dugong,  dol- 
phin, elephant,  goat,  horse,  leopard,  lion, 
ox,  pheasant,  reindeer,  sheep,  silkworm, 
sturgeon,  tiger,  yak,  zo  and  others.  Among 
indigenous  plants,  the  flora  of  southeastern 
Asia  numbering  12,000  species,  are  the 


ASIA 


120 


ASIA  MINOR 


banyan,  barley,  breadfruit,  cedar,  cotton, 
coffee,  fig,  indigo,  flax,  lemon,  mulberry, 
mango  olive,  orange,  peach,  pomegranate, 
poppy,  rice,  sago,  spices,  sandalwood,  sugar, 
tea.  teak,  the  vine,  wheat  and  many  more. 

Inhabitants.  The  yellow,  white  and  brown 
races  people  Asia,  but  others  occur.  The 
first  is  the  Mongolian,  the  typical  Asiatic 
and  three  fifths  of  the  population.  The 
second  is  the  Caucasian,  consisting  of  the 
Semitic  and  the  Aryan  family.  The  third 
is  the  Malay,  whose  separateness  as  a  race 
is  questioned.  One  Mongolian  group  em- 
braces the  tribes  of  Siberia  and  Turkestan, 
the  other  the  peoples  of  China,  Indo-China 
and  Tibet  The  Turks,  Koreans  and 
Japanese  belong  to  the  first  group,  the 
Chinese,  Siamese  and  Tibetans  to  the  sec- 
ond. A  Caucasian  group,  the  family  of 
Aryans,  includes  Afghans,  Armenians, 
Baluchs,  Hindus,  Kurds,  and  Persians,  but 
excludes  Europeans  and  Americans;  while 
another,  the  family  of  Semites,  consists  of 
Jews  and  Arabs.  The  Malay  prevails  in 
the  East  Indies,  Formosa,  Malacca  and  the 
Philippines.  Near  America  live  Eskimos; 
in  tropical  Asia  and  the  Philippine  Islands, 
Negritos;  and  Anatolia,  Arabia  and  Persia 
have  Negro  slaves.  Of  unrelated  tribes 
hundreds  exist. 

Political  Divisions.  Asia  is  partly  inde- 
pendent, but  two  thirds  of  the  area  and 
nearly  half  the  people  are  controlled  by 
Europe  and  the  United  States.  Inde- 
pendent states  include  Afghanistan,  Arabia 
(partly),  Baluchistan  (partly),  Bhutan, 
China,  Japan  (including  Formosa,  Korea 
and  part  of  Sakhalin),  Nepal,  Siam,  some 
Malay  states  and  Turkey.  The  depend- 
encies are  those  of  America,  Britain,  France, 
Germany,  Holland,  Portugal  and  Russia. 
America  holds  the  Philippines.  British 
colonial  possessions  include  Baluchistan, 
British  Borneo,  Burmah,  Ceylon,  India, 
Hongkong,  Labuan,  Sarawak,  the  Straits 
Settlements  and  Weihaiwei.  France  has 
Anam,  Cambodia,  Laos,  Tong-King  and 
places  in  Hindustan.  Germany  owns  Kia- 
ochau.  Holland  possesses  Borneo  (partly), 
Celebes,  Java,  Sumatra  and  other  islands. 
Portugal  remains  at  Goa,  Kambing,  Macao 
and  Timor.  Armenia  (partly),  Caucasia, 
Siberia  and  part  of  Sakhalin  belong  to  Russia. 

History.  In  Asia  history  began.  In 
Asia  Minor  originated  man's  oldest  monu- 
ments and  records  outside  of  Egypt. 
Though  Babylonian  civilization  ceased  two 
thousand  years  ago,  its  contemporary  exists 
yet  in  China.  In  Asia  arose  every  great 
religion — Brahmanism,  Buddhism,  Chris- 
tianity, Islam,  Judaism  and  Zoroastrianism. 
(Confucianism  is  not  a  religion  but  a  code 
of  conduct.)  Confucius,  Gautama  the 
Buddha,  Mohammed,  Moses,  Paul  and 
Zoroaster  were  Asiatics,  but  each  affected 
the  world  as  powerfully  as  Alexander  and 
Caesar. 


The  Aryans,  possibly  from  east  of  the  Cas- 

?Ian  and  north  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  invaded 
ersia  and  India.  Persia  became  the  first 
world-empire,  extending  her  dominion  under 
Cyrus  to  the  confines  of  Greece.  Alexander 
in  turn  invaded  Asia  330  B.  C.,  conquered 
Persia,  extended  his  power  into  India,  and 
carried  Greek  ideas  and  culture  from  the 
Bosporus  to  the  Indus  and  Oxus.  On  the 
death  of  Alexander  his  empire  fell  to  pieces 
and  subsequently  all  western  Asia  came 
under  the  dominion  of  Rome,  including 
Arabia  in  part,  Asia  Minor  and  Syria; 
Constantinople  inheriting  and  holding  this 
region  for  seven  centuries  after.  The  power 
of  Islam,  dating  from  the  seventh  century, 
became  dominant,  building  empires  between 
the  Mediterranean,  Ganges  and  Caspian  on 
the  wreckage  of  Rome  and  extending  its 
sway  into  Egypt  and  India.  Palestine  be- 
came a  stage  (1100-1300)  for  the  wars  of 
religion  called  crusades.  Turks  and  Tartars 
issued  from  central  Asia  (1215-1415), 
destroyed  the  Saracen,  Muscovite  and 
Byzantine  empires,  and  overthrew  China 
temporarily.  The  Ottoman  empire  was 
established,  however  (1300),  drove  back 
the  Mongols  and  in  1453  captured  Con- 
stantinople. Mongols  founded  an  Indian 
Empire  (1525-1857)  whose  rulers  included 
two  of  the  best  and  ablest  among  monarchs, 
Akbar  and  Aurangzeb. 

Portugal  found  a  searoad  to  Asia  around 
Africa  to  India  (1497),  China  (1517),  and 
Japan  (1542),  and  initiated  Asia's  modern 
era.  Russia  started  across  Siberia  (1580), 
Holland  gained  footing  in  th*  East  Indies 
(1596),  England's  East  India  Company 
arrived  in  1600,  and  France  entered  India 
four  years  later.  England's  Indian  empire 
began  in  1757,  and  France,  failing  in  H'ndu- 
stan,  built  an  empire  in  Indo-China  during 
the  igth  century.  America  brought  Japan 
into  modern  life  (1854),  though  the  Dutch 
had  influenced  it  through  commerce  for  two 
centuries,  and  in  fifty  years  it  entered 
among  the  world-powers.  A  war  between 
China  and  Japan  (1894)  resulted  in  the 
cession  of  Formosa  to  Japan,  The  Philip 
pines  were  transferred  to  the  United  States 
(1898)  at  the  close  of  the  Spanish-American 
war.  A  war  between  Russia  and  Japan 
(1904-5),  the  most  sanguinary  struggle  of 
recent  times,  resulted  in  victory  for  Japan, 
with  added  prestige,  the  cession  of  part  of 
Sakhalin  and  the  control  of  Korea. 

Asia  Minor  is  the  name  given  to  the 
western  peninsula  of  Asia,  forming  part  of 
Turkey  in  Asia.  Its  area  is  about  200.000 
square  miles.  It  is  the  western  prolonga- 
tion of  the  high  tableland  of  Armenia,  with 
bare  steppes,  salt  plains,  marshes  and  lakes. 
Along  the  coast  are  mountains,  from  4,000 
to  6,000  feet  high  on  the  north,  and  on  the 
south  the  Taurus  range,  from  10,000  to 
12,000  feet  in  height.  In  general  the  climate 
is  like  that  of  southern  Europe.  The  in- 


ASIATIC  TYPES 

i    Ainu  of  Tapan     2  Chinese     3   Japanese  Girl     4  Shiba  Man     5  Manchu     6  Golde     7   Mangune 
8  Giljak  Man     9   Buriat      10   Katjinz      ir    Korean      12   Giljak  Woman 


ASP 


121 


ASPHALT 


habitants,  some  10,500,000  in  number,  are 
of  various  races,  The  ruling  race  L>  the 
Turks,  who  number  about  1,200,000.  Allied 
to  them,  are  the  Turkomans  and  Yarruks, 
who  are  nomads.  Another  nomadic  people 
are  the  Kurds,  and  in  the  mountains  are  the 
robber  tribes  of  the  Lazes.  The  Greeks  and 
Armenians  are  most  progressive  and  have 
most  of  the  trade,  and  with  the  Jews  own 
most  of  the  land. 

Here  were- the  ancient  and  famous  coun- 
tries of  Ionia,  Phrygia,  Lydia,  Galatia, 
Cilicia  and  Cappadocia,  with  Troy,  Ephesus, 
Smyrna  and  many  other  noted  cities.  Asia 
Minor  was  the  scene  of  great  conquests. 
Here  took  place  the  wars  of  the  Medes  and 
Persians  with  the  Scythians,  of  the  Greeks 
with  the  Persians,  of  the  Romans  with 
Mithradates  and  the  Parthians,  of  the 
Arabs,  Mongols  and  Turks  with  the  Byzan- 
tine empire.  Notwithstanding  all  these 
wars,  the  country  still  enjoyed  some  measure 
of  prosperity,  until  it  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Turks,  whose  harsh  military  rule  has 
almost  ruined  it.  The  chief  modern  vilayets 
(Turkish  provinces)  are  Smyrna,  Angora, 
Trebizond,  Ismid,  Konia  and  Brussa.  A 
Dumber  of  railways  now  traverse  Asia  Minor. 

Asp,  a  name  loosely  applied  to  several 
kinds  of  venomous  serpents.  A  kind  of 
viper  in  southern  Europe  and  a  snake  in 
India,  closely  allied  to  the  cobra,  have 
received  this  name.  Several  kinds  of  vipers 
are  found  in  Palestine,  and  it  is  not  cer- 
tainly known  to  which  one  the  word  asp 
in  the  Bible  refers.  Cleopatra's  famous  asp, 
bv  means  of  which  she  committed  suicide, 
is  believed  to  have  been  a  snake  called  the 
homed  viper. 

As=par'a=gus  is  a  tuberous  rooted,  per- 
ennial herb,  which  in  some  varieties  is  the 
size  of  a  shrub.  It  is  widely  distributed 
in  warm  countries  of  the  temperate  climes 
and  in  the  tropics,  but  is  cultivated  in  all 
civilized  countries.  The  plant  grows  wild 
on  the  southern  coast  of  England,  and  on 
the  plains  of  Russia  it  so  abounds  that  the 
cattfe  devour  it  like  grass.  Its  varieties 
number  nearly  150,  the  best  and  most 
widely  known  being  the  esculent  asparagus. 
For  more  than  2,000  years  it  has  been 
cultivated  for  the  succulent  young  shoots 
produced  from  the  thick  root  stocks  in 
spring.  It  is  first  grown  a  year  or,  if  neces- 
sary, two  years  in  a  nursery  bed,  then 
transplanted  to  a  permanent  one.  Shoots 
should  not  be  gathered  before  the  second 
spring  after  planting  in  permanent  quarters. 
As  a  rule  the  thicker  the  head  the  better. 
The  plant  yields  annually  for  ten  or  twelve 
years.  Its  important  enemies  are  rust  and 
beetles. 

As'pen,  also  known  as  quaking  asp 
and  as  white  poplar,  is  a  tree  of  much 
interest  and  beauty.  It  came  originally 
from  the  cooler  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  belongs  to  the  genus  Populus.  In  this 


country  it  is  distributed  generally  north 
of  Pennsylvania  and  Kentucky,  and  grows 
on  the  mountains  of  the  west,  south  to 
Mexico.  It  is  a  tall,  slender  tree,  is  said 
to  reach  in  the  forests  to  the  height  of 
100  feet,  but  the  usual  variation  is  from 
40  to  80  feet.  The  bark,  save  at  the  base, 
is  light  colored;  the  leaves,  which  are  a 
glossy  green  above  and  yellowish  green 
below,  twinkle  and  tremble  owing  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  long  flexible  stem  and 
the  light  leaf-blade.  There  is  much  delicate 
color  in  the  aspen,  in  the  bark,  the  cat- 
kins and  the  unfolding  leaves.  It  is  a 
prized  ornamental  tree,  grows  rapidly,  but 
is  short  lived.  The  seeds  are  wafted  a 
considerable  distance  by  means  of  the  long 
hairs  with  which  they  are  surrounded.  It 
is  valuable  on  lands  devastated  by  forest  fires, 
being  one  of  the  first  trees  to  spring  up  in 
clearings  and  protecting  later  growths.  It  is 
used  in  turning  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
wood  pulp,  but  is  not  valued  for  fuel.  The 
large-toothed  aspen  is  a  stiffer,  less 
attractive  tree,  though  the  weeping  vari- 
eties of  this  are  employed  for  ornamental 
purposes.  Its  distribution  in  this  country 
is  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Minnesota  and 
south  to  Tennessee. 

Asphalt  (as' fait)  is  bitumen  of  purer 
form,  being  a  mineral  and  solid  or  semi- 
solid.  Its  name  comes  from  Locus  As- 
phaltites,  Latin  for  the  Dead  Sea,  where 
asphalt  once  abounded  .  It  is  black  or 
brown  in  color,  brittle  in  consistency 
(though  this  varies  from  a  bright  pitchy 
condition  to  thick  masses  of  mineral  tar) 
and  compact.  It  melts  easily  about  the 
boiling  point  of  water,  burns  without  mak- 
ing ashes,  and  emits  a  thick  smoke  of 
pitchy  odor.  It  is  widely  distributed, 
especially  in  tropical  and  subtropical  re- 
gions, but  deposits  of  sufficient  quantity 
for  commerce  and  the  industries  occur  only 
in  a  few  localities.  It  is  a  product  of  the 
decomposition  of  vegetable  and  animal 
substances,  the  three  preceding  products 
being  naphtha,  petroleum  and  mineral 
tar.  Asphaltic  stone  is  limestone  impreg- 
nated with  bituminous  matter.  Asphalt 
cement  is  refined  cement  tempered  with 
petroleum.  Mastic  is  asphalt  cement  mixed 
with  powdered  limestone  and  sand.  As- 
phalt concrete  is  crushed  stone  cemented 
with  mastic  and  compressed.  Simple  as- 
phalt is  found  at  Auvergne  (France), 
Caxatambo  (Peru),  Cuba,  southern  Cali- 
fornia, Switzerland,  Trinidad  (an  island 
off  Orinoco  River)  and  Venezuela.  Colorado, 
Italy,  Kentucky,  Oklahoma  and  Utah 
also  contribute.  Asphaltic  limestone  oc- 
curs largely  in  Europe.  Auvergne  once 
supplied  most  asphalt,  Caxatambo  exports 
a  very  pure  variety  of  high  luster,  Cuba 
yields  considerable  asphalt  of  fine  quality, 
but  the  supreme  sources  of  supply  m 
quality  as  in  quantity  are  Trinidad,  Cali- 


ASPINWALL 


122 


ASSAYING 


fornia  and  Bermudez  in  Venezuela.  Trini- 
dad contains  a  lake  of  asphalt  about  one 
mile  in  diameter,  and  containing  perhaps 
6,000,000  tons.  An  American  company 
exports  100,000  tons  a  year  from  this  lake 
to  the  United  States,  the  supply  partly 
renewing  itself  by  a  constant  flow  of  soft 
pitch  from  subterranean  sources.  Ber- 
mudez, where  an  asphalt  lake  covers 
1,000  acres,  exports  very  pure  and  hard 
asphalt.  In  California  asphalt  was  dis- 
covered in  1879,  and  about  1894  beds  of 
very  pure,  high  grade,  liquid  asphalt  were 
found,  which  even  in  its  natural  state 
already  has  the  proper  consistency  for 
paving.  The  value  of  our  domestic  product 
almost  equals  that  of  the  imported  product. 

Bituminous  rock,  which  is  principally 
used  for  paving  streets,  is  usually  shipped 
unrefined,  and  mixed  at  the  place  of  use 
with  other  ingredients.  Raw  asphalt  gen- 
erally is  impure,  and  must  be  refined  be- 
fore it  can  be  used.  It  is  manufactured 
into  a  cement  by  mixing  it  with  other 
forms  of  bitumen,  this  cement  being  used 
to  bind  particles  of  limestone  and  sand  in 
an  asphalt  pavement.  First  the  asphalt 
is  melted,  the  residuum  from  petroleum 
being  added  and  this  mixture  being  the 
paving  cement.  Clean,  sharp  sand,  heated 
to  300°  is  added,  and  carbonate  of  lime 
last.  The  three  substances  are  mixed 
thoroughly,  and  the  product  is  the  mix- 
ture used  in  paving  streets.  Asphalt  is 
most  used  for  street  paving,  but  it  is  em- 
ployed also  for  the  distillation  of  lubricat- 
ing and  illuminating  oils,  for  cements,  for 
making  black  Japan  varnish,  drainpipes  of 
compressed  asphalted  paper  and  roofing 
felts,  or  paper  waterproofed  with  asphalt, 
and  for  waterproofing  foundations  in 
bridges  and  buildings. 

Paving  streets  with  asphalt  is  a  simple 
process.  The  street  is  graded  solidly  to 
within  eight  inches  of  the  proposed  surface, 

Asquith,  Herbert  Henry,  Premier  of 
England.  Born  at  Morley,  Yorkshire,  Sep- 
tember 12,  1852,  and  educated  at  Oxford,  he 
became  a  lawyer,  was  appointed  Queen's 
Counsel  in  1880  and  in  1886  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment. He  was  made  Home  Secretary  in 
Gladstone's  last  Cabinet;  appointed  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer  under  Campbell- 
Bannerman  (q.  v.)  and  at  his  death,  succeeded 
him  as  Premier.  Owing  to  criticism  of  his 
policy  in  the  European  War  he  resigned 
the  premiership  in  1916  and  was  succeeded 
by  Lloyd-George  (q.  v.)  his  minister  of  war. 

Aspinwall.     See  COLON. 

Ass.  The  ass,  originally  domesticated 
from  the  wild  ass  of  Abyssinia,  differs  from 
the  horse  in  its  smaller  size  and  its  long 
hair  tufted  at  the  end  of  the  tail.  Its  fur 
is  usually  of  a  gray  color.  The  unwilling- 
ness it  snows  to  cross  the  smallest  stream 
and  its  fondness  for  rolling  in  the  dust 
point  to  arid  deserts  as  probably  its  first 


home.  Its  reputation  for  stupidity  is  very 
old.  The  Egyptians  represented  an  ig- 
norant person  by  the  head  and  ears  of  an 
ass.  In  the  middle  ages  the  Germans  of 
Westphalia  .made  the  ass  represent  Thomas, 
the  unbelieving  apostle,  and  the  boy  who 
was  last  to  enter  the  school  on  St.  Thomas' 
Day  was  called  the  "Ass  Thomas."  In 
southern  Europe,  the  ass  has  been  care- 
fully bred  and  thus  greatly  improved. 
The  small  size  of  the  animal  in  cold  coun 
tries  is  as  much  due  to  neglect  as  to  the 
climate.  In  Kentucky,  where  they  are 
used  in  breeding  mules,  being  well  cared 
for,  they  are  fifteen  hands  high  on  an 
average;  while  in  the  north  of  India,  where 
they  are  used  by  the  lowest  castes,  they 
are  no  taller  than  a  Newfoundland  dog. 
In  Syria  and  Egypt  the  ass  is  seen  at  its 
best,  and  is  highly  prized  as  a  domestic 
animal.  Its  milk  is  very  valuable  for 
invalids.  Wild  asses  are  hunted  in  Persia. 

Assam  (as-sam'),  a  province  of  British 
India,  situated  north  of  Burma  in  the 
valley  of  the  Brahmaputra,  acquired  by 
the  British  in  the  Burmese  War  in  1824, 
and  now  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  British 
Chief  Commissioner.  Its  area,  still  largely 
covered  with  jungle,  in  which  roam  ele- 
phants, tigers,  leopards  and  other  wild 
beasts,  is  49,004  square  miles  in  extent, 
with  a  population,  chiefly  Hindus  and 
Mohammedans,  of  about  five  and  a  half 
million.  Assam  has  a  heavy  annual  rain- 
fall, with  a  climate  of  moderate  tempera- 
ture; the  region,  however,  is  subject  to 
earthquakes.  Its  chief  exports  embrace 
tea,  rice,  rubber,  silk,  cotton,  ivory  and 
gold;  it  has  also  much  coal;  while  petro- 
leum and  iron,  though  as  yet  undeveloped, 
are  known  to  exist.  In  the  higher  eleva- 
tions there  is  much  timber.  The  soil  in 
the  valleys  and  along  its  chief  river,  the 
Brahmaputra,  is  very  fertile,  though  the 
excessive  rains  inundate  the  land  and  at 
seasons  imperil  the  tea-plantations  and  the 
rice  crop.  See  Cumming's  With  the 
Jungle  Folk  and  Hunter's  Statistical 
Account  of  Assam',  also  Bronson's  Dic- 
tionary in  Assamese  and  English. 

Assay'  ing  is  the  art  of  finding  how  much 
of  a  given  metal  there  is  in  a  metallic  ore 
or  alloy — as,  the  amount  of  iron  in  a  speci- 
men of  iron  ore  or  the  amount  of  silver 
in  a  silver  dollar.  The  term  is  applied 
particularly  to  processes  carried  out  chiefly 
by  fusion  or  fire  assaying;  but  the  word 
is  also  applied  as  wet  assaying  to  the 
commercial  analysis  of  many  things  where 
chemical  solvents  and  reagents  are  used. 
Assay  processes  vary  with  different  metals, 
but  the  method  used  with  silver  ore  will 
serve  as  an  illustration.  The  first  process 
is  called  scorification.  One  part  by 
weight  of  ore  is  mixed  with  from  ten  to 
twenty  times  its  weight  of  granulated  lead 
and  half  its  weight  of  borax.  This  mix- 


ASSIMILATION 


123 


ASSOCIATION 


ture  is  put  in  a  fire-clay  dish,  called  the 
scorifier,  and  heated  to  redness  in  a 
furnace  having  a  compartment  or  muffle 
open  to  the  air,  called  a  muffle  furnace, 
until  the  substances  are  thoroughly  melted. 
The  surface  of  the  molten  lead  now  shows 
in  a  circular  space  in  the  center  of  the 
scorifier,  while  the  earthy  materials  form 
a  slag  which  forms  a  ring  around  this  circle. 
The  heating  is  continued  until  a  considera- 
ble part  of  the  lead  has  been  oxidized  to 
lead  oxide.  This  goes  into  the  slag  and 
increases  its  amount  so  that  the  slag  finally 
covers  the  diminishing  metallic  lead.  Then 
the  melted  mixture  is  poured  into  a  mould, 
and,  on  cooling,  a  lead  button  is  seen  which 
can  be  detached  from  the  slag.  The  lead 
has  taken  up  the  silver  as  well  as  any  gold 
that  may  be  present.  The  next  process 
is  called  cupellation.  The  cupel  is  a 
small  cup  made  of  burnt  bone  and  is  porous. 
The  lead  button  is  put  in  this  vessel,  after 
the  latter  has  been  heated  to  redness  in  a 
muffle  furnace.  The  lead  and  other  base 
metals  that  may  be  present  are  burned  or 
oxidized,  and  the  oxides  are  absorbed 
by  the  porous  mass  of  the  cupel,  or  sent 
off  in  the  shape  of  vapor.  Silver  and  gold 
are  not  oxidized,  hence  they  remain  in  the 
metallic  state.  Just  before  the  assay  is 
finished,  rainbow  colors  come  and  go  over 
the  button,  and  a  brilliant  flashing  up  of 
color  marks  the  end  of  the  operation.  The 
silver  button  left  in  the  cupel  is  finally 
weighed.  This  is  one  of  the  simplest  methods, 
but  not  the  only  method  of  assaying.  A 
crucible  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  a 
scorifier.  H.  L.  WELLS. 

As'simila'tion  (in  plants).  A  term  often 
applied  to  the  manufacture  by  green  plants 
of  starch,  sugar  and  similar  substances 
(carbohydrates).  This  process  is  better 
called  photosynthesis  (which  see),  leav- 
ing assimilation  to  be  applied  to  the  trans- 
formation of  foods  (carbohydrates,  proteids, 
fats,  etc.)  into  the  living  substance,  pro- 
toplasm. Of  the  details  of  this  very  little 
is  known. 

Assiniboia  (as'sin-i-boi'd},  one  of  the 
northwest  territories  of  Canada  until  1905, 
when  one  part  of  it  was  merged  in  the  new 
province  of  Alberta  and  the  remainder  in 
the  new  province  of  Saskatchewan.  The 
city  of  Regina  was  formerly  in  Assiniboia. 

Assin'iboine,  an  important  river  in 
northwestern  Canada.  The  city  of  Bran- 
don (Manitoba),  is  on  its  banks.  Runs 
easterly  to  the  Red  River.  The  Souris 
and  Qu'Appelle  Rivers  are  its  tributaries. 
Runs  through  a  rich  agricultural  country. 
Length  450  miles. 

Assisi  (d-se'se),  St.  Francis  of,  a  devout 
Italian  monk,  bom  at  Assisi  in  the  province 
of  Perugia,  in  1182,  and  the  founder  of  the 
Franciscan  order.  To  his  tomb,  in  the 
Church  of  San  Francesco,  Assisi,  many 
thousands  from  all  parts  of  Europe  make 


annual  pilgrimages.  The  church  is  en- 
riched by  the  possession  of  many  remarka- 
ble frescoes  and  paintings  by  Cimabue  and 
Giotto,  which  depict  stories  from  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  and  incidents  in  the 
life  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi. 

Associated  Press,  the  largest  organization 
of  its  kind,  is  a  mutual  organization  of  persons 
representing  newspapers,  having  for  its  pur- 
pose the  collection  and  distribution  of  the 
important  news  of  the  world.  There  are  about 
eight  hundred  and  sixty  members.  For  its 
more  important  service  The  Associated  Press 
has  its  own  leased  wires,  which  form  a  network 
across  the  continent  from  Bangor,  Me.,  to 
Seattle,  Wash.,  and  San  Diego,  Cal.,  and  from 
Duluth,  Minn.,  to  New  Orleans,  Galveston 
and  Tampa,  Fla.  The  total  mileage  of  this 
leased  wire  system  is  approximately:  Day 
wires  22,000  miles;  night  wires  28,000.  From 
various  points  along  the  trunk  lines  the  report 
is  sent  to  interior  cities.  Each  of  its  members 
engages  to  contribute  the  news  of  his  immediate 
vicinage  to  The  Associated  Press.  The  annual 
revenues,  which  are  derived  from  assessments 
levied  upon  its  members,  approximate 
$3,000,000  while  the  number  of  words  daily 
received  and  transmitted  at  each  of  the  more 
important  offices  is  over  50,000,  or  the  equiva- 
lent of  thirty- five  columns  of  the  average  news- 
paper. The  headquarters  are  in  New  York 
with  bureaus  at  thirty-five  other  cities  in  this 
country  and  at  the  important  capitals  of  other 
nations.  It  has  correspondents  all  over  the 
world  and  coSperative  relations  with  the  largest 
similar  organizations  in  foreign  lands.  It  is 
governed  by  a  Board  of  Directors,  fifteen  in 
number,  chosen  for  three-year  terms  by  the 
members  in  annual  meetings.  It  has  no  stock, 
no  dividends  and  no  profits  of  any  character, 
its  revenue  being  derived  from  assessments  of 
its  members. 

The  present  organization  operates  under  a 
New  York  charter,  secured  in  1900,  and  is 
the  outgrowth  of  several  earlier  and  competing 
associations. 

FREDERICK  R.  MARTIN, 
Assistant  General  Manager, 
Associated  Press. 

Association  of  Ideas.  By  the  asso- 
ciation of  ideas  is  meant  such  relations 
among  them  as  will  cause  one  to  suggest 
others.  Through  the  so-called  laws  of 
association  psychologists  have  attempted 
to  explain  why  a  certain  perception  or 
thought  is  followed  by  certain  images, 
sensations  or  ideas.  Association  is  sup- 
posed to  explain  those  trains  of  thought 
in  which  the  mind  pursues  its  own  course 
unguided  by  the  senses,  except  in  so  far 
as  the  original  suggestion  may  have  been 
a  perception. 

Early  psychologists  have  many  inter- 
esting allusions  to  the  mental  phenomena 
that  are  classed  under  the  head  of  associa- 
tion of  ideas,  but  before  the  time  of  Locke 
(1632-1704),  it  was  generally  assumed 


ASSOCIATION 


124 


ASSOCIATION 


that  when  the  mind  proceeded  to  recount 
in  its  own  way  the  suggestions  of  a  per- 
ception, it  followed  a  certain  logical  order 
with  greater  or  less  error  according  to  the 
quality  of  mind.  Locke  assumed  that 
when  one  idea  suggests  another  to  which 
it  is  related  in  a  logical  way,  no  further 
explanation  of  the  association  is  necessary;  ( 
but  where  such  association  exists  between 
ideas  having  no  logical  connection,  he  falls 
back  on  the  explanation  that  they  have 
occurred  together  accidentally  in  the  past, 
and  because  of  this  we  have  formed  the 
habit  of  thinking  them  together,  so  that 
when  one  recurs  we  immediately  call  up 
the  others.  If  the  idea  fire  suggests  that 
of  cooking  food,  association  is  not  needed 
to  explain  the  relation;  if,  instead,  Lon- 
don is  thought  of,  we  wonder  and  can  ac- 
count for  the  fact  only  by  supposing  that 
the  experience  or  description  of  a  chance 
fire  in  London  has  proved  so  influential 
as  to  cause  the  idea  fire  to  suggest  its 
habitual  associate  London,  rather  than 
its  logical  or  scientific  premises  or  con- 
sequence. 

Hartley  (1704-1757),  an  English  psy- 
chologist, uses  the  idea  of  association  by 
babit  to  explain  not  merely  the  curious 
and  arbitrary  associations  of  ideas  but  the 
logical  ones  as  well.  All  mental  processes 
are,  according  to  him,  dependent  on  the 
processes  in  the  brain.  Those  brain  pro- 
cesses that  occur  together  become  asso- 
ciated by  habit  so  that  the  re-excitement 
of  one  will  cause  the  re-excitement  of  the 
ethers,  and  the  corresponding  ideas  will 
come  successively  into  consciousness.  The 
discoveries  of  modern  experimental  psy- 
chology make  it  possible  to  state  still  more 
definitely  the  character  of  the  associa- 
tions in  the  brain.  It  is  known  that  visual 
consciousness  is  dependent  upon  the  ex- 
citement of  structures  in  the  rear  of  the 
brain,  and  that  auditory  areas  lie  in  the 
temporal  regions,  Suppose  that,  at  the 
time  when  one  sees  a  cat,  he  hears  the  sound 
of  the  word  cat  Then  the  auditory  and 
the  visual  structures  are"  excited  together. 
They  become  so  associated  that  when 
again  we  hear  the  word  the  nervous  cur- 
rents discharge  from  the  temporal  into 
the  occipital  or  rear  portion  of  the  brain, 
and  the  visual  image  of  a  cat  rises  in  the 
mind.  Apparently  the  sound  of  the  name 
suggests  immediately  the  visual  image  of 
the  thing.  Really  it  is  the  association  of 
the  two  portions  of  the  brain  correspond- 
ing to  the  two  ideas  that  causes  the  one 
to  follow  the  other. 

After  the  time  of  Hartley,  English  psy- 
chologists attempted  to  explain  all  trains 
of  thought  on  the  basis  of  association. 
But  the  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  the  brain  was  too  imperfect 
to  lead  thinkers  to  value  highly  the  theory 
that  all  mental  associations  depend  upon 


habitual  associations  of  brain  processes. 
Instead  they  interest  themselves  in  a 
statement  of  the  logical  relationships  ex- 
isting between  ideas  that  suggest  one 
another.  They  find  that  when  ideas  are 
similar  or  contrasting  or  come  in  close  suc- 
cession -in  time,  or  when  their  objects  are 
related  as  cause  and  effect  or  are  situated 
near  each  other  in  space,  they  are  likely  to 
call  each  other  into  consciousness.  Pro- 
fessor James,  the  American  psychologist, 
points  out  the  fact  that  such  laws  of  asso- 
ciation may  be  increased  indefinitely, 
and  that  they  do  not  help  one  to  do  any- 
thing in  the  way  of  predicting  the  effect 
of  a  suggestion  on  a  given  mind.  In  his 
opinion,  and  here  modern  psychology 
agrees  substantially  with  him,  the  physio- 
logical law  of  habit  is  the  only  real  explana- 
tory law  of  association.  When  we  think 
logically '  and  when  our  fancy  riots  in  non- 
sense, we  are  following  the  same  funda- 
mental law  of  connecting  those  expe- 
riences that  have  occurred  together  in 
time. 

Professor  James,  however,  finds  it  nec- 
essary to  expand  his  treatment  of  this  law. 
The  same  idea  may  have  many  habitual 
associates.  How  are  we  to  tell  which  one 
it  will  suggest?  Other  things  being  equal, 
the  most  frequent  associate  will  come  up. 
The  idea  of  fire  will  suggest  cooking  rather 
than  London,  because  the  former  has  been 
associated  with  it  much  more  commonly. 
If,  however,  the  experience  of  the  London 
fire  was  very  exciting,  as  it  might  well 
have  been  in  case  the  fire  occurred  at  a 
hotel  where  we  were  staying,  the  associa- 
tion of  fire  with  London  might  be  so  in- 
tense as  •  to  overcome  the  effect  of  the 
frequent  association  with  cooking.  Again, 
if  one  had  just  been  absorbed  in  the  ac- 
counts of  the  San  Francisco  disaster  the 
idea  of  fire  might  suggest  this  most  recent 
associate  rather  than  the  most  frequent 
or  the  most  intense  ones.  To  know  the 
effect  of  these  principles  so  that  we  can 
predict  the  result  of  a  given  suggestion 
on  a  certain  mind,  it  is  necessary  to  know 
the  concrete  condition  of  this  mind.  Here 
it  is  that  the  subject  of  the  association  of 
ideas  connects  with  that  of  apperception 
(q.  v.}.  The  experience  that  any  new 
perception  or  idea  calls  up  and  through 
which  it  becomes  apperceived  depends 
on  the  laws  of  association,  and  the  teacher 
in  counting  on  the  force  of  any  suggestion 
must  know  the  experience  of  the  pupil 
and  apply  these  laws.  No  amount  of  ac- 
quaintance with  the  logical  relationships 
in  the  material  of  instruction  will  help, 
unless  the  teacher  knows  in  how  far  these 
logical  associations  have  become  habitual 
in  the  mind  of  the  pupil. 

One  further  condition  affecting  the 
working  of  the  law  of  association  needs  to 
be  mentioned.  The  current  of  one's  thought 


ASSUAN  DAM 


125 


ASSYRIA 


is  almost  never  determined  solely  by  a 
single  isolated  perception  or  idea.  The 
entire  contents  of  the  mind,  both  that 
which  is  clearly  attended  to  and  that  of 
which  one  is  vaguely  conscious,  that  which 
is  rapidly  disappearing  from  conscious- 
ness, and  that  which  is  just  rising  into  the 
mental  field,  feelings,  images  and  ideas; 
all  are  more  or  less  influential  in  determin- 
ing what  is  to  come  by  association.  If  the . 
suggested  ideas  are  related  to  all  or  most 
of  the  contents  of  the  mind,  we  have  what  • 
Professor  James  calls  total  recall.  If, 
however,  owing  to  special  interest  in  one 
phase  of  this  content  the  mind  attends  so 
closely  to  it  as  to  call  up  associates  suggested 
by  it  but  unconnected  with  the  other  ele- 
ments in  consciousness,  we  have  partial 
recall.  When  this  special  interesting  topic 
is  the  thought  of  a  quality,  it  may. suggest 
some  new  object  known  to  possess  that 
quality.  We  may  be  thinking  _  of  the 
sequoia  or  big  trees  of  California.  Our 
attention  may  concentrate  on  the  thought 
of  their  extraordinary  size,  and, this  may 
lead  us  to  think  of  elephants.  •  Big  trees 
may  never  have  been  thought  'of  in  con- 1 
nection  with  elephants  before.  We  seem 
to  have  departed  from  the  law"  of  habit. 
However,  the  quality  of  great  size-  is  habit- 
ually connected  with  both  objects.  Thus 
the  fundamental  law  of  association,  when 
supplemented  by  the  law  of  the  special 
influence  of  interesting  items,  is  seen  to 
explain  association  by  similarity,  where 
the  mind  seems  to  be  taking  an  utterly  orig- 
inal course. 

Finally  it  should  be  noted  that  \rhile 
the  English  associationists  treated  the 
ideas  as  if  they  were  comparatively  dis- 
tinct and  unchanging  elements  recurring 
frequently  in  thought,  modern  psycholo- 
gists hold  that  all  mental  elements  are  what 
they  are  because  of  the  other  elements 
that  accompany  them.  This  idew  is  prac- 
tically invo1ved  in  the  notion  of  appercep- 
tion, for  apperception  means  that  the 
associated  ideas  suggested  by  any  thought 
apperceive,  interpret  and  so  modify  it. 
After  the  thought  of  sequoia  has  suggested 
the  thought  of  elephants,  it  can  never 
recur  as  it  was  at  first.  It  will  henceforth 
always  be  the  thought  of  tree's  that  are  like 
elephants  in  a  certain  respect, 

See    APPERCEPTION,    MEMORIZING,    PSY- 
CHOLOGY FOR  TEACHERS.    Consult  Principles 
of  Psychology  by  James,  pub.  by  Holt  &  Co. 
E.  N.  HENDERSON. 

Assuan  Dam  (ds-swdri),  The.  A  part 
of  an  extensive  system  of  irrigation  un- 
dertaken by  the  British  government  in 
Egvpt.  Assuan  is  about  six  hundred 
miles  up  the  Nile  and  is  below  the  first 
cataract.  By  building  dams  across  the 
Nile  at  Assuan  and  Assiut,  it  is  proposed 
to  form  two  great  reservoirs  in  which  to 
store  the  water  during  the  annual  over- 


flow of  the  river.  By  this  means  a  much 
greater  area  can  be  irrigated  and  brought 
under  cultivation,  and  the  productive- 
ness of  Egypt  greatly  increased.  The 
dam  at  Assuan  is  a  mile  and  a  quarter 
long.  It  consists  of  a  solid  wall  of  granite 
rising  ninety  feet  above  the  level  of  low 
Nile,  and  is.  about  sixty  feet  in  width  at 
the  top.  Tfie  plans  include  a  roadway 
across  the  top,  so  that  there  may  be  com- 
munication between  the  two  sides  of  the 
river.  .,  There  are  one  hundred  and  eighty 
sluices'  in  the  dam,  each  equipped  with 
_heavy  steel  doors  which  are  readily  opened 
and  .closed. ^by  means  of  levers.  It  is  ex- 
pected that  this  dam  will  form  a  lake  one 
hundred  and  forty  miles  long.  The  stored 
up  water  partially-,  submerges  the  island 
of  Philae  with  its  interesting  ruins. 

Assyr'ia*  was  the  northernmost  of  the 
three  great  countries  which  occupied  the 
Mesopotamian  plain.  The  Niphates  Moun- 
tains of  Armenia  were  on  the  north,  Susiana 
and  Babylonia  on  the  south,"  Media  on  the 
east  and  the  watershed  of  the  Euphrates 
on  the  west.%  It  was  about  -280  miles  long 
from  north  to  south,  and  about  150  broad 
from  east  to  west:  There  are  mountain 
chains  in  the  north  and  east,  and  the  coun- 
try is  watered  by  the  Tigris.  It  is  a  very 
'fertile  region  and  supported  in  ancient 
times  a  large  population.  That  its  people 
reached  a  high  degree  of  wealth  and  civili- 
zation is  shown  by  the  ruins  of  mighty 
cities,  by  canals  and  means  of  irrigation, 
by  inscriptions  and  carefully  kept  records 
of  its  history — especially  the  Eponym 
canon,  as  it  is  called,  which  has  been  found 
kto  agree  closely  with  what  is  said  in  the 
Bible  about  the  Assyrians. 

The  Babylonian  monarchy  was  already 
growing  old  before  the  Assyrian  began. 
The  early  rulers  were  mere  governors  ap- 
pointed by  the  Babylonian  kings.  Little 
-by  little  Assyria  became  independent. 
.'She  began  to  be  powerful  about  1320  B.  C., 
Ibut  Tiglath-Pileser  I  (about  1140  B.  C.) 
was  the  real  founder  of  the  first  Assyrian 
empire.  He  spread  the  dominion  of  As- 
syria o/er  ill  western  Asia,  from  Elam 
to  the  Med:  erranean  and  from  the  Ar- 
menian Mou  itains  to  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Under  his  son  the  empire  decayed  as 
rapidly  as  it  had  grown,  and  for  two  cen- 
turies Assyria,  played  no  part  in  history. 
It  was  during  this  time  of  decay  that  the 
Hebrew  kingdom  arose  and  was  developed 
under  David  and  Solomon.  In  930  B.  C., 
Assyria  began  once  more  to  become  im- 
portant. Shalir  aneser  II  began  to  reign 
in  858  B.  C.,  and  for  thirty  years  engaged 
in  wars  that  established  the  power  of  As- 
syria over  all  western  Asia.  It  was  this 
king  who  in  854  B.  C.  fought  against 
the  king  of  Hamath,  Benhadad  of  Da- 
mascus and  Ahab  of  Israel.  In  745  B.  C., 
the  throne  was  usurped  by  a  powerful 


ASTARTE 


126 


monarch,  Pul,  a  Babylonian,  who  took 
the  Assyrian  name,  Tiglath-Pileser  II. 
He  made  firm  the  conquests  of  his  predeces- 
sors. In  earlier  times  it  had  been  con- 
quest and  spoil  that  formed  the  policy  of 
the  rulers;  now  the  conquered  districts 
were  annexed  and  ruled  by  Assyrian  gov- 
ernors, who  saw  to  it  that  a  fixed  tax 
was  sent  year  by  year  to  Nineveh.  Sargon, 
who  was  one  of  Assyria's  great  generals,  was 
the  leader  of  a  successful  revolt  of  the  army 
against  a  weak  prince.  It  was  he  who  cap- 
tured Samaria,  in  722  B.  C.,  and  carried 
away  27,000  of  its  best  citizens.  Sar- 
gon's  son,  Sennacherib,  ravaged  Judaea, 
capturing  forty-six  cities,  and  besieged 
Jerusalem,  where  a  pestilence,  referred  to 
in  the  Bible,  attacked  his  army  and  saved 
the  city.  In  68 1  B.  C.  began  the  reign  of 
Assyria's  greatest  king,  Esarhaddon.  He 
at  once  set  on  foot  the  war  which  resulted 
in  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  and  which  placed 
the  ancient  world  for  twenty  years_  under 
one  rule,  thus  giving  the  world  the  idea  of 
a  universal  empire.  Under  Esarhaddon 
and  his  son,  Asurbanipal  (called  by  the 
Greeks  Sardanapalus),  the  kingdom  in 
650  B.  C.  reached  its  height.  Afterward 
revolts  took  place  which  slowly  ruined  it. 

The  modern  area  of  Assyria  (Mesopo- 
tamia), in  Turkey  in  Asia,  comprises  the 
vilayet  of  Mosul  (area  35,130  square 
miles;  population  500,000),  Baghdad  (area 
54,540  square  miles;  population  estimated 
at  900,000);  and  Busra  (area  53,580  square 
miles;  population  600,000).  The  town  of 
Mosul  on  the  Tigris  is  close  to  the  ruins 
of  Nineveh  and  220  miles  by  water  (R. 
Tigris)  north  of  Baghdad.  Busra  or 
Basra  contains  the  town  of  Korna,  where 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  join  their  waters, 
at  the  southern  end  of  the  ancient  domin- 
ions of  Assyria  and  then  find  their  way 
by  the  Shat-el-Arab  southward  into  the 
I-ersian  Gulf.  Northwest  of  Korna  or 
Kurna  and  south  of  Baghdad  is  the  town 
of  Hillah,  on  the  Euphrates,  near  the  ruins 
of  ancient  Babylon  and  the  Arab  vilayet 
from  which  many  Babylonian  records  have 
in  our  modern  day  been  shipped. 

Astar'te  or  Ashtoreth.  An  ancient 
oriental  deity,  supposed  to  be  the  moon- 
goddess,  as  Baal  was  the  sun-god.  She 
is  mentioned  several  times  in  the  Old 
Testament  (I  Kings  XI:  5-33:  II  Kings 
XIII:  13).  King  Solomon  built  an  altar 
to  her.  She  was  sometimes  represented 
as  having  four  wings  and  bearing  a  dove 
in  one  hand.  She  was  worshipped  by  the 
Phoenicians,  the  Carthaginians,  the  Sicilians 
and  by  the  inhabitants  of  Cypus. 

As'fer,  a  flowering  plant  of  the  thistle 
family,  found  largely  in  North  America, 
some  species  to  be  found  in  most  regions 
of  the  globe.  The  word  means  star.  In 
England  they  are  called  Michaelmas  and 
Christmas  daisies,  because  they  have  heads 


like  daisies  and  when  the  weather  is  mild 
they  bloom  as  late  as  those  periods  of  the 
year.  One  variety  grows  at  a  considera- 
ble height  on  the  mountains  of  Europe. 
The  wild  asters  of  the  United  States  are 
many  and  beautiful,  there  being  over  a  hun- 
dred native  species.  Several  months  of 
the  year  they  clothe  the  land  in  royal 
bloom,  a  large  part  of  the  glory  of  the 
American  autumn.  The  aster  has  been 
suggested  as  the  national  flower,  its  range 
is  so  general  and  it  blooms  so  profusely. 

"And  everywhere  the  purple  asters  nod 

And  bend  and  wave  and  flit." 

The  purple  or  blue  asters  are  very  numer- 
ous, ranging  from  the  low-growing  sea- 
side aster  to  the  tall  New  England 
aster,  sometimes  reaching  eight  feet  in 
height.  The  golden  aster  seeks  the  dry 
roadside,  white  asters  grow  in  open 
wood  and  field  and  by  shady  roadside, 
an  abundance  of  tiny  flowers  crowning  high, 
wide-spreading  branches.  A  variety  of  the 
Chinese  aster,  having  beautifully  colored 
florets  of  rose,  violet,  and  white,  is  called 
Reine  Marguerite. 

As'teroids,  a  series  of  small  planets, 
sometimes  called  minor  planets,  which 
revolve  about  the  sun  in  periods  varying 
from  three  to  eight  years.  More  than  500 
of  these  bodies  have  been  discovered,  all 
having  orbits  lying  in  the  space  between 
Mars  and  Jupiter.  Practically  all  of  these 
planets  are  so  small  they  can  be  seen  only 
with  a  telescope;  though  Vesta,  which  is 
the  largest,  can  at  times  be  seen  with  the 
naked  eye.  Their  diameters  probably  range 
between  10  miles  and  400  miles. 

In  recent  years  many  asteroids  have 
been  discovered  by  photography.  If  any 
portion  of  the  sky  is  photographed  with 
a  camera  attached  to  a  telescope,  the 
fixed  stars  will  appear  as  points;  but  i* 
there  be  an  asteroid  in  the  field  of  the> 
camera,  its  image  will  be  a  short  straight 
line,  for  it  is  moving  among  the  fixed  stars. 

Of  all  known  asteroids  the  most  inter- 
esting are  probably  Ceres  and  Eros. 
Ceres  was  the  first  one  discovered,  having 
been  detected  by  Piazzi,  January  i,  1801. 
Eros,  discovered  by  Witt  of  Berlin,  August 
14,  1898,  proves  to  be  our  nearest  neighbor 
and  promises  to  offer,  by  observations 
of  its  parallax,  the  very  best  of  all  methods 
for  determining  the  distance  from  the  earth 
to  the  sun.  Since  this  distance  is  the  stand- 
ard of  length  for  nearly  all  astronomical 
measurements,  Witt's  discovery  of  this 
planet  must  be  ranked  among  the  most 
important  astronomical  discoveries  of  recent 
years.  The  name  asteroid  is  due  to  Sir 
William  Herschel. 

Astor,  John  Jacob,  millionaire,  the 
founder  of  the  American  Fur  Company, 
was  born  in  Germany,  near  Heidelberg,  in 
1763.  A  peasant's  son,  he  went  to  London 
in  his  sixteenth  year,  and  worked  with 


ASTORIA 


127 


ASTRONOMY 


his  brother,  a  maker  of  musical  instru- 
ments. In  1783  he  sailed  to  America, 
and  invested  his  small  capital  in  furs,  and 
after  six  years,  by  economy  and  industry, 
he  had  acquired  a  fortune  of  $250,000. 
He  now  sent  out  two  expeditions  to  the 
Oregon  territory,  one  by  land  and  one  by  sea, 
to  open  a  regular  trade  with  the  natives, 
and  in  1811  established  the  fur-trading 
station  of  Astoria.  From  this  time  As- 
tor's  ships  were  found  in  every  sea.  He 
died  in  New  York  in  1848,  leaving  property 
estimated  at  $20,000,000,  and  a  bequest 
of  $450,000  in  all  to  found  the  Astor  library 
in  New  York.  His  great  grandson,  John  Jacob 
Astor,  perished  in  the  Titanic  disaster  (q.  P.). 

Astoria  (as-t(/ri-a),  originally  a  fur. 
trading  station  in  Oregon,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Columbia  River,  founded  by  the 
Pacific  Fur  Company  in  isii  and  named 
from  its  chief  proprietor,  John  Jacob 
Astor.  It  was  a  main  issue  in  the  American 
claim  to  Oregon.  Its  industries  include  logging, 
saw,  lumber  and  planing  mills,  and  there  are 
many  large  salmon-tinning  establishments  in 
the  neighborhood.  It  has  a  fine  harbor,  is  an 
N.  P.  terminal  and  so  has  large  shipping 
interests.  Washington  Irving  has  told  the 
story  of  the  beginnings  of  Astoria,  in  his  book 
of  that  name.  Population,  12,000. 

Astor  Library,  The,  New  York,  now 
embraced  in  the  New  York  Public  Library, 
was  founded  under  the  will  of  John  Jacob 
Astor,  who  left  $450,000  for  a  public  library 
in  the  city  of  New  York.  This  munificent 
sum  was  increased  subsequently  to  a  million 
by  gifts  from  his  son  and  grandsons,  one  of 
whom,  Wm.  Waldorf  Astor  in  1882-85  was 
United  States  minister  to  Italy.  Among 
the  first  trustees  appointed  by  Mr.  Astor 
himself  were  Washington  Irving  and  Fitz- 
Greene  Halleck.  The  library  was  opened 
in  1854  with  90,000  volumes.  In  1895  it 
had  about  300,000  volumes.  In  some 
departments,  as  oriental  languages,  it  is 
unsurpassed  by  any  library  in  the  country. 
The  4stor  library  was  in  1805  consolidated 
with  the  Lenox  library,  and,  with  the 
Tilden  bequest,  is  now  housed  in  the  New 
York  Public  Library,  situated  in  Bryant 
Park,  5th  avenue  and  42nd  street.  See 
NEW  YORK  PUBLIC  LIBRARY. 

Astrakhan  (as-trb-kan')t  a  'government 
in  the  southeast  of  European  Russia;  area 
91,042  square  miles;  population,  1,005,460. 
It  is  watered  by  the  Volga  and  washed  by 
the  Caspian  Sea.  The  climate  is  severe, 
and  the  population  is  noticeable  for  the 
number  of  its  nationalities.  For  the  gov- 
ernment of  Astrakhan  a  reformed  tribunal, 
but  without  jury,  was  introduced  in  1894, 
when  a  reformed  system  of  justice  was 
organized  for  other  departmental  districts 
of  Russia. 

Astrakhan,  its  capital  and  one  of  the 
chief  towns  of  Russia,  is  built  on  a  high 
island  in  the  Volga,  forty-one  miles  from 


its  mouth.  It  is  surrounded  by  fruit  trees 
and  vineyards,  smd  consists  of  the  fortress, 
the  white  town  and  sixteen  suburbs.  A 
canal  runs  through  the  city.  The  popula- 
tion, 121,580,  consists  of  Russians,  Arme- 
nians, Tartars  and  Persians.  Astrakhan 
is  the  principal  harbor  on  the  Caspian  Sea, 
and  its  great  markets  every  year  attract 
many  thousands  of  merchants,  while  its 
three  bazars  are  among  the  busiest  marts 
in  Europe  or  Asia.  Its  fisheries  rank  among 
the  greatest  in  the  world.  Enormous  num- 
bers of  sturgeon  are  taken.  The  industries 
are  shipbuilding,  dyeing,  silk-making,  tal- 
low-melting, oil-refining  and  soap-making. 
Almost  the  entire  commerce  with  Persia 
and  Transcausasia  passes  through  the  city. 
The  main  imports  are  wheat,  barley, 
woolen  stuffs,  spirits,  iron,  tin,  drugs,  raw 
silk  and  cotton  fabrics. 

Astrol'ogy,  the  so-called  science  of 
predicting  events  by  means  of  the  posi- 
tions of  the  heavenly  bodies.  It  is  one  of 
the  oldest  of  the  sciences,  being  found 
among  the  Egyptians,  Chaldeans,  Hindus 
and  other  eastern  nations  at  the  very  be- 
ginning of  history.  It  made  its  way  to 
the  western  nations  of  Europe,  and  reached 
its  height  of  popularity  in  the  i4th  and 
1 5th  centuries,  when  chairs  of  astrology 
were  established  in  some  of  the  Euro- 
pean universities.  Bacon,  Napier,  Kep- 
ler and  other  scientists  of  their  period 
believed  to  some  extent  in  astrology,  and 
Wallenstein,  the  great  general  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  believed  in  it  implicitly.  With 
the  acceptance  of  the  Copernican  system 
and  the  growth  of  science,  the  belief  in 
astrology  has  almost  died  out. 

Astron'omy.  There  is  a  certain  sense 
in  which  the  history  of  each  science  extends 
back  into  the  early  periods  of  antiquity, 
and  even  into  the  prehistoric  past.  But 
in  this  respect  astronomy  has  a  history 
which  is  unparalleled,  except  possibly  by 
that  of  mathematics  and  of  medicine;  for 
the  earliest  men  were  astronomical  ob- 
servers. The  seasons  could  not  be  de- 
termined, the  sea  could  not  be  navigated, 
and  geography  could  not  be  written  with- 
out considerable  knowledge  of  the  stars 
and  their  motions.  The  result  is  that  as- 
tronomy was  in  a  very  advanced  state  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Thales  (640-546  B.  C.)} 
and  more  than  a  century  before  the 
Christian  era  it  was  an  astonishingly 
complete  and  well-systematized  science, 
a  result  mainly  due  to  the  observations 
of  Hipparchus  and  to  the  systematic 'treat- 
ment of  Claudius  Ptolemy. 

At  this  period  the  Greeks  were  familiar 
with  the  uniform  motion  of  the  fixed  stars, 
and  the  variable  motion  of  the  planets; 
they  knew  how  to  measure  latitude  and 
longitude  and  how  to  compute  eclipses] 
they  had  not  only  determined  the  fact  of 
the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  but  had 


ASTRONOMY 


128 


ASTRONOMY 


obtained  its  value  with  great  precision. 
Meanwhile,  Hipparchus  had  completed  a 
catalogue  giving  the  positions  of  no  less  than 
i, 088  stars. 

The  modern  science  of  astronomy  may 
rightly  be  said  to  date  from  Copernicus 
(1473-1543),  who  first  saw  that  the  sun 
is  the  center  of  what  we  now  call  the 
solar  system;  at  least,  he  saw  that  this  is 
a  simpler  way  of  looking  at  the  matter 
than  to  consider,  as  the  Greeks  had  done, 
that  the  earth  was  the  center  of  this  system. 

A  couple  of  centuries  after  the  time  of 
Copernicus,  Richer  found  that  the  acceler- 
ation of  gravity  diminishes  as  one  proceeds 
from  the  equator  to  the  poles.  This  made 
it  almost  certain  that  the  earth  was  in  rota- 
tion. In  1726  Bradley  discovered  the 
aberration  of  light,  a  phenomenon  which 
could  not  occur,  as  it  does,  unless  the  earth 
were  revolving  about  the  sun.  These 
phenomena  and  the  law  of  gravitation,  as 
employed  by  Newton,  practically  com- 
plete the  evidence  for  the  Copernican  view; 
unless  we  add  the  discovery  by  Bessel,  in 
1838,  of  the  annual  parallax  of  the  fixed 
stars. 

The  invention  of  the  telescope  about  the 
beginning  of  the  i-jth  century  gave  a 
tremendous  impulse  to  astromical  discovery. 
Galileo,  Huygens,  Newton  and  many 
others  shortly  made  and  used  their  own 
instruments.  The  continuous  improvement 
in  the  telescope  has  been  accompanied  by  a 
continuous  extension  of  the  solar  system 
from  that  date  up  to  the  discovery  of  the 
fifth  satellite  of  Jupiter  by  Barnard  in 
1892.  Advances  in  our  knowledge  of  the 
stellar  systems  lying  beyond  our  own  have 
been  made  pan  passu  with  the  improve- 
ment of  the  telescope.  Of  the  more  than 
1,300  double  stars  recently  discovered  by 
Burnham,  pracically  none  could  have 
seen  as  double  by  any  telescope  in  exist- 
ence at  the  beginning  of  the  ipth  century. 

Modem  astronomy,  like  most  other  sub- 
jects, has  grown  into  a  science  of  such 
enormous  proportions  that  it  is  studied 
by  a  great  variety  of  men  under  a  great 
variety  of  subdivisions. 

BRANCHES  OF   ASTRONOMY. 

Among  these  branches  of  astronomy  are 
the  following: 

1.  General,  sometimes     ailed    descriptive, 
astronomy,  which  includes  a  general  survey 
of  the  entire   subject,   including  both  the 
phenomena  and  the  principles  of  the  science. 

2.  Mathematical,  sometimes    called    theo- 
retical,  astronomy,  which  assumes  the  law 
of  gravitation  and  then  proceeds  to  com- 
pute orbits,  prepare    tables  and  determine 
all  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

3.  Practical  astronomy,   which  deals  with 
work  in  the  observatory  proper,  including 
a   study   of   various   methods   and   instru- 
ments there  employed.     The  fundamental 
instruments  are  the  clock,   the    telescope 


and  the  divided  circle  for  measuring  angles. 
4.  Astrophysics,  a  comparatively  new 
branch  of  the  science,  made  possible  largely 
by  the  discovery  and  development  of  the 
spectroscope.  Astrophysics  is  simply  the 
physics  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  has 
to  do  with  their  composition,  their  tem- 
peratures, their  states  of  aggregation, 
their  atmospheres,  their  radiations  and 
even  their  motions.  The  fundamental  in- 
strument, but  by  no  means  the  only  in- 
strument employed  by  the  astrophysicist  is 
the  spectroscope. 

SUMMARY   OF   DISCOVERY. 

Passing  now  to  a  brief  survey  of  the 
astronomical  discoveries,  we  may  outline 
the  matter  as  follows : 

1.  The  Sun,  which  is,  to  us,  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  the  heavenly  bodies,  being 
the  one  upon  which  we  are  dependent  for 
our  daily  existence,  is  simply  one  of  the 
fixed     stars.       It     appears     much     larger 
than  any  other  of  these  stars  simply  be- 
cause it  is  many  thousand    times    nearer 
us  than  the  nearest  of  the  stars.     See  Suiw. 

2.  About  the  sun  as  a  central  body  there 
have  been     discovered  many  bodies  which 
are  distributed  at  distances  varying  from 
one  third  to  thirty  times  the  distance  of 
the    earth    from    the    sun.     These    bodies 
reflect  the  light  of  the  sun  and  have,  to 
the   naked   eye,   the   appearance   of   stars. 
Since,    however,    their    apparent    position 
in   the   sky  changes  from  night  to  nights, 
they    are   called  planets,   which  is  merely 
the    Greek   word   for   wanderers.       Besides 
the  earth,  which  is  one  of  these  planets, 
there     are     seven     others    of    importance, 
and  besides  these  eight  there    is    a    large 
number    of    similar    bodies,    much    smaller 
in  size,  called  asteroids.     See  PLANET  and 
ASTEROIDS. 

3.  Now  and  then  the  solar  system  en- 
tertains visitors  from  other  parts  of  the  uni- 
verse.    These    stray    bodies,    which    come 
inco  the  solar  system  for  a  few  days  or, 
at  most,  for  a  few  months,  and  then  leave 
it     again,     are     called     comets,     for     the 
reason    that    they    resemble    a    star    with 
flowing  hair.     Comets   are  probably   com- 
posed largely  of  hydrocarbon  gases,   since 
the  spectrum  which  they  exhibit  is  always 
that  of  the  Bunsen  burner.     But  what  is 
the   source   of   their   light,   what    is   their 
origin  and  why  their  tails  are  repelled  by  the 
sun  are  still  unsolved  problems. 

4.  Leaving  the  solar  system  and  passing 
out    into    space,    our   nearest   neighbor   is 
another   great   sun    (as   we   learn    by   the 
spectroscope),    whose    distance    from    the 
earth  is  such  that  more  than  three  years 
is  required  for  light  to  travel  from  it  to  us. 
This  star,  which  is  called  a  Centauri,  is 
said  to  be  fixed,  since  from  year  to  year 
its  motion  is  so  small  that  it    can    be  de- 
tected   only    by    very    careful    and    delicate 
measurements.       Most     of     the     stars     one 


4niiiiiiiiiii:Bii!iiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiii[Hiiiiiiiiimn IIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIHIOIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIOIIIIIIIIM 

THE  HIGH  JUMP  ON  THE  MOON 


This   illustration   shows  the  difference   between  the   pull  of   gravity   on  different   planets   ana  on      3 
the   Moon.      On  the   Earth  an  athlete  can  jump   six   feet  high,   but   on  Jupiter  he   could   only  jump 
S      two  and   one-half  feet  high,   because  Jupiter  is  so  much  larger  and   the  force  of  gravity  is   so   much 
=      stronger.     However,  on  Mars,  which  is  smaller  than  the  Earth,  and  the  force  of  gravity  considerably       = 
H      less,  the  same  athlete  could  jump  nine  feet  high,  and  the  Moon  is  so  small  that  he  could  jump  thirty      y 
feet  high  with  the   same   amount   of  effort. 

=  = 

*IIIIIIIIIIIOIIIIIIIIII|[]||||||||||IOIIIIIIIIII|[]IIIIIIIIIIIOIIIIIIIM 


imiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHittn    OUR  NEIGHBORS  IN  THE  SKY    ""' •" HI i mini iiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiu| 

Story  of  the  Constellations 

Why  did  not  somebody  teach  me  the  constellations  and  make  me  at  home  in  the  | 
starrv  heavens  which  are  always  overhead  and  which  I  do  not  know  to  this  day?  § 
— Carlyle. 


On  the  Great  Bear's  left,  the  man  with  the  whip  is  Auriga,  the  Charioteer.     He  is  carrying  Capella,  | 

the  Goat,  who  nursed  Baby  Jupiter.     Perseus,  with  his  shield,  carries  the  head  of  Medusa  of  the  Snaky  | 

Locks  and  is  about  to  rescue  the  beautiful  Andromeda,  who  is  chained  to  a  rock.     In  the  chair  is  Cas-  | 

siopeia,  mother  of  Andromeda,  who  after  Andromeda's  rescue  was  chained  to  her  chair  and  swung  round  = 

and  round  the  pole.     This  constellation  is  the  well-known  "W"  which  you  can  easily  find.     By  Cas-  | 

siopeia's  feet  is  her  husband,  Cepheus,  King  of  Ethiopia.     Only  the  head  and  forelegs  of  Pegasus,  the  | 

Winged  Horse,  are  represented  in  the  sky.    The  Sea  Goat  with  the  fish's  tail,  is  Capricprnus.     On  the  | 

right  of  the  picture,  Bootes  carries  his  sickle,  herdsman's  crook.     Next  is  Hercules  with  his  club.     Below  | 

Hercules  is   Ophiuchus,  the  Serpent  Bearer.     Near  the  center  of  the  sky  is  the   Swan.      Next  is  the  | 

Winged  Lyre  and  below  Aquilla,  the  Eagle,  carries  Ganymede  to  Jupiter  to  be  his  cup-bearer.     It  takes  | 

nearly  ten  years  for  light  to  travel  from  Albireo,  the  star  in  the  swan's  head,  to  the  earth,  so  you  will  | 
not  see  this  star  as  it  is  when  you  look  at  it,  but  as  it  was  ten  years  previous. 


AS  YOU  LIKE  IT 


129 


ATCHISON 


sees  on  any  clear  night  belong  to  this  class. 
They  are  all  so  far  away  that,  however 
much  they  may  be  magnified,  they  still 
appear  as  bright  points. 

In  addition  to  these,  a  telescope  will 
reveal  a  number  of  double  suns,  or  double 
stars  as  they  are  called,  each  revolving 
about  the  other.  Even  a  small  telescope 
will  also  reveal  many  bright  objects  hav- 
ing the  appearance  of  a  small  bright  cloud 
or  patch  of  light.  Such  a  body  is  called 
a  nebula,  which  is  merely  the  Latin  word 
for  small  cloud.  These  nebulae  possess 
the  utmost  variety  of  form;  have  fixed 
position  as  fixed  stars  do;  are  composed 
of  gases,  including  hydrogen  and  probably 
helium;  and,  in  fact,  exhibit  nearly  every 
gradation  in  appearance  from  a  bright 
cloud  to  a  bright  star.  Nebulae  probably 
represent  the  fixed  stars  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  their  development.  See  LAPLACE. 

The  four  groups  of  bodies  just  mentioned 
include  practically  all  that  we  meet  in 
the  universe  about  us,  if  we  except  those 
small  particles  which  the  earth  encounters 
now  and  then,  some  of  which  burn  in 
the  earth's  atmosphere  and  are  called 
shooting  stars  or  meteors.  Some  of 
these  are  large  enough  to  penetrate  the 
entire  atmosphere  and  reach  the  earth's 
surface,  in  which  case  we  call  them  mete- 
oric stones.  Certainly  some,  and  possi- 
bly many,  of  the  bodies  mentioned  above 
are  accompanied  by  other  small  bodies 
revolving  about  them.  These  bodies  are 
called  moons  or  satellites,  and  are  in- 
cluded as  a  part  of  the  body  about  which 
they  revolve.  See  MOON. 

For  an  excellent  and  elementary  treat- 
ment of  this  science  see  Young's  General 
Astronomy;  also,  Chambers'  The  Story  of 
the  Stars  (N.  Y.,  1895).  HENRY  CREW. 

As  You  Like  It  is  a  comedy  of  Shakes- 
peare, written  probably  in  1599  and 
founded  as  to  its  plot  upon  Rosalind,  a 
novel  by  Thomas  Lodge.  In  As  You  Like 
It  Shakespeare  imagines  a  sort  of  golden 
age,  in  which  an  ideal  life  according  to 
nature  is  led  by  the  outlawed  Duke  and 
his  court  "under  the  shade  of  melan- 
choly boughs"  in  the  forest  of  Ardennes. 
The  bright  wit  and  beauty  of  the  dialogue 
and  the  combination  of  romance,  philoso- 
phy and  art  in  this  play,  make  it  one  of 
the  most  readable  of  the  works  of  Shakes- 
peare, and  still  a  favorite  drama  upon 
the  stage.  In  no  other  play  are  grace  and 
thought  so  exquisitely  mingled  and  touched 
with  humor. 

Atacama  (d'td-kd'ma)  Desert,  a  region 
in  the  northern  part  of  Chile  which,  on 
account  of  its  location,  is  not  reached  by 
the  rain-bearing  winds  and  consequently 
receives  almost  no  rainfall.  The  surface 
is  mountainous  and  sterile,  but  is  rich  in 
minerals,  especially  copper.  In  the  more 
elevated  parts  are  found  rich  deposits  of 


salt,  borax  and  nitrate.  In  the  eastern 
part  of  the  country  there  is  sufhcient  rain- 
fall to  permit  the  growth  ot  herbage, 
which  is  used  as  fodder  for  llamas  and  other 
animals. 

Atahualpa  (a'ta-wdl-pa),  the  last  of 
the  Incas  or  rulers  of  Peru.  He  was  first 
given  the  kingdom  of  Quito,  but  in  a  war 
with  his  brother  had  just  obtained  the  rule 
of  Peru,  when  Pizarro,  at  the  head  of 
his  200  Spanish  cavaliers,  marched  through 
the  country  and  entered  Caxamarca  where 
the  Inca  was  encamped.  By  a  daring  but 
treacherous  stratagem  Pizarro  got  pos- 
session of  the  king,  who  had  come  by  in- 
vitation on  a  friendly  visit.  While  a  priest 
was  explaining  the  Christian  religion,  at 
a  sudden  signal  the  mysterious  firearms 
poured  death  into  the  terrified  masses  of 
the  Peruvians  and  the  Spanish  cavalry 
rode  them  down  with  merciless  fury.  Ata- 
hualpa, made  a  captive,  agreed  to  pay  an 
enormous  ransom;  but  was  accused  of 
plotting  against  Pizarro,  tried  and  con- 
demned to  be  burned.  On  his  agreeing 
to  be  baptized,  his  sentence  was  modified 
to  death  by  strangling  (1533).  Prescott  in 
his  Conquest  of  Peru  tells  the  story  of  this 
struggle  and  of  the  wonderful  civilization 
of  the  Incas. 

Atalan'ta,  a  heroine  in  Greek  fable. 
She  was  an  Arcadian,  daughter  of  Jasus  and 
Clymene.  At  her  birth  she  was  left  to  die 
on  a  hill  by  her  father  who  had  wished 
for  a  son,  but  was  suckled  by  a  she-bear 
and  grew  up  to  be  a  maiden  huntress  of 
marvelous  courage  and  skill.  She  slew 
the  centaurs  who  pursued  her,  sailed  with 
the  Argonauts  and  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  chase  of  the  Calydonian  boar.  She 
was  the  swiftest  of  mortals,  and  having 
many  suitors,  offered  to  marry  the  one  who 
should  outstrip  her  in  a  race,  the  penalty 
of  defeat  being  death.  At  length  she  was 
beaten  by  stratagem.  Meilanion  got  from 
Venus  three  golden  apples,  which  he  dropped 
one  after  another  during  the  race;  and 
Atalanta  was  so  charmed  by  their  beauty 
that  she  stooped  to  pick  them  up  and  so 
lost  the  race.  They  were  both  later  changed 
into  lions.  Her  story  has  been  put  into 
poetic  form  by  Swinburne  in  his  Atalanta 
in  Calydon. 

Atchafalaya  (ach-af-a-ll'd),  a  river  of 
Louisiana  or,  more  properly,  an  outlet  of 
the  Red  River.  It  flows  southward  to 
Grand  Lake,  and  after  passing  through 
it  reaches  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  Atcha- 
falaya Bay  after  a  course  of  160  miles. 
Its  name  means  lost  river,  and  it  is  sup- 
posed to  have  once  been  the  bed  of  the  Red 
River. 

Atch'ison,  a  city  of  Kansas,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Missouri  River,  333  miles  above 
St.  Louis.  It  is  an  important  railway  cen- 
ter, nine  distinct  lines  converging  there. 
The  city  has  flour  mills,  an  iron  foundry, 


ATHABASCA 


130 


ATHENS 


Port?* 


S     A 


and  machine,  furniture,  casriage  and  wagon 
shops.  St.  Benedict  College,  St.  Scholas- 
tica*s  Academy  (R.  C.),  the  Midland  Col- 
lege (Lutheran),  the  Atchison  Latin  School, 
and  excellent  public  and  parish  schools 
are  in  the  city.  Besides,  there  are  an  or- 
phans' home,  an  insane  asylum,  a  hospital 
and  three  parks.  The  city  has  grown  rapid- 
ly. Its  population  is  16,429. 

Athabas'ca,  a  former  district  in  north- 
west Canada,  now  has  the  status  of  a 
province,  and  is  known  as  Alberta. 

LAKE  ATHABASCA,  partly  in  Alberta  and 
partly  in  Saskatchewan  (Canada) ; 
area  a  ,842  miles.  River  of  the  same 
name,  765  miles  long,  flows  into 
this  lake.  A  considerable  stretch 
of  it  navigable.  Athabasca  Land- 
ing, a  place  of  some  commercial 
importance,  is  on  its  banks.  The 
Athabasca  is  the  most  southerly 
of  the  rivers  that  go  to  make  up 
the  Mackenzie  basin.  It  has  its 
source  in  Yellow  Head  Pass  high 
up  in  perpetual  snow.  It  flows 
easterly  and  northerly  collecting 
in  its  course  the  waters  of  the 
Baptiste,  Macleod,  Freeman,  Pem- 
bina,  Lesser  Slave  and  other 
streams.  It  is  one  mile  wide 
where  it  empties  into  Lake  Atha- 
basca (Lake  of  the  Hills),  and 
1,100  miles  from  its  source  high 
up  in  the  Rockies. 

Athaliah  (tith-d-li'o),  the  daughter  of 
Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  married  Jehoram, 
king  of  Judah,  and  brought  the  worship 
of  Baal  into  Judah.  After  the  death  of 
her  son,  Ahaziah,  who  succeeded  Jehoram 
but  reigned  only  one  year,  she  tried  to 
pave  her  way  to  the  throne  by  destroying 
all  the  members  of  the  royal  family.  But 
Ahaziah's  son,  Joash,  was  hidden  by  his 
aunt,  and  after  Athaliah  had  reigned  six 

Jears,  the  high  priest,  Jehoiada,  placed 
oash  on  the  throne  and  caused  Athaliah 
to  be  killed.  Handel,  in  an  oratorio,  has 
told  this  story,  and  Racine  also,  in  his 
drama  Athalie,  for  which  Mendelssohn  com- 
posed the  music. 

Athena.     See  MINERVA. 

Ath'ens,  the  capital  of  Attica  and  the 
center  of  ancient  Greek  culture.  The  city 
is  beautifully  situated.  In  its  center  is 
the  rocky  height  called  the  Acropolis, 
rising  about  500  feet  above  the  Attic 
plains;  and  grouped  around  it  are  the 
Areopagus  or  Hill  of  Mars,  the  Museum  or 
Hill  of  the  Muses,  the  Hill  of  the  Pnyx 
and  the  Hill  of  the  Nymphs.  The  river 
Ilissus  can  be  seen  to  the  north  and  east, 
and  the  Cephissus  to  the  south  and  west, 
while  the  Attic  plain  is  itself  girdled  by 
hills. 

In  legend  Athens  dates  back  to  the  hero 
Cecrops,  from  whom  the  city  was  called 
Cecropia,  as  well  as  the  far  more  famous 


name,  Athens,  in  honor  of  its  patron  god- 
dess, Athena.  The  mythic  King  Theseus 
also  plays  an  honored  part  in  the  forming 
of  the  early  city;  while  under  the  hands  of 
Solon  and  the  tyrants  Pisistratus  and 
Clisthenes  was  formed  that  democratic 
government  which  made  the  city  so  famous 
in  history,  and  beginnings  were  made  in 
the  erection  of  imposing  buildings.  The 
ruins  of  the  colossal  temple  to  Zeus,  called 
the  Olympium,  date  back  to  this  period. 

During   the   Persian   wars   the  city   was 
abandoned     and    burned,     but     after     the 


ATHENS 

and 

THE  PIRAEUS 


victories  of  Salamis  and  Platasa,  it  was 
splendidly  rebuilt  and  the  Athenians  en- 
tered upon  the  most  brilliant  epoch  of 
their  career.  The  energy  of  Themistocles 
secured  the  building  of  the  walls  around 
the  Acropolis,  and  the  city  walls,  about  five 
miles  in  circumference,  with  their  ninety- 
seven  towers  and  ten  gates.  Just  out- 
side one  of  these  gates  was  the  Ceramicus 
or  burying-ground,  where  are  still  to  be 
seen  beautiful  tomb  bas-reliefs.  The  for- 
tification of  the  harbor,  called  Peiraeus, 
and  the  building  of  the  famous  "long  walls," 
500  feet  apart,  some  years  later,  com- 
pleted the  defenses  of  the  city. 

The  age  of  Pericles  was  the  most  glorious 
in  the  history  of  Athens.  Then  flourished 
Monesicles  and  Ictinus  in  architecture, 
Phidias  and  Myron  in  sculpture,  ^Eschylus 
and  Sophocles  in  tragedy,  Socrates  and 
Plato  in  philosophy,  Herodotus  and  Thucy- 
dides  as  historians  and  Pindar  and  Sim- 
onides  as  poets.  In  this  period  many  of 
the  finest  buildings  of  Athens  were  built — 
the  Parthenon,  considered  the  most  beau- 
tiful ruin  in  the  world,  the  Eiechtheum, 
the  Temple  of  Wingless  Victory,  the  The- 
seum  and  many  other  temples  and  monu- 
ments. At  that  time  the  city  had  more 
than  10,000  dwellings  and  100,000  free  in: 
habitants,  with  at  least  twice  as  many  slaves. 

The  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  War 
marked  the  fall  of  Athens.  Her  splendid 


ATHENS,  GA. 


131 


ATHLETICS 


walls  were  destroyed  and  her  civic  spirit 
was  broken;  but  a  few  men  such  as  De- 
mosthenes still  kept  her  the  defender 
of  Greek  freedom,  while  Lycurgus  laid  out 
the  Stadium  for  the  grounds  of  the  so- 
called  Panathenaic  festival,  having  seats  for 
45,000  persons.  After  Athens  with  the 
remainder  of  Greece  had  fallen  under  the 
power  of  Macedonia,  it  became  the  seat 
of  schools  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric, 
and  later,  when  it  became  a  Roman  prov- 
ince (146  B.  C.),  it  for  a  long  time  taught 
its  conqueror."  During  this  period  the 
Emperor  Hadrian  gave  the  city  a  new 
prosperity;  but  from  this  time  onward 
Athens  became  the  spoil,  first  of  the  Romans, 
then  of  the  Goths,  afterward  of  the  Chris- 
tians and  lastly  of  the  Turks.  In  1833 
Greece  was  freed  from  the  Turks,  and 
since  that  time  Athens,  as  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom,  lias  grown  rapidly.  It  has  a 
gymnasium  after  the  German  model,  a 
school  for  the  education  of  girls,  a  poly- 
technic school  which  provides  instruction 
in  painting,  sculpture  and  mechanics, 
and  a  university,  which  numbers  over 
fifty  professors  and  nearly  3,000  students. 
Within  recent  years  there  has  grown  up 
in  Athens  a  great  interest  in  the  study  of 
the  remains  of  antiquity;  and  the  three 
museums  are  stored  with  the  fruit  of  such 
work.  Besides  the  native  societies  for  this 
object,  called  archeological  societies,  America 
England,  Germany  and  France  have  estab- 
lished similar  schools.  The  American  school 
was  founded  in  1882,  and  is  maintained  by 
twelve  leading  colleges  in  the  United 
States.  The  population  of  Athens  is  now 
167,479. 

Athens,  Qa.,  the  capital  of  Clarke 
County,  north  central  Georgia,  on  the 
Oconee  River,  is  seventy-three  miles 
northeast  of  Atlanta.  It  is  a  center  of 
the  Georgia  cotton-trade,  and  has  a  number 
of  cotton-mills  and  other  manufactories. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of  Georgia, 
the  State  College  of  Agriculture,  the  State 
Normal  and  of  Lucy  Cobb  Institute. 
The  city  is  an  important  railway  junction, 
and  fifty  miles  to  the  eastward  it  has  the 
facilities  of  the  Savannah  River.  Popu- 
lation, i4,9J3- 

Athletics.  The  indulgence  in  games 
and  sports  is  as  old  as  the  era  of  Homer. 
Quite  respectable  amateurs  were  Plato, 
Cleanthes  and  Pythagoras,  though  they 
did  not  rival,  of  course,  the  trained  pro- 
fessionals who  won  the  bay  and  the  olive 
leaf  at  the  great  Olympian,  Pythian,  Ne- 
mean  and  Isthmian  games.  In  the  days 
of  old  King  Hal  of  England,  sport  and 
games  in  the  mother  country  were  univer- 
sal. The  chief  features  in  these  contests 
and  rivalries  were  archery,  running,  jump- 
ing, leaping,  wrestling  and  boxing  matches, 
together  with  remarkable  records  in  putting 
shot  and  throwing  the  hammer.  At  a 


later  day  came  the  school  sports  at  Eton, 
Harrow,  Rugby  and  Shrewsbury,  the  ath- 
letic contests  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
including  sculling  matches  on  the  rivers 
and  the  Highland  games  at  Braemar,  Inver- 
ness and  other  towns  in  Scotland.  In  our 
modern  day  athleticism  has  become  almost 
a  craze,  with  its  swimming,  skating,  bicy- 
cling, baseball,  football,  boxing  and  cricket 
matches,  croquet  and  lawn  tennis  cham- 
pionships and  boat  and  hurdle  races. 
To-day  the  physiology  of  bodily  exercise 
is  better  understood  and  valued  than 
ever  before,  and  hence  come  the  methodical 
training  indulged  in  and  its  results  in  the 
healthful  nutrition  of  the  body  and  its 
beneficial  effects  on  the  respiratory  organs 
and  the  stimulus  to  the  brain  and  all  the 
bodily  powers. 

Those  who  practice  athletics  fall  into 
three  classes,  consisting  of  amateurs,  pro- 
fessionals or  semi-professionals.  All  train, 
that  is,  make  particular  preparation  for 
special  sports,  but  amateurs  do  not  com- 
pete for  money,  receive  pay  for  services 
nor  contest  against  professionals.  For 
many  years  athletics  in  America  con- 
sisted of  contests  between  isolated  col- 
leges or,  clubs,  but  about  1875  these  began 
to  form  groups,  train  methodically,  play 
series  of  games  and  hold  large  meets. 
Now  a  network  of  athletic  associations 
covers  the  civilized  world,  including  even 
colonies  in  uncivilized  countries,  and  codes 
of  play  regulate  every  imaginable  condi- 
tion and  happening  in  any  game.  The 
United  States  has  an  Amateur  Athletic 
Union  (A.  A.  U.)  and  an  Intercollegiate 
Association  of  Amateur  Athletes.  The 
professional  associations  are  too  many  to 
name,  the  best  known  being  the  Ameri- 
can and  National  leagues  of  ball-clubs. 

Training  for  athletic  games  has  been  re- 
duced to  a  science.  It  regulates  bathing, 
clothing,  diet,  exercise  and  sleep;  begins 
months  before  an  "event"  occurs;  and 
often  is  as  severe  as  if  the  athletes  were 
soldiers.  A  cold  bath  should  be  taken 
every  time  after  practice  and  be  followed 
by  vigorous  rubbing  with  a  rough  towel. 
Clothing  usually  consists  of  a  shirt,  knee- 
trousers,  thick  stockings,  rubber-soled  or 
light-leather  shoes  for  road-running  and 
a  blanket  or  sweater  to  wear  after  exercise 
and  prevent  catching  cold.  Proper  diet 
is  indispensable — wholesome,  well-cooked 
food  in  plenty — but  drink,  heavy  foods, 
rich  pastries  and  tobacco  are  forbidden. 
Exercise  should  not  be  confined  to  the 
practice  that  the  special  contest  requires, 
but  whatever  develops  all-around  power 
and  skill  helps  on  the  special  thing.  Regular 
hours  of  sleep  and  at  least  eight  hours  a 
night  are  indispensable.  The  more  im- 
portant games  are  described  in  special 
articles.  See  BASEBALL,  BASKETBALL,  CRO- 
QUET, GOLF,  TENNIS,  etc. 


ATHOS 


132 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


Ath'os,  Mount,  called  Monte  Santo  or 
Holy  Hill  by  the  Italians,  a  famous  moun- 
tain in  Greece,  at  the  extremity  of  the 
peninsula  of  Chalcidice,  on  the  ^Egean 
Sea.  It  rises  to  the  height  of  6,346  feet 
above  the  sea.  In  ancient  times  several 
towns  were  built  on  the  peninsula.  Xerxes 
cut  a  canal  through  the  isthmus  which 
connects  the  peninsula  with  the  mainland, 
to  escape  the  dangerous  passage  around 
the  promontory;  traces  of  the  canal  still 
exist.  The  peninsula  is  celebrated  as 
the  seat  of  a  kind  of  monastic  republic, 
consisting  of  twenty  large  monasteries 
besides  numerous  hermitages  and  chapels. 
The  entire  number  of  monks  is  about 
6,000.  The  whole  community  is  governed 
by  four  presidents,  one  of  whom  is  called 
the  First  Man  of  Athos,  and  a  holy  synod 
of  twenty  members.  The  monks  lead 
an  ascetic  life,  living  on  herbs,  fruit  and 
fish.  They  spend  their  time  in  farming, 
gardening,  the  care  of  bees  and  the  manu- 
facture of  amulets,  images,  crucifixes  and 
wooden  articles  of  furniture,  which  they 
sell. 

Atlanta,  Qa.,  the  capital  of  the  state 
and  county  seat  of  Fulton  County,  through 
which  county  the  Chattahoochee  River 
flows.  It  lies  170  miles  west  by  north 
of  Augusta  and  about  295  miles  north- 
west of  Savannah,  both  of  the  latter  cities 
being  on  the  Savannah  River,  Atlanta, 
frequently  called  the  Gate  City,  is  an 
important  railroad  and  commercial  cen- 
ter; it  is  on  the  Southern,  the  Seaboard 
Air  Line,  the  Atlanta  &  West  Point  and 
other  railroads.  It  occupies  high  ground, 
and  has  a  mild,  equable  climate.  The 
city,  which  was  founded  in  the  year  1837, 
when  for  some  few  years  it  was  known 
as  Marthasville,  received  its  charter  as  a 
city  in  1847,  and  in  1878  it  became  the 
state  capital.  During  the  Civil  War 
it  played  a  prominent  part  as  a  rallying 
point  and  supply  center  for  the  Confed- 
erate armies,  and  as  such  was  for  several 
weeks  in  1864  invested  and  finally  cap- 
tured by  the  federal  army  under  Gen- 
eral Sherman,  the  city  being  at  the  time 
held  by  the  Confederate  General  Hood, 
who  was  compelled  to  evacuate  it  after 
two  sanguinary  battles  had  been  fought 
in  the  vicinity.  Later  in  the  year  Sher- 
man withdrew  his  army  and  started  on 
his  march  to  the  sea,  when  the  city  was 
almost  totally  burned.  After  the  close 
of  the  war  Atlanta  was  speedily  rebuilt, 
and  in  1895-96  it  was  chosen  as  the  site 
of  the  Cotton  States  Industrial  Exposi- 
tion. The  new  city  has  been  substan- 
tially and  attractively  built  and  besides 
its  civic  and  municipal  buildings  it  is 
adorned  with  a  handsome  state  capitol, 
together  with  a  number  of  important 
educational  institutions,  including  Atlanta, 
Oglethorpe,  Emory  and  Clark  Universities, 


State  School  of  Technology,  Atlanta  Baptist 
College,  two  Medical  Colleges,  the  city's 
training  institutes  and  Georgia  Military 
Academy.  It  has,  moreover,  a  large  and 
growing  number  of  industrial  establishments, 
including  agricultural  implement  works,  ma- 
chine-shops, foundries,  cotton  and  paper  mills, 
tobacco  factories,  etc.  The  city  has  made 
progress  since  the  Civil  War.  Is  now  one 
of  the  busiest  and  most  flourishing  cities  of  the 
New  South  and  is  still  enjoying  a  solid  and 
rapid  growth.  Population,  200,000. 

Atlanta  University.  A  'non-sectarian 
institution  founded  in  1869  for  the  educa- 
tion of  colored  men  and  women.  It  is 
situated  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  and  in  1910 
had  400  students.  The  president  is  Horace 
Bumstead,  D.  D.  The  aims  of  the  uni- 
versity are  stated  to  be  "to  train  talented 
negro  youth  to  disseminate  civilization 
among  the  untaught  masses,  and  to  edu- 
cate teachers." 

Atlantic  City,  N»  J.,  a  popular  and 
fashionable  seabathing  resort  on  the  New 
Jersey  coast,  situated  sixty  miles  south- 
west of  Philadelphia.  On  account  of  its 
salubrious  climate  it  is  both  a  winter  and 
a  summer  resort.  It  has  an  admirable 
beach,  and  is  frequented  both  summer 
and  winter  by  thousands  of  people  from 
Philadelphia,  New  York  and  from  all 
sections  of  the  country.  Magnificent  ex- 
press trains,  both  steam  and  electric,  are 
run  daily  between  Philadelphia  and  At- 
lantic City,  while  trains  are  run  direct  from 
New  York,  Pittsburg,  Washington  and  the 
south.  The  city  is  lighted  by  electricity, 
the  principal  streets  are  asphalted  and  the 
electric  street  car  service  is  of  the  best  the 
country  affords.  There  are  upward  of  one 
thousand  hotels  and  boarding  houses,  some 
of  these  being  the  largest  and  best  equipped 
on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

The  Board-walk  along  the  ocean  front 
is  over  eight  miles  in  length  and  is  sixty  feet 
in  width.  There  are  thirteen  school  buildings, 
large  and  convenient  churches,  numerous 
halls,  magnificent  ocean  piers  and  amusement 
places  of  all  descriptions.  The  resident 
population  is  over  51,000,  and  the  assessed 
valuation  of  the  resort  over  ninety-two 
million  dollars. 

Atlantic  Ocean,  so  called  either  from 
Mt.  Atlas  or  from  the  fabulous  island  of 
Atlantis,  which  separates  the  old  from 
the  new  world.  Its  greatest  width  is  about 
5,000  miles;  but  between  Brazil  and  the 
African  coast  the  distance  is  only  about 
i, 600  miles.  It  is  in  open  communication 
both  with  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  Ant- 
arctic or  Southern  Ocean.  The  average 
depth  is  between  two  and  three  miles, 
though  in  places  it  is  twice  that  depth. 
It  has  been  sounded  in  all  directions,  and 
it  has  been  found  that  as  a  rule  the  bed 
of  the  ocean  is  a  broad,  gently  undulating 
plain,  though  near  some  of  the  continental 


ATLANTIS 


133 


ATOM 


shores  and  around  some  of  the  volcanic 
cones  which  rise  from  this  floor  there  are 
very  steep  slopes.  Life  exists  at  all  depths 
of  the  sea,  though  becoming  less  abundant 
at  greater  depths;  while  the  surface  waters 
from  equator  to  poles  swarm  with  all 
kinds  of  plants  and  animals,  many  of 
which  give  forth  a  phosphorescent  light, 
causing  what  is  known  as  the  luminosity 
of  the  sea. 

Though  only  about  half  as  large  as  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  the  Atlantic  is  much  more 
important,  as  the  most  civilized  nations 
of  the  world  live  on  its  shores  and  it  is 
the  great  highway  of  trade  for  the  world. 
Its  coasts  are  better  surveyed  and  better 
provided  with  lighthouses  than  those  of 
any  other  ocean.  It  is  divided  by  the 
equator  into  the  North  Atlantic  and  South 
Atlantic,  with  respective  areas  of  14,000,000 
and  10,000,000  square  miles.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  yearly  discharge  of  rivers  into 
the  Atlantic  is  3,400  cubic  miles  of  water, 
equal  to  about  one  half  of  the  river  dis- 
charge of  the  world. 

There  are  warm  and  cold  currents  in 
the  Atlantic,  which  have  an  effect  on  the 
neighboring  lands.  The  most  important 
is  the  Gulf  Stream.  It  starts  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  spreads  out  over  the 
ocean  to  the  south  of  Newfoundland;  one 
part  of  it  returns  to  the  tropics  off  the 
coasts  of  Spain  and  Africa;  the  other  passes 
northward  between  the  British  Isles  and 
Iceland  and  on  to  the  coasts  of  Norway, 
which  are  thus  rendered  habitable,  though 
the  opposite  coasts  of  Greenland  are  ice- 
bound. 

The  chief  inlets  of  the  Atlantic  are,  on 
the  west,  Baffin  Bay,  Davis  and  Hudson 
Straits,  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  Caribbean  Sea;  and  on  the 
east  the  North  and  Baltic  Seas,  Bay  of 
Biscay,  Strait  of  Gibraltar  and  Gulf  of 
Guinea.  The  principal  islands  washed  by 
the  ocean  are,  on  the  west,  Newfoundland, 
Bermuda,  Bahama  and  West  India  Is- 
lands, Trinidad  and  the  Falkland  Islands;  and 
on  the  east,  Iceland,  Faroe,  Shetland,  Orkney 
and  the  British  Islands,  the  Azores,  Ma- 
deira, Canary  and  Cape  Verd  Islands, 
together  with  St.  Paul,  Ascension  and  St. 
Helena.  Some  twenty  cables  now  cross 
the  Atlantic  floor  between  the  Old  World 
and  the  New;  while  the  Marconi  wireless 
system,  now  successfully  inagurated,  adds 
to  the  facilities  of  international  communica- 
tion. 

Atlan'tis,  in  ancient  tradition  the  name 
of  a  vast  island  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Plato  relates,  in  his  dialogue  Timaeus,  how 
an  Egyptian  priest  told  Solon  of  its  exist- 
ence, lying  off  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  in  the 
ocean  and  larger  than  Libya  and  Asia 
Minor  together.  Plato  also  gives  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  island  and  adds  a  fabulous 
history.  His  story  is  that  9,000  years  be- 


fore his  own  time  Atlantis  was  a  powerful 
and  populous  island,  and  conquered  the 
western  part  of  Europe  and  Africa.  At  one 
time  its  whole  power  was  arrayed  against 
the  nations  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean, 
and  every  nation  gave  way  before  it  except 
the  Athenians,  who  were  finally  victorious. 
The  gods  at  last  came  to  the  rescue  of  the 
earth  and  an  earthquake  caused  the  island 
to  sink  in  tke  ocean.  Many  efforts  have 
been  made  to  find  the  seat  of  this  island, 
but  it  doubtless  was  only  an  imaginary 
land,  like  the  Land  of  the  Dead  among  the 
Celtic  race. 

At'las,  in  Greek  fable,  the  son  of  a  Titan 
and  father  of  the  Pleiades  and  Hyades.  As 
leader  of  the  Titans  he  tried  to  storm  the 
heavens,  and  for  this  crime  was  condemned 
by  Zeus  to  bear  the  vault  of  heaven  on  his 
head  and  hands,  standing  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Hesperides  at  the  western  end 
of  the  earth  on  the  mountains  in  the  north- 
west of  Africa,  still  called  by  his  name. 

Atlas,  the  great  mountain  system  of 
northwestern  Africa,  stretching  from  Cape 
Nun  in  Morocco  to  Cape  Bon  in  Tunis,  a 
distance  of  about  1,400  miles.  It  is  a  very 
irregular  mass  of  mountains  running  in 
various  directions.  It  reaches  its  greatest 
height  (about  13,000  feet)  27  miles  south- 
east of  the  city  of  Morocco,  and  in  the 
peaks  Bibawan  and  Tagherain.  The 
heights  approach  the  sea  and  form  the 
promontories  jutting  out  into  the  Atlantic. 
The  slopes  of  the  north,  west  and  south 
are  covered  with  vast  forests  of  pine,  oak, 
cork,  white  poplar,  etc.  Copper,  iron,  lead 
and  antimony  are  found  abundantly,  but 
have  not  yet  been  mined  to  any  great 
extent. 

Atoll  (a-toU),  the  native  name  commonly 
applied  in  the  Indian  Ocean  to  a  lagoon 
island,  a  low,  usually  circular  reef,  often 
composed  of  coral  and  the  sand  and  soil 
washed  up  by  the  sea,  and  upon  which  a 
stunted  vegetation  grows,  with  an  oc- 
casional palm  tree  a  variety  of  shrubs. 
Many  atolls  are  as  much  as  a  hundred 
miles  in  circumference,  and  enclose  bodies 
of  water  varying  from  12  to  50  fathoms: 
they  furnish  good  temporary  harbors,  open 
here  and  there,  by  narrow  inlets  from  the 
sea.  In  many  cases  they  are  inhabited  by 
Malays.  See  CORAL  ISLAND  and  REEF. 

At'om.  When  a  homogenous  body  is 
broken  up  into  very  small  parts,  even  the 
smallest  parts  which  we  can  produce  by 
any  instrument  or  see  by  any  microscope, 
these  parts  appear  to  be  all  exactly  alike 
in  structure.  But  we  may  fairly  ask  whether, 
if  it  were  possible  to  continue  the  process 
of  division  yet  further,  we  should  still  fina 
the  body  made  up  of  parts  exactly  alike. 
The  facts  indicate  that  this  question  would 
have  to  be  answered  in  the  negative.  For 
there  are  other  methods,  besides  the  use  of 
mechanical  instruments,  for  separating  a 


ATREUS 


134 


ATTILA 


body  into  its  parts.  Thus,  for  instance,  if 
we  place  zinc  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  the 
zinc  will  set  free  hydrogen,  which  formerly 
constituted  a  part  of  the  sulphuric  acid. 
The  sulphuric  acid  has  thus  been  divided 
into  parts.  Again,  if  we  confine  a  mixture 
of  gases  in  a  vessel  with  porous  walls,  we 
find  that  some  of  these  gases  pass  through 
the  walls  more  rapidly  than  others;  and 
that  by  collecting  those  that  come  through 
first  and  those  that  come  through  last,  we 
can  separate  the  mixture  into  parts  that 
are  very  different  from  one  another.  From 
considerations  of  this  kind  we  are  led  to 
think  that  matter  is  made  up  of  particles 
far  transcending  in  smallness  the  reach  of 
the  most  powerful  microscope.  The  smallest 
mass  of  any  substance  in  which  the  prop- 
erties of  the  substance  still  remain  is  called 
a  molecule.  But  all  substances,  except 
about  ninety  which  are  called  elements, 
have  been  decomposed  into  other  sub- 
stances having  different  properties.  The 
smallest  mass  of  each  of  these  elementary 
substances  is  defined  as  an  atom.  Atom 
is  a  Greek  word  meaning  "indivisible;"  it 
acquired  its  present  English  signification 
about  the  beginning  of  the  ipth  century. 

An  atom  is  defined  as  a  portion  of  matter 
which  is  indivisible  by  chemical  methods: 
but  there  are  excellent  reasons  for  thinking 
that  this  atom  which  is  indivisible  by  chem- 
ical methods  is  made  up  of  still  smaller  parts. 
One  of  these  reasons  is  that  a  single  type 
of  atom — say  hydrogen — is  capable  of 
emitting  light  of  many  different  wave 
lengths,  just  as  a  piano  or  an  orchestra  can 
emit  many  different  wave  lengths  of  sound. 
And  just  as  a  piano  is  a  complex  instrument, 
so  we  are  led  to  think  that  an  atom  of  hydro- 
gen— or  indeed  an  atom  of  any  other  sub- 
stance— is  probably  a  very  complex  mechan- 
ism. A  still  stronger  reason  for  thinking 
that  the  chemical  atom  is  divisible  is  th 
fact  that  Sir  Joseph  Thomson  has  recently 
succeeded  in  splitting  off,  from  the  hydrogen 
atom,  parts  which  are  called  "electrons" 
and  which  have  a  mass  of  approximately 
one  two-thousandth  that  of  the  hydrogen 
atom.  These  electrons  may  be  obtained 
from  matter  by  other  processes  also,  such 
as  X-rays,  ultra-violet  light,  and  high 
temperatures.  One  investigator  has  esti- 
mated that  the  size  of  an  electron  bears  to 
the  size  of  an  atom  about  the  same  relation 
as  the  size  of  a  pinhead  bears  to  the  size  of 
the  dome  on  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 

In  all,  there  are  about  ninety  kinds  of 
atoms:  these  are  the  "elements"  of  the 
chemist.  Professor  Millikan  of  Chicago 
University  has  found  the  mass,  in  grams,  of 
a  hydrogen  atom  to  be  1.62x10-24. 

Experiments  indicate  that  it  would  require 
about  100,000,000  average  molecules  laid 
side  by  side  in  a  straight  line  to  cover  a 
distance  of  one  centimeter. 

See   Sir   Joseph    Thomson's    Corpuscular 


Theory  of  Matter  (Scribners),  Soddy's  Inter- 
pretation of  Radium,  Cameron's  Radium  and 
Radioactivity  (Romance  of  Science  Series), 
Kimball's  Properties  of  Gases  (Houghton 
Mifflin  Company).  HENRY  CREW. 

A'treus,  according  to  the  Greek  legend, 
the  son  of  Pelops  and  Hippodamia.  By 
some  versions  he  is  accounted  the  father  of 
Agamemnon  and  Menelaus,  while  others 
say  he  was  their  grandfather  but  that  he 
reared  them  as  sons.  The  whole  story  of 
the  house  of  Atreus  is  one  of  bloodshed, 
the  series  of  crimes  beginning  with  the 
murder  of  Chrysippus  by  his  half  brothers, 
Atreus  and  Thyestes,  and  ending  with  the 
murder  of  Clytemnestra  and  her  husband 
by  Clytemnestra's  son,  Orestes.  Because 
of  the  first  murder,  Pelops  pronounced  the 
curse  upon  his  sons  that  they  and  their 
posterity  should  perish  by  means  of  one 
another. 

At' tar  of  Roses  (from  the  Arab  word 
for  perfume'),  the  oil  extracted  from  the 
petals  of  the  rose.  It  is  prepared  from 
rose-water  in  Persia,  India  and  other 
eastern  countries  by  setting  it  out  during 
the  night  in  large  open  vessels,  and  early 
in  the  morning  skimming  off  the  oil  which 
floats  at  the  top.  It  is  very  costly,  and  is 
often  adulterated  with  sandalwood  and 
other  oils.  Half  an  ounce  of  the  oil  can  be 
made  from  200,000  well-grown  roses,  and 
this  amount,  when  manufactured,  is  worth 
about  $40.  The  oil  is  at  first  colorless, 
but  later  shows  a  yellow  tint.  The  oil  of 
Adrianople  and  of  Ghazipoor  in  Hindu- 
stan is  considered  the  best.  The  region 
about  Ghazipoor  is  one  great  expanse  of 
roses. 

At'tica,  one  of  the  divisions  of  ancient 
Greece,  with  Athens  as  its  capital.  Its 
area  was  about  640  square  miles.  It  is  of 
the  shape  of  a  triangle,  having  its  north- 
east and  southwest  sides  washed  by  the 
sea,  and  joined  to  the  mainland  on  the 
north.  As  early  as  the  time  of  Solon  it 
was  well  cultivated,  and  produced  wine  and 
corn.  Figs,  olives  and  grapes  are  still 
grown,  and  goats  and  sheep  are  raised. 
Today  Attica  and  Bceotia  together  form 
a  division  or  government  in  the  kingdom  of 
Greece,  with  an  area  of  2,472  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  341,247. 

At'tila,  the  Scourge  of  God,  'born 
about  406  A.  D.,  was  son  of  the  king  of 
the  Huns,  and  in  434  succeeded  his  uncle 
as  king  of  countless  hordes  scattered  over 
the  north  of  Asia  and  Europe.  He  was 
regarded  by  the  Huns  with  reverence  but 
by  the  Christians  with  dread.  He  is  said 
to  have  received  che  title  Scourge  of  God 
from  a  hermit  in  Gaul.  His  power  at  one 
time  reached  from  the  Rhine  to  tha  frontiers 
of  China.  In  447  he  laid  waste  the  entire 
region  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Mediterranean.  All  the  people,  it  is  related 
were  either  destroyed  or  forced  to  follow 


ATTLEBORO 


135 


AUDUBON 


him  against  his  enemies.  The  Emperor 
Theodosius  was  completely  defeated  by  him, 
and  seventy  large  cities  were  destroyed. 
A  few  years  later,  in  451,  Attila  marched 
westward  against  Gaul.  There  he  was  met 
in  the  valley  of  the  Marne  by  Theodoric, 
king  of  the  Visigoths,  and  by  Aetius,  leader 
of  the  Romans.  After  a  terrible  battle, 
Attila  was  completely  defeated  and  barely 
escaped  with  his  life.  The  old  historians 
speak  of  the  battle  as  one  of  the  most 
bloody  the  world  ever  saw,  and  it  was  of 
the  greatest  importance,  because  it  pre- 
vented the  inferior  races  of  the  east  from 
destroying  the  beginnings  of  new  civilization 
in  the  west.  Not  less  than  252,000  men  are 
said  to  have  been  left  dead  upon  the  field. 
Attila  resolved  to  fire  his  wagons  and  cast 
himself  into  the  flames  rather  than  be  taken 
captive,  but  AStius  allowed  him  to  retreat 
without  harm. 

The  next  year  he  made  a  raid  into  Italy, 
destroying  many  cities  and  driving  the 
people  into  the  mountains.  Rome  itself 
was  saved  only  by  the  bravery  of  Pope 
Leo  I,  who  visited  Attila  and  is  said  to 
have  so  awed  him  by  the  majesty  of  his 
appearance  that  he  gave  up  his  intention 
of  burning  the  city.  He  died  in  453,  while 
preparing  for  another  attack  upon  Italy, 
from  the  rupture  of  a  blood-vessel  on  the 
day  of  his  marriage.  His  body  was  put 
into  three  coffins,  the  first  of  gold,  the  sec- 
ond of  silver  and  the  third  of  iron,  and 
the  men  who  made  his  grave  were  put  to 
death,  that  no  one  might  know  where  he 
was  buried.  He  is  de- 
scribed as  of  very 
short  stature,  witn 
large  head  and  flow- 
ing hair,  small  piercing 
eyes  and  broad  shoul- 
ders. 

At'tleboro,  Mass., 
an  early  settled  and 
progressive  manufact- 
uring town  in  Bristol 
County,  on  the  line 
of  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  &  Hartford 
Railroad,  32  miles 
southwest  of  Boston. 
Originally  composed 
of  a  group  of  villages, 
Attleboro  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1 694. 
Today  it  has  a  number  of  bleacheries,  dye- 
houses,  smelters,  gold  and  silver  refineries  and 
manufactures  besides  jewelry  and  jeweler's 
supplies,  silverware,  carriages,  leather,  but- 
tons, cotton  goods,  etc.  It  has  a  well 
equipped  public  library,  owns  its  water- 
works and  is  the  seat  of  the  Attleboro  Sani- 
tarium. See  Daggett :  Sketch  of  the  History  of 
Attleboro  (Boston,  1894).  Present  population 
18,149. 

Auburn    (au'btirn),    a    city    of    Cayuga 
County,  New  York  state.     Electricity  from 


Niagara  and  water-power  from  Owasco 
Lake,  which  is  within  two  and  a  half  miles 
of  the  city,  supply  its  factories  with  power. 
The  city  contains  a  state  prison,  Theological 
Seminary  and  two  free  libraries.  It  was  long 
the  home  of  William  H.  Seward.  Manufac- 
tures include  farm  implements,  rope,  twine, 
engines  and  shoes.  Population,  34,668. 

Auburn,  Me.,  the  capital  of  Andros- 
coggin  County,  southwestern  Maine,  on  two 
rivers  of  the  same  county  name,  which 
furnish  the  city  with  splendid  water-power. 
It  is  situated  about  35  miles  north  of  Port- 
land, and  has  good  railroad  facilities  for 
the  shipping  of  its  special  manufactures  of 
cotton  and  shoes,  in  which  trade  it  gives 
employment  to  some  6,000  hands.  Its  other 
industries  include  last,  box  and  carriage  works, 
machine  shops,  shoe  findings,  packing  houses, 
etc.  The  city  is  lighted  by  electricity,  and 
owns  its  waterworks.  It  has  excellent  public 
schools,  at  the  head  of  the  public  school  sys- 
tem being  the  Edward  Little  High  School,  a 
noted  institution,  a  number  of  churches  and 
fine  public  buildings.  Its  population  at 
^present  is  17,000. 

Auck'land,  a  New  Zealand  seaport  and 
the  chief  town  in  the  North  Island.  For  a 
time  it  was  the  capital  of  England's  colony 
in  the  South  Pacific,  before  the  choice  fell 
upon  Wellington  in  1865.  Auckland  has 
a  fine  harbor  on  the  Gulf  of  Hauraki,  and 
possesses  considerable  trade,  being  the  chief 
town  of  its  provincial  district  of  the  same 
name.  The  district  has  an  area  of  25,746 
square  miles,  with  a  population  (exclu- 


AUCKLAND 

•its  harbour 
and  approaches 


sive  of  Maoris)  of  264,520  in  1911,  and  a 
fertile  soil  and  delightful  climate.  The  city 
of  Auckland  has  considerable  foreign  trade, 
chiefly  with  Britain;  it  is  also  the  seat  of 
a  university,  and  with  its  suburbs  has  a 
population  of  102,676. 

Audubon  (au/du-bon),  John  James,  a 
distinguished  American  ornithologist,  was 
born  in  1780  in  Louisiana.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Paris,  his  parents  being  of  French 
origin.  After  returning  to  America,  he 
married  and  went  to  live  on  his  plantation. 
He1  spent  his  time  wandering  through  the 


AUDUBON  SOCIETIES 


X36 


AUGUR 


woods,  watching  the  habits  of  birds.  Often 
he  was  gone  for  months  entirely  alone,  in 
absolutely  uninhabited  regions.  The  vari- 
eties of  birds  which  he  observed  he  sketched 
at  once. 

After  about  fifteen  years  of  such  excur- 
sions, he  proceeded  to  Philadelphia  with  his 
designs,  intending  to  publish  a  work  on  the 
birds  of  North  America.  But  while  he  was 
gone  from  the  city  all  his  papers  were 
destroyed  by  rats,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
go  back  to  the  forests  and  begin  his  work 
again.  Four  years  later  he  took  his  new 
designs  to  England  and  in  1830  appeared 
the  first  volume  of  The  Birds  of  America, 
containing  100  plates.  In  1839  the  work 
was  completed,  and  at  the  same  time  was 
published  a  description  of  American  birds 
to  accompany  the  volume  of  plates.  Audu- 
bon  published  another  book  in  1846-50  on 
the  quadrupeds  of  America.  He  died  at 
New  York,  January  27,  1851. 

Audubon  Societies,  organizations  formed 
in  over  thirty  states  of  the  American  Union, 
with  about  75,000  members,  for  the  study 
as  well  as  the  protection  of  bird-life.  These 
societies  have  waged  their  battle  for  birds 
along  many  lines  and  with  gratifying 
results.  Through  their  literature  and 
through  the  newspaper  and  magazine  press 
they  have  awakened  a  wide  interest  in 
behalf  of  the  birds;  they  have  enlightened 
the  public  in  regard  to  the  aesthetic  and 
economic  value  of  birds;  they  have  enlisted 
the  interest  of  teachers  in  the  public  schools 
and  through  them  have  created  in  the 
minds  of  the  young  a  love  of  birds  and 
bird-lore;  they  have  secured  the  enactment 
of  laws  forbidding  the  slaughter  of  birds 
and  have  practically  stopped  the  trade  in 
bird  plumage.  In  cooperation  with  the 
federal  government  they  have  purchased 
and  set  aside  as  refuges,  safe  from 
depredation,  many  of  the  islands  used  as 
breeding  places  by  various  species  of  sea- 
fowl  along  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts 
and  in  certain  points  in  Oregon  and  Wash- 
ington. A  warden  is  placed  in  charge  of 
each  of  these  whose  business  it  is  to  patrol 
the  refuge  and  see  that  the  birds  are 
protected  from  trespassers.  In  order  that 
he  may  have  the  prestige  and  authority  of 
a  government  officer,  the  federal  govern- 
ment pays  him  a  salary  of  one  dollar  a 
month,  but  his  real  salary  is  paid  by  the 
Audubon  societies.  Pelican  Island,  in 
Florida,  the  first  bird  reservation,  was  set 
aside  by  proclamation  of  the  president  in 
March,  1903.  This  island  is  the  only  known 
breeding  place  for  brown  pelicans  on  our 
Atlantic  coast,  and  the  colony  had  been 
almost  exterminated  when  the  government 
interfered.  Here  and  in  other  reservations 
where  many  species  of  wild  fowl,  includ- 
ing grebes,  coots,  rail,  white  ibises,  egrets, 
heron,  etc.  make  their  winter  homes,  these 
beautiful  birds  are  now  raoidly  increasing 


in  number.  Much  similar  work  is  carried 
on  by  state  organizations.  In  Louisiana 
the  state  Audubon  Society  controls  750 
square  miles  of  land  and  water  on  the  east 
side  of  the  Mississippi  River  near  its  mouth 
and  a  similar  tract  of  territory  on  the  west 
side.  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey  and  other 
states  have  secured  extensive  tracts  in 
whicn  wild  birds  are  to  be  protected.  It  is 
probable  that  ere  long  similar  action  will 
be  taken  by  every  state  in  the  Union. 

In  1903  the  Audubon  Societies  east  and 
west  secured  agreements  with  the  Mer- 
chants' Millinery  Association  and  the  West- 
ern Jobbers'  Association  whereby  the  sale 
of  the  plumage  of  wild  birds  was  discon- 
tinued. It  is  stated  on  the  authority  of  the 
government  Bureau  of  Ornithology  that 
bird  life  in  this  country,  which  during  the 
fifteen  years  preceding  1903  had  been 
reduced  fifty  per  cent,  by  the  merciless 
slaugnter  of  birds  for  their  plumage,  is  now 
slowly  but  steadily  on  the  increase,  thanks 
to  the  vigorous  legal  measures  and  the 
awakening  of  public  sentiment  which  have 
resulted  from  the  work  of  the  Audubon 
Societies. 

Auerbach,  Berthold,  German  novelist, 
was  bom  of  humble  Jewish  parents  at 
Nordstetten,  in  the  Black  Forest,  Germany, 
Feoruary  28,  1812,  and  died  at  Cannes, 
France,  February  8,  1882.  After  passing 
through  the  universities  and  getting  into 
trouble  with  the  authorities  for  participa- 
tion in  the  Burschenschaft,  he,  under  the 
influence  of  Spinoza's  teaching,  renounced 
Judaism  and  gave  himself  to  literature.  He 
published  a  Life  of  Spinoza  and  one  (un- 
acknowledged) on  Frederick  the  Great,  but 
made  no  special  success  until  1843,  when 
the  first  of  his  now  famous  Black  Forest 
Village  Stories  appeared,  followed  at  some 
interval  by  Little  Barefoot,  Joseph  in  the 
Snow,  Edelweiss,  The  Villa  on  the  Rhine 
and  by  On  the  Heights — the  latter  two 
being,  with  his  sketches  of  the  Black 
Forest,  his  most  representative  work.  His 
subsequent  work  included  further  novels, 
Brigitta,  Aloys  Waljried  and  a  later  series 
of  village  stories  of  the  Black  Forest,  with 
some  admirable  delineations  of  peasant  life 
and  character. 

Augs'burg,  an  old  and  important  city  of 
Germany,  in  Bavaria,  is  on  the  River  Lech. 
A  colony  was  planted  here  in  12  B.  C.  by 
the  Emperor  Augustus.  It  became  a  free 
city  of  the  empire  in  1276.  Holbein  was  a 
native  of  this  city.  It  has  many  large 
manufactories,  and  is  one  of  the  main 
money  markets  of  Europe.  Population, 
102,293. 

Augur,  a  Roman  soothsayer  or  diviner 
who  professed  to  foretell  events  by  the 
flight  of  birds  or  other  omens.  His  office 
was  held  in  high  repute  by  the  heads  of 
the  state,  who  rarely  undertook  any  pro- 
ject of  importance  without  first  consulting 


AUGUST 


AUGUSTUS 


the  auguries.  The  augur  among  the  Romans 
held  his  office  for  life;  at  one  time  there 
were  but  two  (generally  patricians);  but 
later  their  number  was  increased  to  nine 
and  even  more. 

Au'gust,  the  sixth  month  in  the  Roman 
year,  which  began  with  March.  It  was 
originally  called  Sextilis,  and  received  its 
present  name  in  honor  of  the  Emperor 
Augustus,  because  several  of  the  most  im- 
portant events  of  his  life  occurred  in  this 
month.  In  this  month  he  was  first  elected 
consul  and  three  times  entered  Rome  in 
triumph ;  in  the  same  month  an  end  was  put 
to  the  civil  wars.  To  make  it  equal  to  the 
fifth  month,  a  day  was  taken  from  Febru- 
ary and  added  to  August. 

Augus'ta,  county  seat  of  Richmond 
County,  Georgia,  a  city  of  41,040  inhab- 
itants, situated  at  the  headwaters  of  the 
Savannah  River.  It  was  laid  out  by  Ogle- 
thorpe,  the  founder  of  the  state,  in  1735 
as  a  trading  post  for  the  Indians.  It  be- 
came a  point  of  historic  interest  and  mili- 
tary importance  during  the  Revolutionary 
War,  was  visited  by  Washington  in  1792 
and  by  Lafayette  in  1825.  It  is  beautifully 
laid  out  in  wide  streets  and  avenues,  noted 
for  their  regularity  and  abundance  of  shade 
trees.  Greene  Street,  the  main  residence 
street,  is  170  feet  wide,  with  a  park  in  the 
center,  the  length  of  the  street,  shaded 
with  a  double  row  of  stately  trees.  The 
Augusta  canal,  nine  miles  long,  developing 
14,000  horse  power,  is  one  of  the  widest 
and  deepest  in  the  entire  county.  It  was 
built  and  is  owned  by  the  city,  and  furnishes 
water-power  for  a  dozen  large  cotton  mills. 
Milling  and  cotton  selling  are  the  main 
industries  of  the  city.  The  factory  popula- 
tion numbers  15,000.  The  capital  employed 
is  about  $6,000,000,  running  9,000  looms 
and  300,000  spindles.  Besides  these,  there 
are  large  iron  foundries  and  railroad  shops, 
Augusta  is  well  equipped  with  hospitals, 
orphan  asylums,  electric  car  lines,  parks 
and  public  schools.  It  is  a  favorite  winter 
resort  for  northern  tourists,  having  a  fine 
winter  hotel,  The  Bon  Air.  Its  soft 
climate,  beautiful  situation  and  enterprising 
and  hospitable  people  make  it  an  attractive 
place  for  industrial  pursuits  as  well  as  for 
social  pleasures. 

Augusta,  the  capital  of  Maine,  on  the 
Kennebec  River,  43  miles  from  its  mouth. 
The  city  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  river, 
which  is  spanned  by  a  bridge  520  feet 
long.  The  white  granite  statehouse  is  one 
of  the  finest  in  New  England.  Other  fine 
buildings  are  the  courthouse  and  the  Maine 
insane  asylum,  to  which  property  has  been 
added  the  U.  S.  arsenal  grounds.  The 
United  States  arsenal  is  on  the  east  side 
of  the  river,  and  the  national  military 
asylum  is  just  outside  the  city  limits.  A 
dam,  1,000  feet  long,  above  the  city  sup- 
plies an  immense  water-power.  The  chief 


interest  is  lumber,  but  the  city  has  cotton 
mills,  pulp  and  paper  mills  and  large 
publishing  houses.  Because  of  Augusta's 
position  among  the  hills  of  th?  Kennebec 
and  her  lakes  and  ponds  it  has  become 
quite  a  summer  resort.  Population,  1-3,211. 

Augustine  (aw'gus-tin),  Saint  Aure~ 
lius,  a  famous  preacher  and  scholar,  was 
born  at  Tagaste,  near  Carthage,  Africa, 
November  13,  354  A.  D.  He  had  the  best 
of  schooling,  the  latter  part  of  it  at  Carthage, 
where  he  fell  into  bad  habits.  A  passage  of 
Cicero,  which  he  chanced  to  read  one  day, 
first  stirred  his  deeper  being  into  life.  For 
the  next  ten  years  he  was  an  earnest  student 
of  philosophy.  In  383  he  went  to  Milan 
Italy,  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  Here  he 
became  a  close  friend  of  the  eloquent 
preacher,  Ambrose,  then  bishop  of  Milan. 
Augustine  often  went  to  hear  his  friend 
preach.  His  mother,  Monica,  was  an 
earnest  Christian,  and  her  influence  and  that 
of  his  friend  brought  him  to  accept  Chris- 
tianity. In  396  he  was  made  bishop  of 
Hippo  in  North  Africa.  The  next  year  he 
brought  out  his  Confessions,  some  passages 
of  which  for  beauty  can  only  be  com- 
pared with  the  Psalms  of  David.  His  most 
powerful  work  is  his  City  of  God.  A  great 
thinker  and  writer,  no  man's  influence  on 
the  church  has  been  greater.  He  died  in 
430  A.  D. 

Augus'tus,  Gaius  Julius  Caesar  Oc- 
tavianus,  the  son  of  Octavius  and  Atia 
(the  niece  of  Julius  Caesar),  was  born  Sep- 
tember 23,  63  B.  C.  In  early  youth  he 
was  adopted  by  Julius  Caesar  as  his  son 
and  heir.  At  the  time  of  Caesar's  assassina- 
tion, Augustus  was  a  student  under  the 
celebrated  orator  Apollodorus  in  Illy- 
ricum.  He  returned  to  Italy,  assuming 
the  name  Julius  Caesar  Octavianus,  and  on 
his  landing  at  Brundusium  was  welcomed 
by  deputies  from  the  veterans  there  assem- 
bled. Augustus  was  at  first  haughtily 
treated  by  the  consul,  Mark  Antony,  who 
refused  to  surrender  the  property  of  Caesar. 
After  some  fighting,  in  which  Antony  was 
defeated  and  had  to  flee  across  the  Alps, 
Augustus,  who  had  made  himself  a  favorite 
with  the  people  and  the  army,  succeeded 
in  getting  the  will  of  Caesar  carried  out. 
When  Antony  returned  from  Gaul  with 
Lepidus,  Augustus  joined  them  in  estab- 
Ishmg  a  triumvirate.  He  obtained  Africa, 
Sardinia  and  Sicily.  Antony  obtained  Gaul, 
and  Lepidus  Spain.  Their  power  was  soon 
made  absolute  by  the  massacre  of  those 
unfriendly  to  them  in  Italy  and  by  victo- 
ries over  the  republican  armies  in  Macedonia 
under  Brutus  and  Cassius.  After  the 
battle  of  Philippi,  won  by  Augustus  and 
Antony,  the  triumvirs  made  a  new  divis- 
ion of  the  provinces — Augustus  obtaining 
Italy  and  Lepidus  Africa.  Shortly  after- 
ward, the  claims  of  'Lepidus  and  Sextus 
Pompeius  having  been  settled  by  force 


AUK 


138 


AURELIAN 


and  fraud,  the  Roman  world  was  divided 
between  Augustus  and  Antony.  While 
Antony  was  lost  in  luxurious  dissipation 
at  the  court  of  Cleopatra,  Augustus  was 
striving  to  damage  his  rival  in  public 
estimation.  At  length  war  was  declared 
against  the  queen  of  Egypt,  and  at  the 
naval  battle  of  Actium,  B.  C.  31,  Augustus 
was  victorious  and  became  sole  ruler  of 
the  Roman  world.  Soon  after,  Antony 
and  Cleopatra  ended  their  lives  by  suicide. 
The  subsequent  measures  of  Augustus 
were  mild  and  prudent.  He  abolished 
the  laws  of  the  triumvirate,  adorned  the 
city  of  Rome  and  reformed  many  abuses. 
The  title  of  Augustus,  meaning  consecrated, 
was  conferred  upon  him  as  consul.  In 
12  B.  C.,  on  the  death  of  Lepidus,  he  had 
the  title  of  Pontifex  Maximus  or  high 
priest  conferred  upon  him.  He  died 
August  19,  A.  D.  14.  He  so  beautified 
Rome  that  it  was  said:  "Augustus  found 
the  city  built  of  brick,  and  left  it  built  of 
marble."  He  encouraged  agriculture  and 
patronized  the  arts  and  literature.  Horace, 
Vergil  and  all  the  most  celebrated  con- 
temporary Latin  scholars  and  poets  were 
his  friends.  His  was  the  famous  Augus- 
tan Age  of  Latin  literature. 

Auk,  the  name  applied  to  a  family  of 
webfooted  sea-birds.  They  have  a  thick- 
set, heavy  body  with  short  wings  and  tail. 
They  are  seldom  more  than  a  foot  long, 
dark  colored  above  and  white  beneath. 
They  live  almost  exclusively  in  the  water 


GREAT    AUK 


and  visit  the  land  only  to  lay  eggs  and 
breed.  Their  movements  on  land  are 
very  awkward,  which  is  caused  because 
their  legs  are  set  far  back.  They  are  fine 
swimmers  and  divers,  using  their  wings 


as  well  as  their  legs  when  under  water. 
The  razor-bill  and  the  so-called  little  auk 
are  common  in  high  northern  latitudes, 
and  are  used  by  the  Esquimaux  for  food, 
while  the  skins  are  used  in  making  clothing. 

The  most  noted  as  well  as  the  largest 
member  of  the  family,  is  the  great  auk, 
which  has  become  extinct  by  the  hand  of 
man  within  the  last  fifty  years.  This  bird, 
about  the  size  of  a  goose,  was  formerly 
abundant  on  both  shores  of  the  Atlantic 
in  north  temperate  parts,  not,  as  is  com- 
monly supposed,  in  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
The  wings  were  so  short  as  to  be  useless  for 
flight,  and  the  birds  stupidly  allowed 
themselves  to  be  knocked  over  by  seamen 
armed  with  short  clubs  and  to  be  driven 
in  large  flocks  on  board  vessels.  They 
were  used  as  food  from  the  time  of  the 
discovery  of  Newfoundland,  and  later  they 
were  killed  for  their  feathers.  While  once 
wonderfully  abundant,  they  have  become 
extinct,  because  they  were  ruthlessly  slaugh- 
tered. Now  their  skins,  bones  and  eggs 
bring  high  prices  from  museums  and  col- 
lectors. 

Auld  Lang  Syne,  a  well-known  popular 
song;  words  by  Robert  Burns;  music  de- 
rived from  a  book  of  Scottish  tunes  printed 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Auld  Robin  Gray,  a  popular  Scottish 
ballad,  written  about  the  year  1772,  by 
Lady  Anne  Barnard,  daughter  of  the  Earl 
of  Balcarras,  whose  family  name  was  Lind- 
say. It  was  originally  sung  to  an  old 
Scotch  tune,  known  as  The  Bridegroom 
Grot,  but  has  been  superseded  by  a  modern 
air.  A  second  part  of  the  ballad,  it  is  said, 
was  written  by  Lady  Anne,  in  which 
Robin  Gray  dies  and  Jeanie  happily  mar- 
ries Jamie,  who  "lo'ed  her  weel,"  as  the 
song  portrays. 

Aumale  (do'tnaV)  (Henri  Eugene  Philippe 
Louis  d'Orldans),  Due  d',  fourth  son  of 
Louis  Philippe  of  France  and  a  general  of 
note  in  the  French  army,  was  born  in  Paris, 
January  16,  1822,  and  died  in  Sicily,  May  7, 
1897.  When  a  youth  he  took  part  in  cam- 
paigns in  Algeria,  of  which  he  became 
governor-general.  When  the  Revolution  of 
1848  broke  out,  he  resigned  his  post  and 
joined  his  exiled  father  and  the  Orleanist 
princes  in  England,  until  the  law  banishing 
royalty  was  repealed  in  1871.  The  duke 
then  returned  to  France,  was  made  a  gen- 
eral, and  president  of  the  council  of  war 
in  which  capacity  he  tried  and  condemned 
Marshal  Bazaine.  Later  on,  a  new  expul- 
sion bill  passed  the  French  legislature  in 
1886,  and  he  was  banished  until  the  revo- 
cation of  the  measure  in  1889.  Meanwhile, 
and  in  spite  of  the  decree  of  banishment, 
the  Due  d'  Aumale  bequeathed  his  beauti- 
ful chateau  of  Chantilly,  with  its  fine  art 
treasures,  to  the  French  nation. 

Aure'lian,  Lucius  Domitius  Aure- 
lianus,  emperor  of  Rome,  was  born  in 


AURELIUS,  MARCUS 


130 


AURELIUS,  MARCUS 


Pannonia  early  in  the  3d  century.  He 
came  from  the  lowest  classes,  but  so  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  Roman  legion 
which  he  entered,  that  he  was  rapidly  pro- 
moted. In  the  campaigns  against  the  Goths 
by  Valerian  and  by  Claudius  II,  he  became 
very  popular  with  the  soldiers,  and  when 
Claudius  died  he  was  proclaimed  emperor 
in  270  by  the  army  of  the  Danube,  which 
he  then  commanded.  Having  driven  the 
Goths  beyond  the  Danube  and  defeated 
many  German  tribes,  he  built  a  long  wall 
to  protect  Rome  against  them.  One  of  his 
best-known  expeditions  was  against  Pal- 
myra, a  city  ruled  by  the  famous  Queen 
Zenobia.  He  captured,  the  city  and  treated 
the  people  with  unexpected  kindness,  and 
refused  to  put  Zenobia  to  death.  After  his 
departure,  the  Roman  garrison  which  he 
left  to  guard  the  city  was  murdered  by 
the  citizens.  Upon  hearing  of  this,  Aure- 
lian  returned,  destroyed  the  city  and  put 
the  inhabitants  to  death.  Zenobia  herself 
was  carried  to  Rome.  Aurelian  then  de- 
feated an  uprising  of  the  Egyptians,  and 
once  more  obtained  for  Rome  the  complete 
control  over  Gaul.  He  also  made  many 
improvements  in  the  condition  of  the  peo- 
ple and  in  the  city  of  Rome,  as  well  as  in 
the  discipline  of  the  army,  and  was  given 
the  title  of  Restorer  of  the  Empire  by 
the  senate.  While  on  his  way  to  attack  the 
Persians,  he  was  assassinated  near  Byzan- 
tium in  275  A.  D. 

Aure'lius  Antoni'nus,  Marcus,  the 
noblest  and,  in  personal  qualities,  the  most 
attractive  of  the  Roman  emperors,  was  born 
at  Rome,  121  A.  D.  His  original  name  was 
Marcus  Annius  Verus.  Both  his  father, 
Annius  Verus,  and  his  mother,  Domitia 
Camilla,  were  of  noble  blood.  On  the  death 
of  his  father,  Marcus  was  adopted  by  his 
grandfather,  who  bestowed  the  greatest 
possible  care  on  his  education.  When  a 
child  he  attracted  the  interest  of  the  em- 
peror, Hadrian,  who,  when  he  named 
Antoninus  Pius  as  his  successor,  stipulated 
that  the  latter  in  turn  should  adopt  both 
Marcus,  who  was  his  nephew,  and  Lucius 
C.  Commodus.  In  Antoninus,  who  was  a 
wise  and  prudent  ruler  and  a  thoroughly 
good  man,  Marcus  had  the  best  of  guar- 
dians. In  appreciation  of  the  advantages 
of  his  youth  Marcus  himself  says:  "To 
the  gods  I  am  indebted  for  having  good 
grandfathers,  good  parents,  a  good  sister, 
good  teachers,  good  associates,  nearly  every- 
thing good."  While  he  first  studied  rhetoric 
and  poetry,  he  early  abandoned  these  for 
the  study  of  philosophy  and  law,  having 
become  fascinated  with  the  Stoic  philosophy 
as  taught  by  Diognetus.  It  was  from  his 
stoic  teachers  that  he  learned  so  many 
valuable  lessons — to  work  hard,  to  deny 
himself,  to  avoid  listening  to  slander,  to 
endure  misfortunes,  never  to  deviate  from 
his  purpose,  to  be  delicate  in  correcting: 


others.  Through  all  his  stoical  training 
Aurelius  preserved  the  natural  sweetness  of 
his  nature  and  became  the  most  lovable 
and  saintliest  of  pagans.  In  the  year  140 
A.  D.  he  was  made  consul,  and  from  this 
period  on  to  the  death  of  Antoninus,  in 
161  A.  D.,  he  discharged  the  duties  of  his 
various  offices  with  the  greatest  fidelity. 
Antoninus  in  his  last  moments  left  the  suc- 
cession to  Aurelius,  without  naming  Com- 
modus; but  Aurelius  voluntarily  shared  the 
throne  with  the  latter,  who-  henceforth  bore 
the  name  of  Lucius  Verus,  and  Rome  for 
the  first  time  was  governed  by  two  em- 
perors. Before  the  close  of  161  A.  D.  the 
Parthian  War  broke  out  and  Lucius  was 
sent  to  quell  the  insurrection ;  but  he  gave 
himself  up  to  licentious  pleasures  and  in- 
trusted the  army  to  Cassius,  who  proved 
an  able  general,  and  gained  several  victories. 
The  empire  was  now  beset  by  many  dangers. 
A  revolt  broke  out  in  the  German  provinces; 
in  Rome  a  pestilence  raged;  floods  and 
earthquakes  had  laid  large  portions  of  the 
city  in  ruins;  and  these  calamities  increased 
the  terror  in  which  the  people  held  their 
savage  enemies.  To  allay  the  public  alarm 
Aurelius  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
Roman  legions  and  marched  against  the 
barbarians.  He  conquered  the  rebellious 
tribes  and  made  them  sue  for  peace  in 
1 68  A.  D.  Lucius  died  in  the  following 
year.  In  170  A.  D.  the  barbarous  tribes 
again  revolted,  and  from  this  time  the  con- 
test continued  almost  through  the  whole 
life  of  the  emperor.  Though  fond  of  peace, 
he  was  brave  and  relentless  in  suppressing 
rebellion.  The  most  famous  of  all  his 
victories  was  the  one  gained  over  the  Quadi 
in  174  A.  D.  The  effect  was  to  bring  the 
Germanic  tribes  from  all  quarters  to  sue 
for  peace.  Aurelius  was  now  called  to  the 
east,  where  Cassius,  the  governor,  had  re- 
belled and  seized  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor; 
but  before  he  reached  there  he  learned  that 
Cassius  had  been  killed.  On  his  arrival  he 
burned  the  papers  of  Cassius  without  read- 
ing them,  so  that  he  might  not  learn  who 
had  been  guilty  of  treason,  treated  the 
provinces  which  had  rebelled  with  great 
kindness,  and  freely  forgave  the  nobles  who 
had  favored  Cassius.  On  his  way  home 
he  visited  Egypt  and  Greece,  everywhere 
showing  a  deep  interest  in  the  welfare  of 
his  vast  empire  and  securing  the  warm 
regard  of  his  subjects,  who  were  astonished 
at  his  lenity  and  goodness.  He  reached 
Rome  in  176  A.  D.  The  next  year  he  went 
to  Germany,  where  the  tribes  had  again 
revolted.  He  again  was  victorious  in  sev- 
eral bloody  battles,  but,  worn  out  with 
anxiety  and  fatigue,  he  died  March  17,  180 
A.  D.  The  one  blot  on  the  character  of 
Marcus  Aurelius  was  his  persecution  of  the 
Christians,  who  had  been  misrepresented  to 
him  and  whom  he  regarded  as  enemies  of 
the  empire.  His  Meditations  have  been 


AURORA 


140 


AURUNGZEBE 


translated  into  English,  German,  French 
and  Spanish.  Several  books  have  been 
written  on  his  life  and  character.  The  best 
estimate  of  him  is  found  in  Dean  Farrar's 
Seekers  After  God.  Compare,  also,  Pater's 
Mariits  the  Epicurean. 

Aurora  (in  Greek  Eos),  the  goddess  of 
the  morning.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Hyperion  and  mother  of  the  winds.  She 
loved  Tithonus,  for  whom  vshe  obtained 
from  the  gods  immortality  but  forgot  to 
ask  for  perpetual  youth.  She  lived  with 
him  at  the  end  of  the  earth,  and  when  he 
grew  old,  nursed  him  until  at  last  his  voice 
disappeared  and  his  body  became  shriveled, 
when  she  changed  him  into  a  cricket. 
Aurora  is  sometimes  represented  in  a 
saffron-colored  robe,  with  a  wand  or  a  torch 
in  her  hand,  emerging  from  a  golden  palace 
and  ascending  her  chariot;  and  sometimes 
in  a  flowing  veil,  which  she  "is  in  the  act  of 
throwing  back,  thus  opening  as  it  were, 
the  gates  of  the  morning. 

Auro'ra,  a  city  in  Kane  County,  Illinois, 
on  the  Fox  River  about  40  miles  from 
Chicago.  It  has  a  variety  of  manufactures, 
including  machinery,  paints,  carriages,  sash 
and  blinds,  silverware,  cotton  mills,  a  wheel 
scraper  manufactory,  hardware  specialties, 
foundries,  etc.  The  extensive  shops  of  the 
Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy  railroad 
are  located  here.  The  public  schools  are  of 
high  grade,  and  it  is  the  seat  of  Jennings 
Seminary.  Aurora  has  38  churches,  a 
Carnegie  Library  and  all  the  adjuncts  of 
an  up-to-date  and  prosperous  town,  and 
is  served  by  four  railroads.  Population,, 
29,807. 

Aurora,  Mo.,  a  city  of  Lawrence  County, 
on  the  Missouri  Pacific,  Iron  Mountain  and 
the  St.  Louis  &  San  Francisco  railroad  sys- 
tems, about  270  miles  southwest  of  St.  Louis. 
Agriculture,  fruit-growing  and  considerable 
lead  and  zinc  mining  are  the  chief  industries 
of  the  region.  Besides  the  shipment  of  these 
products,  the  city  numbers  among  its  indus- 
tries flour  mills,  foundry  and  machine  shops. 
Population,  4,148. 

Aurora  Borealis,  often  called  Northern 
Lights,  a  luminous  phenomenon  of  remark- 
able beauty  occurring  in  the  high  latitudes. 
In  intermediate  latitudes  the  aurora  most 
frequently  presents  the  appearance  of  long 
streamers  of  pale  yellowish  light  extending 
from  the  northern  part  of  the  horizon  well,* 
nigh  to  the  zenith.  But  in  the  higher  lati-- 
tudes  this  light  appears  frequently  as  an 
arch  or  even  several  arches,  with  the 
summits  in  the  magnetic  meridian.  These 
streamers  and  arches  are  in  almost  constant 
motion,  appearing  to  oscillate  to  and  fro 
or  to  shoot  suddenly  upward  and  then  to 
disappear  with  equal  abruptness.  \ 

Since  the  auroras  rotate  with  the  earth,  it 
is  practically  certain  that  they  are  phenom- 
ena which  occur  in  the  earth  s  atmosphere. 
And  since  they  are  almost  universally 


accompanied  by  disturbances  of  the  mag- 
netic needle  and  by  electrical  disturbances! 
it  seems  highly  probable  that  auroras  are 
produced  by  electrical  discharges,  as  was 
first  suggested  by  Franklin.  These  dis- 
charges occur  perhaps  at  a  height  of  from 
50  to  too  miles,  where  the  atmospheric 
pressure  -does  not  amount  to  more  than 
about  one  one-hundredth  of  an  inch  of 
mercury.  *  Air  under  these  conditions  is  a 
fairly  good  conductor  of  electricity. 

When  >an  aurora  is  examined  with  a 
prism,  it  presents  an  emission  spectrum 
which  is  quite  unique,  consisting,  as  it  does, 
of  some  half-dozen  weak  lines  and  one 
strong  green  line.  This  strong  line  has  a 
wave  length  of  5,571  tenth-meters  and 
apparently  does  not  coincide  with  an  equally 
strong  line  in  any  known  substance.  Such 
a  spectrum  indicates  that  auroras  are  in  the 
condition  of  a  glowing  gas.  And  it  is  the 
opinion  of  two  very  high  authorities,  Vogel 
and  Hasselberg,  that  the  spectrum  of  the 
aurora  is  merely  a  modified  spectrum  of 
air,  which  as  yet  we  have  not  been  able  to 
produce  in  the  laboratory. 

Contrary  to  the  general  impression,  the 
frequency  of  auroral  displays  does  not  in- 
crease from  equator  to  pole,  but  reaches  a 
maximum  at  an  average  latitude  of  about 
60°.  So  that  the  northern  lights  are  not 
seen  so  frequently  in  Greenland  and  in 
Iceland  as  in  regions  south  of  these  countries. 

The  name  aurora  borealis  is  due  to  Gas- 
sendi,  who  observed  a  brilliant  display  in 
France  in  1621. 

Aurungzebe  (o-rung-zdb'),  the  last  great 
.emperor  of  the  Mogul  dynasty  in  India. 
He  was  born  in  1618,  and  was  early  ap- 
pointed by  his  father  viceroy  of  the  Deccan. 
Here  he  gained  military  experience  and  at 
the  same  time  became  very  rich.  In  1657 
his  father  suddenly  became  sick,  and  the 
eldest  brother  seized  the  power ;  but  Aurung- 
zebe, uniting  with  a  younger  brother,  de- 
feated him*  and  soon  gained  complete  con- 
trol. His  father,  xvho  had  recovered,  was 
made  a  prisoner  for  life  in  his  own  palace. 
The  reign  of  Aurungzebe  was  the  most 
"brilliant  period  in  the  rule  of  his  race.  The 
first  ten  years  were  peaceful,  and  the  em- 
peror showed  great  wisdom  in  providing 
for  a  famine  and  in  putting  down  a  rising 
'of  Hindu  fanatics.  The  rise  of  the  Mahratta 
.empire  broke .  in  upon  his  peaceful  regime. 
'  The  generals  sent  against  this  new  power 
were  defeated,  and  Aurungzebe  had  to 
march  to  the  Deccan  and  take  the  field 
himself.  .  He  remained  there  twenty-two 
years,  ruling  an  empire  which  in  wealth 
and  population  was  probably  as  great  as 
any  ever  ruled  by  a  monarch.  He  died  in 
1707.  He  liked  to  be  called  Conqueror  of 
the  World;  but  to  show  that  he  ruled  as  yet 
but  three  quarters  of  it,  he  used  to  tear 
off  a  corner  from  every  sheet  of  paper  he 
used  in  his  correspondence. 


AURORA    BOREALIS   OR    NORTHERN    LIGHTS. 


AURORA   IN    FORM   OF   DRAPERY     OBSERVED   AT   PORT   FOULKE.    GREENLAND 


AUSTEN 


AUSTRALASIA 


Aus'ten,  Jane,  a  famous  English  novelist, 
was  born  in  1775  in  Hampshire,  England. 
Her  acquaintance  with  English  literature 
was  considerable,  and  she  was  an  especial 
favorite  with  her  young  friends  because  of 
her  ability  to  make  up  long  and  interesting 
stories  for  their  amusement.  Her  first 
novel,  Sense  and  Sensibility,  appeared 
anonymously  in  1811.  Others  of  her  works 
are  Pride  and  Prejudice  Mansfield  Park, 
Emma.  Northanger  Abbey  and  Persuasion. 
Her  works  deal  entirely  with  domestic  life, 
and  her  characters  are  taken  from  the 
Knglish  middle  class.  Miss  Austen  is  espe- 
cially noted  for  the  delicacy  and  aptness 
ot  her  descriptions  of  character  and  life. 
She  died  in  1817.  See  Prof.  Goldwin 
Smith's  Life  of  Jane  Austen  in  the  Great 
Writers'  Series. 

Ausierlitz  (aj^ter-tits),  a  town  in 
Moravia,  Austria-Hungary,  situated  on 
the  Littawa  River,  is  celebrated  because 
of  the  victory  there  of  Napoleon  over  the 
Russians  and  Austrians.  December  a, 
1805.  After  Napoleon  had  captured  Vienna, 
in  the  middle  of  November.  1805.  he  took 
up  his  quarters  with  about  75,0:0  men, 
at  Brunn,  the  capital  of  Moravia.  The 
Austrian  and  Russian  forces,  about  >j',ooo 
strong,  commanded  by  their  two  3m;i>orors, 
were  at  Olmutz,  northeast  of  Brunn.  The 
French  occupied  a  high  piece  of  ground, 
partly  surrounded  by  swamps  and  woods. 
At  about  seven  in  the  morning  of  Decem- 
ber 2d,  the  allied  forces  advanced  against 
the  right  wing  of  the  French  army,  but 
Napoleon  ordered  an  instant  attack  on 
their  flank,  and  completely  defeated  them 
after  a  hard  contest.  While  part  of  the 
ellies  were  retreating  across  a  frozen  lake, 
Napoleon's  artillery  broke  the  ice  and 
nearly  2,000  men  were  drowned.  At  Aus- 
terlitz  Russia  and  Austria  lost  about 
30,000  men  in  killed,  wounded  and  pris- 
oners, while  the  French  loss  was  about 
12,000.  After  the  battle  the  Peace  of 
Presburg  was  signed,  and  the  Russian  em- 
peror was  forced  to  return  to  his  empire. 

Aus'tin,  Alfred,  English  poet-laureate 
(1896-1913),  in  succession  to  Lord  Tenny- 
son, was  born  at  Headingley,  near  Leeds, 
England,  May  30,  1835,  and  educated  at 
Stonyhurst  College  and  at  St.  Mary's  Col- 
lege, Oscott.  In  1853  he  took  his  degree 
at  London  University,  and  was  called  to 
the  bar  of  the  Inner  Temple.  In  1861  he 
first  showed  his  bent  toward  literature 
by  the  publication  of  some  minor  poems, 
followed  by  the  volumes  entitled  The  Hu- 
man Tragedy,  Savonarola,  The  Tower  of 
Babel,  Prince  Lucifer,  Fortunatus  the  Pes- 
simist, The  Garden  that  I  Love,  In  Veronica's 
Garden,  Lamia's  Winter  Quarters,  England's 
Darling  and  At  the  Gate  of  the  Convent.  A 
collected  edition  of  his  poems  has  appeared 
in  six  volumes.  He  never  practiced  law 
but  did  journalistic  work  as  a  newspaper 


correspondent,  and  critic,  writing  largely 
for  ^the  London  Standard  and  Quarterly 
Review,  and  founding  and  editing  for  a 
time,  ^conjunction  with  W.  J.  Courthope, 
the  National  Review. 

Austin,  Minn.,  a  city,  the  county  seat 
of  Mower  County,  on  Red  Cedar  River 
and  on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul 
and  the  Chicago  Great  Western  Rail- 
roads, situated  about  100  miles  south  of 
St.  Paul.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Southern 
Minnesota  Normal  College  and  has,  be- 
sides a  Carnegie  Public  Library,  a  number 
of  fine  churches,  schools,  city  and  county 
buildings  and  an  attractive  city  park.  It 
is  the  center  of  a  fertile  agricultural  re- 
gion, and  has  a  growing  trade,  which  in- 
cludes meat-packing  products  and  those 
of  its  flour  mills,  creameries,  brick,  tile 
and  cement  works,  besides  live  stock, 
wheat,  flax,  barley,  butter  and  other 
dairy  products,  etc.  Population  9,500. 

Austin,  Stephen  Fuller,  son  of  Moses 
Austin,  the  Texan  pioneer,  and  himself 
founder  of  the  state  of  Texas,  was  born  at 
Austinville,  Va.,  November  3,  1793,  and 
died  at  Columbia,  Texas,  December  25, 
1836.  Taking  up  the  work  of  his  father, 
who  died  in  1821,  he  obtained  from  the 
Mexican  government  a  confirmation  of 
the  grant 'to  his  father;  he  built  up  at  Aus- 
tin, Texas,  a  thriving  settlement,  while  he 
pacified  those  Indians  that  threatened 
trouble.  In  the  thirties  the  colony  became 
restive  under  Mexican  rule,  and  he,  siding 
with  the  revolutionists,  was  for  a  time 
imprisoned.  On  being  liberated  he  act- 
ively took  up  arms  against  the  Mexicans, 
and,  calling  General  Sam  Houston  to  his 
aid,  he  committed  himself  to  the  project  of 
Texan  independence.  In  1835  he  was  a 
commissioner  to  the  United  States  to  secure 
the  recognition  of  Texas,  but  that  object 
was  as  yet  distant,  and  he  died  before 
seeing  his  cherished  designs  fulfilled. 

Austin,  the  capital  of  Texas,  stands  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Colorado  River.  The 
river  here  breaks  through  a  range  of  hills 
upon  which  the  city  is  built.  On  Capitol 
Hill  stands  the  magnificent  state  capitol, 
built  of  Texas  marble,  at  a  cost  of  3,000,000 
acres  of  state  land.  From  this  point  broad 
avenues  extend  north  south,  east  and 
west.  Austin  is  an  important  railroad 
point,  and  the  market  center  of  a  rich  ag- 
ricultural district.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
University  of  Texas,  endowed  and  main- 
tained by  legislative  grants,  with  71  in- 
structors and  an  attendance  of  2,500  students. 
Here  are  also  located  St.  Edward's  College, 
St.  Mary's  Academy,  Tillotson  College  and 
other  academies  and  seminaries;  also  the 
state  asylums  for  the  blind,  insane,  and  deaf 
and  dumb.  Population,  45,000. 

Australa'sia,  meaning  Southern  Asia- 
includes  Australia  and  the  neighboring 
islands— Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  Papua, 


AUSTRALIA 


142 


AUSTRALIA 


New  Caledonia,  the  New  Hebrides,  New 
Guinea  and  New  Britain.  The  term  is 
also  popularly  used  for  the  Australian  col- 
onies of  Great  Britain,  including  Tasmania, 
New  Zealand,  Fiji,  etc. 

Australia  (as-tra'tt-a),  the  great  island 
continent  of  the  southern  hemisphere, 
belonging  to  Great  Britain.  It  lies  be- 
tween latitude  10°  41'  and  39°  u'  south, 
longitude  113°  5'  and  153°  16'  east.  It  is 
washed  on  the  west  and  south  by  the  In- 
dian Ocean,  on  the  east  by  the  South  Pacific 
and  on  the  north  by  the  Timor,  Arfura  and 
Coral  Seas.  Its  greatest  length  from  east 
to  east  is  2,400  miles,  and  its  breadth  from 
north  to  south  1,970  miles.  Its  area,  ^  in- 
cluding Tasmania,  is  2,072,573  square  miles. 
Population,  in  1909,  4,374,138. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  The  coast  line 
is  almost  unbroken.  Parallel  with  the 
east  coast  stretches  for  1,200  miles  the 
Great  Barrier  reef,  offering  but  one  safe 
opening  for  ships.  The  absence  of  rivers 
between  the  coast  and  the  interior  is  re- 
markable, there  being  only  one  large  river, 
the  Murray,  2,345  miles  long.  The  moun- 
tain ranges  are  on  the  east  coast,  divided 
into  the  Australian  Alps,  whose  peak,  Mt. 
Kosciusko,  is  the  highest  on  the  conti- 
nent (7,308  feet);  the  Blue  Mountains; 
the  Liverpool  Range;  MacPherson  Range; 
Herries  Range;  the  dividing  range  of 
Queensland;  the  great  dividing  range  of 
Victoria;  the  Grampians  and  the  Pyrenees. 
From  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpenteria 
stretches  a  tableland  westward.  A  large 
part  of  the  interior  is  a  barren  tract  of 
salt  or  mud  plains.  To  the  north  of  Spencer 
Gulf  is  an  area  of  some  thousand  square 
miles,  set  with  lakes,  the  Lake  District  of 
Australia.  Eyre,  Torrens,  Gairdner  and 
Amadeus  to  the  northwest  are  the  largest. 
These  dead  masses  of  salt  water  change 
as  the  season  is  wet  or  dry;  now  sheets  of 
water  and  now  almost  grassy  plains. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  Australia  is 
healthful  though  subject  to  high  tempera- 
ture. The  coast  regions  generally  have 
a  sufficient  rainfall,  but  the  interior  is 
subject  to  extreme  drought  and  large 
areas  are  practically  arid. 

Vegetation.  Plant  life  is  modified  by 
the  dryness  of  the  climate;  the  trees  have 
a  scanty  foliage  and  large  areas  are  covered 
with  scrubby  bushes,  and,  in  the  arid  re- 
gions, with  a  hard,  coarse  plant,  called 
porcupine  grass.  There  are  forests  which 
afforof  valuable  timber  trees,  including 
gum,  of  which  there  are  150  species,  and 
acacia  or  wattle  300  species.  Palms,  of 
which  there  are  24  species  are  found  on 
the  north  and  east  coasts.  Various  fruits 
and  vines  have  been  introduced  and  pro- 
duce well.  There  are  also  large  areas  which 
produce  nutritious  grasses,  affording  pas- 
turage for  immense  flocks  of  sheep. 

Minerals.    Gold    was    discovered    in    Aus- 


tralia in  1851,  attracting  a  rush  of  gold- 
seekers.  Since  that  time  the  mines  have 
produced  more  than  $1,350,000,000.  'inere 
are  a)  so  rich  deposits  of  silver,  copper, 
tin,  lead,  zinc,  etc.;  also  coal,  iron,  granite, 
marble,  limestone  and  sandstone, 

Animal  Life.  The  higher  orders  of 
wild  animals  found  in  other  countries  are 
almost  wholly  lacking  in  Australia,  those 
here  found  being  mostly  marsupials,  or 
animals  which  generally  carry  their  young 
in  an  external  pouch.  Of  these  there 
are  more  than  100  kinds,  of  which  the 
best  known  are  the  kangaroo,  wombat, 
koala,  bandicoot,  wallabies  and  opossums. 
Birds  are  in  greai  number  and  variety. 
The  largest  is  the-  emu,  which  is  nearly  as 
large  as  the  ostrich,  reaching  a  height  of 
six  or  seven  ieet.  Eagles,  falcons,  hawks 
and  owls  are  numerous;  also  many  kinds 
of  parrots  and  cockatoos  of  brilliant  plumage. 
Other  birds  are  the  pelican,  Australian 
goose,  the  magnificent  lyre  bird,  with 
pigeons,  ducks,  geese,  quail,  etc.  Rep- 
tiles include  the  alligator,  more  than  60 
species  of  snakes,  lizards,  frogs,  etc. 

Native  Peoples.  The  natives  are  of  a 
dusky,  coffee-brown  complexion.  They  are 
not  much  shorter  than  the  average  Euro- 
pean, but  are  of  a  much  slimmer  and 
feebler  build.  They  are  mainly  interested 
in  hunting  and  getting  food,  at  which  they 
show  great  cunning,  and  they  easily  learn 
to  chatter  foreign  languages;  but  outside 
of  this  limit  all  is  blank  to  the  Australian. 
His  only  idea  of  right  and  wrong  is  that 
each  man's  property  is  his  own,  wives  being 
one  item  in  a  man's  chattels.  In  summer 
they  go  naked;  in  winter  they  wrap  them- 
selves in  kangaroo  skins.  They  eat  roots 
of  the  wild  yam,  the  opossum,  lizard,  snakes, 
white  ants,  etc.  The  boomerang,  their 
favorite  weapon,  is  a  flat  stick,  three  feet 
long,  curved  at  the  middle,  which,  when 
thrown,  jerks  in  a  zigzag  fashion  and  usually 
comes  back  to  the  thrower.  They  also 
have  flint-pointed  spears,  shields,  and 
stone  hatchets.  Before  Europeans  set- 
tled in  the  island,  there  were  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  natives,  but 
there  are  now  less  than  50,000. 

History.  It  is  not  known  just  when  Aus- 
tralia was  discovered,  but  it  is  found  on 
a  French  chart  of  1542.  A  Spaniard,  in 
1606,  passed  through  the  Torres  Strait, 
to  which  his  name  is  given;  while  early 
Dutch  explorers  made  known  Tasmania, 
called  at  first,  in  honor  of  the  Dutch  gov- 
ernor of  the  East  Indian  colonies,  Van 
Diemen's  Land.  In  1664  the  states- 
general  gave  to  the  western  part  of  the 
continent  of  Australia  the  name  of  New 
Holland;  it  is  known  also  to  have  been 
visited  by  the  mariner  William  Dampier. 
It  was  not  until  1768,  however,  that  the 
country  became  really  known  to  the  Eng- 
lish. It  was  visited  in  that  year  by  an 


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AUSTRALIAN   TYPES 

i  North  Australian    2  North  Australian  Woman  3  South  Australian  Woman    4  South  Australian,  Moroya 

Tribe     5   Tasmanian  Woman     6  Aboriginal  of  New  Guinea     7  Fiji  Chief     8  Fiji  Girl 

9  Assachoreter  of  Taling      10  Tonga  Girl  of  New  Caledonia     u   Man  of 

Utuan     12  Man  of  New  Britain 


AUSTRALIA 


143 


AUSTRALIA. 


expedition  under  Capt.  James  Cook,  who 
had  taken  soundings  for  General  ^  Wolfe 
in  the  St.  Lawrence  during  the  siege  of 
Quebec.  This  expedition  was  under  the 
auspices  of  the  English  Royal  Society,  and 
was  equipped  for  the  purpose  of  taking 
observations  on  the  transit  (June,  1769) 
of  Venus  over  the  solar  disc.  Australia  had 
its  beginnings  as  a  British  settlement  in 
1788,  when  its  coasts  were  utilized  as  places 
of  banishment  for  criminals,  Botany  Bay 
being  the  first  penal  colony,  in  what  be- 
came the  colony  of  New  South  Wales. 
The  Moreton  Bay  district  in  Queensland 
was  settled  in  1825,  but  the  colony  was  not 
organized  until  1859.  Port  Philip  dis- 
trict, settled  in  1835,  was  erected  into  the 
colony  of  Victoria  in  1851.  The  colony 
of  Western  Australia  was  founded  in  1829, 
and  South  Australia  in  1836.  The  popu- 
lation, which  had  been  slowly  increasing, 
was  rapidly  augmented  by  the  influx  of 
immigrants  on  the  discovery  of  gold  in 
1851,  and  the  country  entered  on  a  career 
of  continued  prosperity. 

The  Commonwealth.  In  1901  the  col- 
onies of  Australia,  including  Tasmania, 
were  federated  under  the  crown,  some- 
what after  the  fashion  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada.  These  comprise  New  South 
Wales,  which  may  be  said  to  be  the  mother 
colony  (area,  310,367  square  miles;  popu- 
lation 1911,  1,648,448);  Victoria,  (area 
87,884  square  miles;  population,  1,303,387); 
Queensland  (area,  670,500  square  miles; 
population,  605,813);  South  Australia  (area, 
380,070  square  miles;  population,  408,808); 
Western  Australia  (area,  975,920  square 
miles;  population,  282,114);  and  Tasmania 
(area,  26,215  square  miles;  population, 
191,21 1). 

The  constitution  bill  was  in  June,  1898, 
submitted  by  means  of  the  referendum 
to  the  people  and  passed  upon;  while  in 
January,  1899,  at  a  conference  of  premiers 
held  in  Melbourne,  an  agreement  was  come 
to  on  all  matters  in  dispute,  the  British 
parliament  ratifying  the  federation  meas- 
ure. The  federation  of  Australia  was 
inaugurated  at  Sydney,  New  South  Wales, 
by  representatives  of  the  Crown,  with 
Lord  Hopetown  as  the  first  governor- 
general,  in  the  summer  of  1901.  Legisla- 
tive power  is  vested  in  a  federal  parlia- 
ment, consisting  of  the  king,  a  senate  and 
a  house  of  representatives,  the  king  being 
represented  by  a  governor-general.  The 
constitution  provides  for  a  common  tariff, 
for  interstate  free  trade  and  for  a  common 
control  over  matters  of  national  defense. 
Each  of  the  colonies  retains  its  own  par- 
liament to  deal  with  purely  internal  affairs. 
Education  in  the  new  commonwealth 
is  compulsory,  and  under  state  control 
and  free;  while  there  is  no  state  church. 
The  credit  of  effecting  Australian  federation 
is  shared  by  the  Rt.  Hon.  Geo.  H.  Reid, 


P.  C.,  premier  of  New  South  Wales,  and 
Sir  John  Forrest,  first  premier  of  Western 
Australia  and  president  of  the  federal 
council  of  Australasia.  New  Zealand  did 
not  enter  the  commonwealth,  though  pro- 
vision is  made  for  so  doing  later  on,  should 
it  desire  to  become  federated  with  the  six 
colonies  of  the  neighboring  continent. 
Future  amendments  to  the  federal  consti- 
tution are  provided  for  by  means  of  a  ma- 
jority vote  of  both  houses  of  the  Australian 
parliament,  followed  by  a  referendum  to 
the  whole  people. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES.  It  was  only  by 
slow  degrees  that  New  South  Wales  emerged 
from  the  status  of  a  convict  colony.  A 
good  deal  of  the  first  rough  labor  was, 
however,  done  by  exported  criminals,  in 
constructing  public  buildings,  in  making 
roads  and  in  clearing  the  land.  Early  in 
the  i  gth  century  some  fine  breed  of  sheep 
was  brought  to  the  settlement,  and  as  the 
pasturage  was  excellent  and  the  climate 
favorable,  the  sheep  did  well  and  greatly 
multiplied.  Assisted  immigration  in  time 
brought  numbers,  and  in  1841  the  reception 
of  convicts  ceased.  In  the  early  fifties  a 
great  impulse  was  given  to  the  colony  by 
the  inrush  of  miners  and  adventurers  ow- 
ing to  the  discovery  of  gold.  In  1843 
representative  government  was  introduced, 
and  twelve  years  later  responsible  rule 
was  fully  established,  with  a  parliament 
consisting  of  two  houses.  Finally,  educa- 
tion came  under  state  control,  and  the 
University  of  Sydney  was  founded  as  the 
apex  of  the  system.  Technical  education 
is  also  fostered  and  subsidized  by  the  gov- 
ernment. Sydney,  the  capital,  has  a  popu- 
lation, including  suburbs,  of  605,900.  The 
other  chief  towns  are  Newcastle,  Bathurst, 
Gouiburn  and  Parramatta.  One  third  of 
the  people  are  engaged  in  agricultural, 
pastoral  and  mineral  pursuits.  Over  40,000 
are  engaged  in  the  mining  of  gold,  silver, 
coal,  etc.  The  value  of  the  annual  product 
of  gold  is  nine  million  dollars.  An  equal 
value  of  silver-lead  ore  and  metal  is  an- 
nually mined.  Other  exports  include  coal, 
hides  and  skins,  leather,  wool  and  meat 
preserved  and  frozen.  New  South  Wales 
is  the  premier  wool-producing  colony,  taken 
from  the  immense  numbers  of  sheep  pas- 
turing on  the  western  plains.  Only  one 
per  cent.,  as  yet,  of  the  land  is  under  cul- 
tivation, while  twenty-five  per  cent,  is 
under  forest  or  brush. 

VICTORIA,  next  to  New  South  Wales, 
is  the  most  densely  populated  colony  in 
the  new  commonwealth.  The  capital  is 
Melbourne,  with  a  population  of  591,830, 
or  nearly  two-fifths  of  that  of  the  entire 
colony.  The  other  chief  towns  are  Bal- 
larat  (44,000),  Bendigo  or  Sandhurst,  as 
it  is  now  called  (42,000),  and  Geelong 
(28,880).  In  1898  the  exports  of  gold 
(inclusive  of  specie)  amounted  to  nearly 


AUSTRALIA 


144 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


thirty  million  dollars;  the  other  principal 
exports  were  of  wool,  cereals  and  flour, 
hides,  skins  and  furs,  leather  and  harness, 
butter  and  live  stock.  Half  of  the  culti- 
vated area  is  under  wheat,  the  other  crops 
being  oats,  barley,  hay  and  potatoes. 
Since  1851  it  is  estimated  that  gold  to  the 
amount  of  1,365  million  dollars  has  been 
extracted  from  the  mines.  The  educa- 
tional institutions  include,  besides  the  state 
primary  and  technical  schools,  the  Univer- 
sity of  Melbourne,  with  three  affliliated 
colleges,  The  latter  has  both  an  examin- 
ing and  a  teaching  body,  and  by  royal  char- 
ter, granted  in  1839,  is  empowered  to  grant 
degrees  in  all  faculties  save  divinity. 

QUEENSLAND  comprises  the  whole  north- 
eastern area  of  the  continent,  with  its  adja- 
cent islands  in  the  Pacific  and  in  the  Gulf 
of  Carpentaria.  The  northern  portion  of 
the  colony  was,  prior  to  1850,  known  as 
the  Moreton  Bay  District.  From  its  great 
area  and  climate,  its  products  are  many 
and  diversified,  including  not  only  the 
staple  cereals  and  grains,  vegetables,  etc., 
but  sugar  cane,  oranges,  pineapples, 
bananas,  arrow-root,  tobacco,  coffee  and 
cotton.  The  woods  afford  large  supplies 
of  fine  timber,  and  bees  are  raised  largely, 
as  nearly  all  the  forest  trees  flower  and 
provide  large  supplies  of  honey  and  pollen; 
while  the  winters  are  so  mild  that  the  bees 
are  not  compelled  to  remain  in  the  hives 
and  consume  their  own  stores,  as  in  colder 
countries.  Within  the  colony,  it  is  esti- 
mated, there  are  5,000  square  miles  of  coal- 
yi°lding  country,  though  scarcity  of  labor, 
it  +4  said,  hinders  its  mining  development. 
Primary  secular  education  is  provided  free 
by  the  state.  There  are  also  schools  of 
art,  where  technical  instruction  is  given. 
Brisbane,  the  capital,  with  two  municipali- 
ties (Brisbane  and  South  Brisbane),  has  a 
combined  population  (1907),  of  130,000. 
The  gold  product  for  the  year  1905,  amounted 
to  592,620  ounces;  other  minerals  mined 
include  silver,  copper  and  tin. 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA  extends  across  the 
center  of  the  continent  from  north  to 
south,  having  Western  Australia  on  the 
west  and  the  other  colonies'  (Queensland, 
New  South  Wales  and  Victoria)  on  the 
east.  The  capital  is  Adelaide,  on  the  river 
Torrens,  which  has  a  university;  its  popu- 
lation is  184,393.  It  is  the  great  empo- 
rium of  the  colony  for  its  large  exports  of 
wool,  wheat,  hay,  live  stock  and  its  min- 
erals, silver  and  copper  ore.  In  the  northern 
territory  of  the  colony  large  numbers  of 
horses,  cattle  and  sheep  are  raised.  In 
1911  it  had  1,935  miles  of  railway  open  for 
traffic  and  nearly  6,000  miles  of  telegraph 
in  operation,  including  the  overland  line 
running  between  Adelaide  and  Port  Dar- 
win (a  distance  of  2,000  miles)  in  connect- 
tion  with  the  British  Australian  cable. 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA    is    the  largest  of 


the  commonwealth  colonies,  though  it  is 
the  most  'sparsely  settled,  except  in  the 
southwest  corner  around  Perth,  the  capi- 
tal (population  54,354).  The  other  chief 
town  is  Fremantle  (19,346),  named  after 
Captain  Fremantle,  who  after  the  first 
settlement  of  the  colony,  in  1829,  claimed 
posession  of  it  in  the  name  of  George  IV. 
The  colony  was  then  known  as  the  Swan 
River  settlement.  In  1850  it  became 
for  a  time  a  penal  settlement  of  Britain; 
but  in  1868  transportation  of  the  criminal 
class  was  abolished.  The  chief  difficulty 
in  the  interior  is  said  to  be  want  of  water. 
The  inland  mining  region  around  Copl- 
gardie  and  Kalgoorlie  is  one  of  great  in- 
dustrial activity,  especially  since  the  rail- 
way has  been  constructed  to  these  min- 
ing centers  and  on  as  far  as  Menzies.  The 
chief  exports  are  gold  (the  value  of  which, 
shipped,  in  1904  amounted  to  $19,000,000), 
pearls  and  pearl-shell;  sandalwood,  tim- 
ber, wool  and  skins.  Along  the  river 
courses  of  the  north  and  northeast  are, 
it  is  estimated,  about  20,000,000  acres 
of  fairly  well--vatered  country,  affording 
good  pasturage.  Australian  defense  is  main- 
tained by  subsidies  granted  by  the  sepa- 
rate colonies,  including  Tasmania  and 
New  Zealand.  At  Sydney,  N.  S.  W., 
there  is  a  first-class  naval  station,  the 
headquarters  of  the  British  fleet  in  Aus- 
tralasia. The  principal  ports  of  the  col- 
onies are  protected  by  fortifications,  main- 
tained at  the  expense  of  each  colony. 

Australian  Ballot  System  is  the  sys- 
tem of  voting  used  by  the  several  colonies 
of  Australia.  It  was  invented  to  secure 
absolute  secrecy  to  the  voter  and  so  pre- 
vent bribery  at  elections  and  effectively 
check  fraud  in  voting.  The  printing 
of  the  tickets  and  all  expenses  are  borne 
by  the  government.  There  is  but  one 
ticket,  on  which  are  printed  the  names  of 
all  the  candidates.  No  electioneering  is 
allowed  within  fifty  feet  of  the  polls.  Sep- 
arate compartments  or  voting-booths  are 
provided,  into  which  one  voter  at  a  time 
goes,  and  prepares  his  vote  by  drawing  a 
line  through  the  names  of  the  candidates 
he  does  not  wish  to  vote  for.  The  system 
was  adopted  in  New  South  Wales  in  1858, 
and  speedily  came  into  use  in  the  other 
Australian  colonies,  where  it  proved  highly 
successful.  The  present  law  in  regard  to 
voting  in  Great  Britain,  based  on  this 
system,  was  passed  in  1872.  The  Aus- 
tralian method,  with  some  changes,  has 
been  adopted  in  Massachusetts',  New  York, 
Illinois,  Connectici '.t  and  other  states, 
where  it  has  been  heartily  approved. 

Aus'tria=Hun'gary,  the  second  largest 
country  in  Europe,  lies  between  Ger- 
many, Russia,  Rumania,  Servia,  Turkey, 
the  Adriatic,  Italy  and  Switzerland.  It 
is  a  loose  union  of  two  independent  states  J 
extends  800  miles  east  and  west.  6co 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


north  to  south;  has  an  area  (including 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina)  of  259,679  square 
miles,  less  than  that  of  Texas,  and  a  popu- 
lation of  nearly  50,000,000;  and  is  the  only 
large  European  state  without  possessions 
outside  of  Europe.  The  name  Austria 
means  the  east  country,  because  Aus- 
tria originated  in  796  as  a  county  east  of 
Germany;  and  Hungary  means  Hun- 
land,  because  the  Huns  lived  there  four 
centuries  before  the  Magyars  came. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  Austria,  next  to 
Switzerland,  is  one  of  the  most  mountainous 
countries  in  Europe,  the  Tyrolese  scenery 
being  grand  and  beautiful.  The  moun- 
tains are  the  Alps  in  the  west,  whose  loftiest 
heights  tower  nearly  13,000  feet,  and  the 
Carpathians  on  the  north  and  east  that 
rise  almost  9,000  feet.  There  also  are 
moderate  heights  in  the  south.  Between 
these  ranges  lie  the  lowlands  of  Austria 
and  the  plain  called  Hungary.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Danube,  Dniester,  Moldau- 
Elbe  and  Vistula.  The  first  two  drain 
to  the  Black  Sea,  the  third  to  the  German 
Ocean,  the  fourth  to  the  Baltic.  Small 
mountain  lakes  are  numerous  and  beau- 
tiful, large  lakes  few. 

Climate  and  Rainfall.  The  climate  and 
rainfall  vary  greatly,  and  we  find  northern, 
intermediate  and  southern  zones.  In  Bo- 
hemia, Galicia,  Moravia,  in  the  northern 
districts  of  Austria  proper  and  Hungary 
and  in  Silesia  the  winters  are  long  and 
severe,  the  summers  warm  but  brief. 
In  Carniola,  Styria  and  middle  Hungary 
the  summers  are  hot,  the  winters  mod- 
erate. In  Bosnia  and  Croatia,  in  semi- 
tropic  Dalmatia  and  southern  Hungary 
the  winters  are  brief  and  mild,  the  sum- 
mers long  and  hot.  The  annual  mean 
temperature  is  50°,  the  range  of  rain- 
fall from  25  inches  on  the  Hungarian 
lowland  to  100  on  the  Carpathians. 

Resources.  Austria-Hungary  is  almost 
the  richest  of  European  countries  in  min- 
erals, all  except  platinum  being  found. 
Copper,  coal,  iron,  lead,  petroleum,  quick- 
silver and  rock  salt  abound.  The  In- 
dria  quicksilver  mine  ranks  next  to  that 
of  Almaden,  Spain.  Bleiburg  lead-mines 
are  the  richest  in  Europe.  The  Galician 
salt-mines  are  a  world's  wonder,  the  de- 
posits being  1,200  feet  deep  and  300  miles 
long.  Thirty  miles  of  galleries  have  been 
dug,  and  villages  built  far  below  the  sur- 
face. The  gold-production  is  the  second 
largest  in  Europe,  some  of  the  gold  mines 
having  been  worked  by  Celts  and  Romans. 
The  mountains  are  covered  with  for. 
ests  full  of  valuable  varieties  of  timber 
Practically  all  the  land  is  utilized,  three 
fifths  of  Austria-Hungary's  area  being  de- 
voted to  agriculture  and  one  third  to  forests. 
_  Agriculture.  The  staple  industry  is  ag- 
riculture. More  than  two  thirds  of  the 
Hungarians  and  Austrians  till  the  soil  or 


raise  stock.  The  plants  and  grains  of 
the  temperate  zones  prevail  and  a  great 
variety  of  agricultural  products  is  raised 
successfully.  Austria  leads  in  barley,  flax, 
hemp,  hops,  potatoes,  rye,  sugar  beets  and 
tobacco;  Hungary,  the  granary  of  Europe, 
in  cattle,  maize,  oats,  the  vine  and  wheat. 
Fruit-raising  is  a  great  industry.  The 
pear  and  apple  thrive  in  the  north;  grapes 
and  prunes  in  Hungary;  and  almonds, 
figs,  lemons,  olives  and.  oranges  in  the 
south,  while  along  the  Adriatic  the  palm 
flourishes  in  the  open  air.  More  horses 
are  raised  than  in  any  other  country  of 
Europe  except  Russia.  Hungary  is  famous 
also  for  fine  mules,  and  poultry-raising 
is  extensive. 

Manufactures  and  Commerce.  Austria- 
Hungary  is  a  land  of  transition  from  the 
industrial  west  to  the  agricultural  east; 
Austria  being  more  the  manufacturer, 
Hungary  more  the  farmer.  But  Hun- 
gary invented  modern  processes  of  flour* 
making  and  Budapest  leads  Europe  as  a 
milling  center.  The  best  inventions  are 
employed,  wheat  is  classified  in  seven 
grades,  and  uniformity  of  product  causes 
Hungarian  flour  to  command  high  prices. 
Wine-making  is  another  great  Hungarian 
industry,  Tokay  being  world  famous.  In 
Austrian  lands  textiles  are  the  most  im- 
portant manufactures,  then  woolens,  car- 
pets, machinery,  railroad  materials  and 
tools,  leather  and  gloves;  and  furniture, 
ships  and  toys.  Bohemia  has  half  the 
glass-factories,  and  Bohemian  glass  has 
been  famed  for  centuries.  The  manufacture 
of  beet-sugar  ranks  next  to  Germany's 
production.  The  largest  exports  are  sugar, 
timber,  cattle,  wheat,  leather  goods,  eggs, 
coal  and  glass;  the  main  imports  are  cot- 
ton and  wool  fibers,  yarn,  cloth  and  ma- 
chinery. Germany  is  the  greatest  buyer 
and  seller,  America  the  third  among  buy- 
ers and  sixth  among  sellers.  We  buy  Aus- 
tria-Hungary's glass,  gloves,  sugar,  por- 
celain, pottery,  musical  instruments  and 
beer,  and  sell  cotton,  corn,  hog-products  and 
pig-iron,  buying  a  fourth  as  much  as  we  sell. 

Transportation.  River  valleys,  moun- 
tain passes  and  a  coast  of  only  465  miles 
form  nature's  roads  to  foreign  countries. 
The  Danube,  whose  course  of  820  miles 
in  Austria  is  fully  navigable,  is  free  to 
all  nations  and  seagoing  ships  navigate 
it  from  the  Black  Sea  into  Germany.  The 
stream  is  connected  by  canals  with  the 
Elbe  and  Theiss  and  has  over  100  navigable 
tributaries.  The  Moldau-Elbe  at  favora- 
ble stages  is  navigable  from  above  Prague, 
Bohemia,  to  Hamburg,  Germany.  The 
Morava  and  Oder  open  waterways  from 
Vienna  into  German  Silesia.  The  Save 
and  Drave,  important  navigable  tributa- 
ries of  the  Danube  in  the  south,  are  also 
linked  by  a  canal.  The  waterways  availa- 
ble for  steamers  give  1,620  miles  of  inland 


AUSTRIAN  HYMN 


146 


AUSTRIAN  SUCCESSION 


navigation,  the  others  2,340  more.  The 
merchant  marine  is  the  smallest  in  Europe, 
most  of  the  maritime  traffic  passing  through 
Trieste  and  Fiume  on  the  Adriatic.  Since 
the  rivers  do  not  lead  to  these  ports,  four 
fifths  of  Austria-Hungary's  ocean-freight 
are  transported  by  railroads,  all  converging 
on  Vienna  and  Budapest.  The  railroads 
are  less  developed  than  in  most  European 
countries,  their  mileage  of  25,000  miles 
being  only  one-third  that  of  France,  but 
international  overland  routes  lead  to  Buch- 
arest, Constantinople  and  Salonika.  A 
railroad  through  Arlberg  tunnel  leads  to 
Geneva,  Marseilles  and  Paris,  another  over 
Brenner  pass  into  Germany  and  Italy, 
and  a  third  via  Semmering  pass  and  tun- 
nel to  Genoa,  Trieste  and  Venice. 

Education.  Primary  instruction  is  com- 
pulsory and  free  from  six  to  fourteen  years 
of  age.  The  schools  are  controlled  by  a 
department  of  public  instruction,  and  are 
excellent,  but  every  province  remains 
responsible  for  the  management  of  its 
schools.  For  secondary  instruction  admir- 
able provision  is  made  in  hundreds  of  ex- 
cellent colleges,  gymnasia  or  high  schools, 
professional  and  technical  schools,  and  eight 
universities.  Among  these,  Prague  and 
Vienna  are  famous. 

History.  Austria  was  founded  as  a  small 
oatpost  of  the  Empire  of  Charlemagne  in 
796.  Arpad  a  century  later  founded  Hun- 
gary (886),  and  for  six  and  one  half  cen- 
turies each  grew  independently.  Hungary 
became  a  Kingdom  in  1,000,  many  of  its 
present  institutions  originating  then; 
Austria  a  duchy  in  1156,  the  accession  of 
the  Hapsburgs  in  1282  initiating  its  great- 
ness. Hungary  in  1222,  like  England  in 
1216,  won  a  constitution,  and  till  1490  was 
the  strongest  state  in  central  Europe.  The 
Hapsburgs  meanwhile  acquired  Carinthia, 
Carniola,  Styria  and  Tyrol  and  the  head- 
ship of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  Vienna 
about  1500  becoming  the  metropolis  of 
German  art  and  science.  In  1526  Hungary 
fell  before  Turkey  but  Austria  obtained 
Bohemia,  Hungary,  Moravia  and  Silesia  and 
received  recognition  as  a  European  mon- 
archy. At  the  Reformation,  which  made 
great  progress  in  Hungary  where  millions 
today  are  Protestants,  Austria  remained 
with  the  Roman  church.  It  was  the  bul- 
wark of  Christendom  against  Turkey,  the 
mainstay  of  the  papacy  against  Calvinism 
and  Lutheranism.  Its  almost  ceaseless  wars 
succeeded  in  liberating  Hungaiy  from  the 
Turkish  yoke.  Numerous  German  colonists 
brought'  German  civilization  to  Hungarian 
towns.  The  Hungarian  estates,  assembling  in 
Pressburg,  staunchly  resisted  every  effort  to 
absorb  Hungary  in  the  Austrian  Empire. 
The  Austrian  states  were  in  1804  united  as  the 
Empire  of  Austria,  its  archduke  becoming 
"Hereditary  Emperor"  and  in  1806  he  ended 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  Austria  was  a 


powerful  force  in  overthrowing  Napoleon  and 
from  1815  to  1865  opposed  every  attempt  of 
the  Magyars  at  independence.  In  1848 
Hungary  rose  under  the  lead  of  Kossuth,  but 
was  subjected  to  the  imperial  armies  with  the 
help  of  Russia.  Austria  renewed  its  efforts  to 
germanize  Hungary  but  failed  and  meanwhile 
lost  Italy  and  Germany.  So  independence  and 
selfgovernment  were  restored  to  Hungary  and 
arrangements  were  made  that  united  Austro- 
Hungary  to  a  real  union  founded  upon  the 
same  dynasty  and  an  old  pact  called  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction  dated  1721-1722.  By  this 
fundamental  law  all  parts  of  the  old  Hapsburg 
Empire  were  forever  united  under  the  rule  of 
its  dynasty  and  bound  to  common  defense 
against  foreign  attacks.  Austria-Hungary 
have  one  army,  coinage,  diplomatic  service, 
sovereign,  and  tariff,  foreign  affairs  and  war 
being  managed  by  a  dual  committee  called  the 
Delegations;  but  Austria  and  Hungary  each 
have  their  own  ministry  and  premier. 

Austrian  Hymn.  Known  also  as  the 
Emperor's  Hymn.  Written  by  the  poet 
Hauschka  in  1796,  and  set  to  music  for  four 
voices  by  Joseph  Haydn.  It  was  first  sung 
on  the  emperor's  birth-day,  February 
12,  1797,  at  the  national  theater  in 
Vienna  and  at  the  principal  theaters 
in  the  provinces.  Its  combination  of 
strength  and  simplicity  well  fit  it  for 
an  adequate  expression  of  patriotic  sen- 
timent. With  Haydn  it  was  a  great 
favorite,  which  he  often  delighted  to  play, 
and  which  he  introduced  into  the  Kaiser 
quartet,  No.  77,  with  elaborate  variations. 
It  endures  as  the  best  of  Haydn's  songs. 

Austrian  Succession,  War  of  the,  a 
war  on  the  European  continent  which  broke 
out  in  1741  to  defend'the  rights  of  Maria 
Theresa  in  her  Austrian  dominions,  left  to 
her,  in  what  is  called  the  "Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion," by  her  father,  Emperor  Charles  VI., 
who  died  without  male  issue.  These  domin- 
ions were  claimed  by  some  pretenders, 
notably  by  Charles  Albert,  elector  of  Bavaria 
(descending  from  Ferdinand  I.),  and  by 
Augustus  III.,  elector  of  Saxony  (husband 
of  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  Emperor 
Joseph  I.).  In  the  struggle  Britain  allied 
herself  with  Austria,  Russia,  Hungary,  and 
Poland,  against  France,  Prussia,  Spain, 
Sardinia,  and  Bavaria.  The  war  continued 
from  1741  to  1748,  when  it  was  terminated 
by  the  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Austria 
emerging  from  the  conflict  with  the  loss  of 
Silesia,  Parma,  and  Piacenza.  The  chief 
f  incidents  of  the  war  were  the  defeat  of  the 
'  French  by  the  British  at  Dettingen,  and  the 
French  victory  of  Fontenoy  over  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland  (British),  and  the  allied 
Austrians,  Dutch,  and  Hanoverians  (Prussia 
having,  in  1742,  withdrawn  from  the  struggle 
at  the  close  of  what  is  known  as  the  first 
Silesian  war).  Other  phases  of  the  war  of 
the  period  between  the  English  and  the  French 
are  known  as  King  George's  war,  and  the  at- 


AUTO-DA-FE 


147 


AUTOMOBILE 


tempt  of  Prince  Charles  Edward  Stuart,  "the 
Young  Pretender,"  to  effect  a  landing  in  Scot- 
land in  1745,  and  who.after  winning  the  bat- 
tle of  Prestonpans,  was  routed  at  Culloden. 

Auto-da-fe"  (q'to-da-fd')  or  Act  of 
Faith,  a  ceremony,  often  of  a  hideously 
fantastic  and  inhuman  kind,  by  which  the 
guilt  or  innocence  of  a  heretical  human 
victim  was  inquired  into  or  set  forth  by  the 
Spanish  Inquisition.  During  these  cere- 
monies and  processions,  a  large  concourse 
of  people  were  generally  gathered  together, 
to  witness  what  mostly  happened,  the  hand- 
ing over  of  the  victim  to  the  secular  power 
to  be  put  to  death  at  the  stake.  Autos- 
da-f£  were,  in  the  iyth  century,  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  Seville  and  Madrid,  as  well 
as  in  some  cities  of  Portugal. 

Automobile  (au'to-mo'bel),  a  vehicle  for 
street  and  road  use,  which  carries  its  own 
motive  power.  Steam  road  vehicles  have 
been  used  in  England  since  1865,  but  it 
was  not  until  1893  that  the  modern  horse- 
less vehicle,  including  pleasure  carriages, 
passenger  coaches  and  freight  trucks,  be- 
gan to  be  successfully  developed.  Since 
1900  the  manufacture,  sale  and  use  of 
automobiles  have  developed  and  grown  so 
swiftly  as  to  be  one  of  the  amazing  features 
of  our  century.  In  1901,  26  motor  cars  were 
imported  into  the  United  States.  At  the 
close  of  1911  there  were  in  use  in  the  United 
States  780,000  pleasure  motor  vehicles  and 
18,000  commercial  vehicles.  The  total 
production  of  the  industry  in  the  United 
States  in  1909  was  127,287  machines.  The 
capital  employed  in  the  industry  in  the 
United  States  is  approximately  $90,000,000, 
and  the  estimated  value  of  all  motor  vehicles 
in  use  is  $370,000,000. 

The  popularity  of  the  automobile  is  due 
to  its  possession  of  greater  speed-capacity 


SIDE  ELEVATION  OF  MOTOR  CAR 
i,  Pneumatic  tires.  2,  Wheels.  3,  Axles.  4,  Springs. 
5,  Pressed  steel  frame.  6,  Motor  cylinders.  7,  Gear 
change  mechanism.  8,  Body.  9,  Steering  mechan- 
ism. 10,  Drive-shaft,  n,  Brake  lever.  12,  Gear- 
change  lever.  13,  Height  over  all.  14,  Wheel  base. 
15,  Length  over  all. 

than  that  of  the  swiftest  horse  and  also  to 
its  ease  of  running  and  its  freedom  from 
jolting.  Its  gain  in  speed  and  durability 
within  a  few  years  is  a  remarkable  instance 
of  evolution  in  modern  mechanism.  The 
gasoline-engine  has  so  far  formed  the 
most  popular  motor,  but  on  heavy  roads 
steam  has  greater  flexibility  and  superior 
hill-climbing  powers.  Steam-propelled 
autos,  however,  demand  more  experience 


and  carefulness  on  the  operator's  part. 
The  electric  motor,  though  not  remarkable 
as  a  hill-climber,  has  the  merits  of  con- 
venience and  cleanness.  In  a  gasoline 
motor  a  storage  battery  supplies  the  spark 
for  igniting  the  fuel.  Electric  autos  are 
operated  by  storage  batteries. 

The  records  of  automobiles  for  speed  and 
endurance  challenge  comparison  with  those 
of  the  swiftest  and  strongest  railway  loco- 


motives. In  1895  a  motor-carriage  ran 
736  miles  in  48  hours  and  53  minutes,  or 
15  miles  an  hour,  but  now  60  miles  an 
hour  on  the  road  is  an  ordinary  record. 

The  touring  auto  goes  everywhere — in 
the  wilds  of  Africa,  in  the  wastes  of  Asia 
and  across  America  from  ocean  to  ocean. 
The  motor  cycle  is  also  very  popular,  par- 
ticularly in  America  and  England.  For 
the  motor  cycle  an  air-cooled  four-cycle, 
single-cylinder  engine  of  three  and  one-half 
horsepower  is  most  widely  used.  There  is 
a  trend  toward  employing  the  touring-car 
as  a  revival  of  the  romantic  coach  of  our 
ancestors,  but  more  important  is  the  auto's 
adaptation  to  swift  passenger-service.  Light 
motors  may  yet  revolutionize  municipal 
streetcar  systems  and  suburban  lines,  and 
remove  their  tracks  from  highways. 

But  the  automobile's  preeminent  service 
is  to  be  that  of  dray-horse  and  freight- 
carrier.  Autotrucks  gain  steadily  in  public 
favor.  Great  progress  has  been  made  by 
the  manufacturers  of  this  type  of  auto- 
mobile, and  many  plants  throughout  the 
United  States  have  been  erected  for  their 
exclusive  manufacture.  Their  efficiency  in 
the  matter  of  work  and  small  cost  of  opera- 
tion have  been  established,  and  many  great 
corporations  are  substituting  them  for 
horse-drawn  vehicles. 

In  addition  to  autodrays  there  are  auto- 
busses,  electric  cabs,  auto-fire  engines 
and  road-locomotives  or  traction-engines. 
The  last  were  used  before  autos,  but  are 
equally  entitled  to  be  styled  automobiles, 
though  it  required  the  development  of  the 
latter  to  teach  the  makers  of  the  former  to 
build  well.  These  traction-locomotives 
proved  useful  during  the  European  War, 
traveling  over  poor  roads  at  greater  speed 
than  infantry  could  march  and  drawing 
heavy  loads.  A  fifteen-ton  engine  draws 
forty  tons  of  wagons  forty  miles  a  day,  and 
can  make  twelve  miles  an  hour.  There  is 
scarcely  a  commercial  calling  where  these 
traction  engines  foil  to  figure.  The  future 


AUTUMN  COLORATION 


I48 


AVERNUS 


in  heavy  haulage,  so  soon  as  fit  roads  can 
be  had,  belongs  to  the  automobile,  and  its 
influence  has  already  initiated  a  new  era 
in  American  roadmaking. 

Autumn  Coloration  (in  plants).  This 
phenomenon  is  associated  with  the  decid- 
uous habit,  and  is  displayed  by  shrubs  and 
trees  throughout  the  temperate  regions. 
The  vivid  colors  have  attracted  a  great  deal 
of  attention,  but  as  yet  no  adequate  ex- 
planation has  been  offered.  The  two  types 
of  color  which  appear,  the  reds  and  the 
yellows,  seem  to  be  due  to  different  causes. 
The  yellow  is  a  post-mortem  change  of  the 
green,  an  example  of  which  may  be  observed 
in  a  poorly  blanched  stalk  of  celery,  where 
the  transition  from  green  to  white  is  seen 
to  be  through  yellow.  The  red  color  is  a 
product  of  the  living  substance  of  the 
leaves,  manufactured  at  a  time  when  the 
work  of  the  leaf  is  beginning  to  flag.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  the  red  color  is  of 
incidental  advantage  to  the  plant  in  that 
it  raises  the  temperature  of  the  leaves 
slightly  and  in  this  way  protects  the  living 
substance  from  chill  while  it  is  retreating 
into  the  permanent  parts  of  the  plant 
previous  to  the  fall  of  the  leaves. 

Auvergne  (o'vdrn'y"),  a  branch  of  the  Ce- 
vennes  Mountains.  The  mountains  lie  in 
confused  groups,  sending  up  several  sum- 
mits to  the  height  of  6,000  feet.  Not  only 
do  the  cone  and  domelike  shapes  of  the 
summits  betray  a  volcanic  formation,  but 
the  great  masses  of  peculiar  rock  that 
break  through  the  crust  of  granite  and 
gneiss  render  it  evident  that  this  was  a 
great  focus  of  volcanic  action  at  a  com- 
paratively recent  period.  Among  the  sum- 
mits that  have  apparently  been  at  one  time 
volcanoes,  the  most  remarkable  are  Cantal, 
Mont-Dore  and  Puy-de-D6me.  All  are  now 
covered  with  verdure.  There  are  rich 
deposits  of  iron,  lead  and  other  ores  in 
the  region,  which  was  once  an  ancient 
province  and  today  is  a  department  of  France. 
Aux'anom'eter.  A  device  for  measuring 
the  growth  of  plants  during  short  periods, 

when  it  is  too 
slight  readily  to 
admit  of  direct 
measurement . 
In  all  forms  the 
growth  is  mag- 
nified by  caus- 
ing the  plant, 
acting  on  the 
short  arm  of  a 
lever  or  the  hub 
of  a  wheel,  to 
displace  an  in- 
dex  five  to 
twenty  times 
more  than  the 
actual  move- 
ment. (See 
AUXANOMETER  figure.)  In  the 


more  elaborate  forms  the  index  registers 
its  movements  on  a  smoked  surface. 

Av'alanche,  a  mass  of  snow  or  ice  which 
slides  down  the  sides  of  high  mountains, 
often  causing  great  destruction.  There  are 
various  kinds  of  avalanches.  Drift  or 
powder  avalanches  are  loose,  dry  snow, 
which  is  set  in  motion  by  the  wind  and 
rushes  into  valleys  in  the  form  of  great 
dust-clouds.  They  usually  occur  in  winter 
and  are  very  dangerous,  because  of  their 
suddenness,  often  suffocating  men  and  ani- 
mals and  overturning  houses  by  the  com- 
pression of  the  air  which  they  cause.  An- 
other kind  of  avalanche  is  like  a  landslide. 
The  melting  of  the  snow  in  spring  makes 
the  soil  slippery,  and  great  masses  of  snow 
are  carried  down  the  mountains  by  their 
own  weight,  taking  trees  and  stones  with 
them.  If  they  come  to  a  precipice  in  their 
course,  as  they  often  do,  they  are  hurled 
with  tremendous  force  into  the  valley  be- 
neath, destroying  whatever  is  in  their  path. 
Ice  avalanches  often  occur  in  summer. 
They  are  masses  of  ice  which  detach  them- 
selves from  the  mountain  glaciers,  com- 
monly in  July,  August  and  September. 
Nine  great  Alpine  avalanches,  which  de- 
stroyed 447  lives,  are  recorded  between 
the  years  1578  and  1827. 

Avebury,  Lord.  See  LUBBOCK,  SIR 
JOHN. 

Averell,  William  Woods,  American 
general  and  inventor,  was  born  in  Steuben 
County,  New  York  state,  November  5,  1832, 
and  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1855. 
When  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  he  was  on 
duty  in  the  west,  fighting  the  Kiowa  In- 
dians. He  then  organized  a  corps  of 
mounted  riflemen,  and  in  August,  1861, 
received  the  appointment  of  colonel,  acting 
in  most  of  the  campaigns  of  the  period  with 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  and  operating 
in  cavalry  raids.  In  1865  he  resigned,  hav- 
ing the  rank  of  major-general,  and  from 
1866  to  1869  was  United  States  consul- 
general  in  Canada,  subsequently  becoming 
interested  in  a  large  manufacturing  com- 
pany as  president.  While  so  occupied,  he 
in  1869-70  discovered  and  perfected  a 
process  of  obtaining  cast  steel  direct  from 
the  ore;  in  1879  he  invented  the  American 
asphalt  pavement;  and  subsequently  he  in- 
vented what  is  known  as  the  Averell  in- 
sulated conduit  for  electric  wires  and  also 
a  machine  for  laying  electric  conductors 
underground.  He  died  in  1900. 

Aver'nus,  called  now  Lago  d'Averno,  is 
a  small  circular  lake  in  Italy,  It  is  about  a 
mile  and  a  half  around,  and  lies  in  the 
crater  of  an  extinct  volcano.  It  is  in  some 
places  200  feet  deep,  and  is  almost  com- 
pletely shut  in  by  steep  and  wooded  heights. 
The  sulphurous  vapors  arising  from  it  were 
believed  in  ancient  times  to  kill  the  birds 
that  flew  over  it,  and  so  it  probably  got 
its  name  from  a  Greek  word  meaning 


AVIGNON 


149 


AZORES 


"birdless."  Its  gloomy  and  awful  appear- 
ance made  it  the  center  of  almost  all  the 
stories  of  the  ancients  about  the  world  of 
shades.  Here  was  Homer's  and  Vergil's 
entrance  into  the  lower  world,  and  here 
were  the  Elysian  fields,  the  cave  of  Hecate 
and  the  grotto  of  the  Cumaean  Sibyl. 
Agrippa  connected  it  with  the  Lucrine  Lake 
and  the  sea,  making  it  a  sort  of  harbor; 
but  the  volcanic  upheaval  of  Monte  Nuovo, 
in  1358,  again  made  Avernus  an  inland 
lake.  On  its  east  side  are  the  ruins  of  a 
temple  of  Apollo,  and  on  its  south  side 
what  is  shown  as  the  grotto  of  the  Sibyl. 

Avignon  (d-ven-yoN'),  a  city  in  Provence, 
France,  is  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhone. 
Its  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked,  and  it 
is  still  surrounded  by  high  walls.  Here  is 
the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  dating  back 
to  the  nth  century.  There  are  so  many 
churches  and  convents  that  Avignon  has 
been  called  the  city  of  bells.  It  has 
manufactures  of  paper,  leather,  silk,  iron, 
etc.,  and  is  famous  for  its  garden  produce, 
fruit,  wine  and  honey.  Here  the  great 
Italian  poet,  Petrarch,  lived  for  some  years, 
and  here  in  a  church  that  is  still  pointed 
out,  he  first  saw  Laura,  the  lady  to  whom 
he  wrote  his  beautiful  sonnets.  In  the 
middle  ages  Avignon  belonged  to  the 
popes,  and  here  Clement  V  and  six  of  his 
successors  lived.  Here  also  lived  the  anti- 
popes  for  forty  years.  Population,  51,000. 
A'von.  There  (are  several  rivers  of  this 
name  in  England,  Scotland,  Wales  and 
France.  The  most  noted  is  called  Upper 
Avon,  which  gains  its  importance  from 
passing  Stratford,  the  birthplace  of  Shake- 
speare. It  rises  in  Northamptonshire,  and 
flows  southwest  till  it  joins  the  Severn  at 
Tewkesbury.  It  is  about  100  miles  long. 

Ax'il     (in    plants).       The     upper     angle 
formed   by   a  leaf   and   the   stem   axis   on 
which  it  is  inserted.     It  is 
in  the  axils  that  branches 
normally  arise. 

Aylesworth,  Hon. 
Allen  Bristol,  K.  C.,  edu- 
cated at  Toronto  Univer- 
sity. A  distinguished  law- 

a  a  AXILS  yer'  9ne  °*  ^is  Majesty's 
Commissioners  in  the  Alaska 
Boundary  case.  Elected  to  the  Canadian 
House  of  Commons  in  1905,  a  prominent 
member  of  the  Laurier  government.  Ap- 
pointed Postmaster  General  in  1905,  and 
Minister  of  Justice  in  1906.  One  of  the 
ablest  and  most  influential  members  of  the 
Laurier  administration. 

Aylrner  (al'nier),  Col.  the  Hon.  Mat- 
thew, Adjutant  General  of  Militia  (Can- 
ada). Eldest  son  of  Lord  Aylmer.  Born 
in  province  of  Quebec  in  1842.  Educated 
in  Montreal  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
Entered  the  army  as  Ensign  in  Her  Majesty's 
7th  Royal  Fusiliers  then  quartered  at  Malta 
(1864).  Retired  from  the  Imperial  Service 


AZALEA 


in  1870.  In  1896  he  became  Adjutant 
General  of  the  Militia  of  the  Dominion. 
Was  second  in  command  of  all  the  colonial 
forces  that  took  part  in  the  Diamond 
Jubilee  celebration  in  England.  A  thorough 
soldier  and  successful  administrator. 

Azalea  (a-zal'ya),  a  flowering  plant  be- 
longing to  the  Heath  family,  closely  related 

to  the  rhodo- 
dendron. It 
covers  moun- 
tain slopes,  is 
a  native  of  the 
countries  bor- 
dering on  the 
Black  Sea,  and 
abounds  in 
North  America. 
They  are  among 
the  most  orna- 
mental  and 
beautiful  of 
flowering 
shrubs,  and  are 
well  represented  by  native  forms  in  our 
eastern  mountain  regions.  In  the  flower- 
ing season  they  are  often  completely  covered 
with  showy  flowers  of  various  bright  colors. 
The  pink  azalea,  often  called  the  wild 
honeysuckle,  is  distributed  from  Maine  to 
Illinois  and  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It 
is  a  shrub  from  two  to  six  feet  high,  the 
flowers  grow  in  clusters,  bloom  in  April  and 
May,  giving  rosy  hue  to  swamp  and  moist 
\iood.  Closely  related  to  this  is  the  clammy 
azalea  or  white  honeysuckle,  a  shrub  from 
three  to  ten  feet  high,  bearing  fragrant 
white  blossoms  in  early  summer.  It  is 
seen  as  a  rule  in  swamps  along  the  coast, 
found  from  Maine  to  Florida  and  westward 
to  Texas.  Decking  the  mountains  of  Georgia 
is  the  smooth  or  tree  azalea,  with  June 
flowers  of  rare  fragrance  and  beauty.  The 
azalea  is  highly  prized  as  a  garden  flower 
in  Europe.  European  horticulturists  were 
quick  to  appreciate  its  beauty.  It  is  the 
national  flower  of  Flanders. 

Azari'ah,  the  tenth  king  of  Judah,  also 
called  Uzziah,  who  began  to  reign  about  809 
B.  C.  It  is  also  the  name  of  one  of  the 
prophet  Daniel's  three  friends,  whose  name 
was  changed  to  Abednego.  It  is  a  common 
name  among  the  Jews.  The  period  of 
azariah's  reign  is  792-740  B.  C. 

Azores  (a-zorz'),  a  group  of  Portuguese 
islands  in  the  mid-Atlantic,  800  miles  west 
of  Portugal.  Carthaginian  coins  have  been 
found  on  the  islands,  showing  that  the 
hardy  sailors  of  Carthage  must  have  been 
there.  Edrisi,  an  Arab  geographer,  knew  them 
before  1200,  and  an  Italian  map  of  1351  rep- 
resents them  unmistakably.  The  islands 
were  taken  possession  of  by  the  Portuguese 
in  1431-1453.  There  are  many  hawks  here, 
and  the  name  Azores  is  from  a  Portuguese 
word,  meaning  hawks  Their  area  is  919 
square  miles,  or  considerably  smaller  than 


AZOV,  SEA  OP 


150 


AZTECS 


Rhode  Island.  The  total  population  is 
160,000.  The  capital  is  Angra  (population, 
11,067).  They  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
are  still  liable  to  eruptions  and  earthquakes, 
having  had  twenty-one  earthquake  shocks 
since  1444.  Oranges  are  the  chief  export. 

Azov  (d-2&/),  Sea  of,  is  a  large  gulf  in 
the  Black  Sea.  It  was  first  called  the 
Maeotic  Marsh,  from  the  name  of  the 
people  dwelling  on  its  shores.  The  Turks 
called  it  Fish  Sea.  The  water  is  almost 
fresh.  The  whole  sea  is  shallow,  and  meas- 
ures 235  by  no  miles.  The  largest  river 
emptying  into  it  is  the  Don.  During  the 
Crimean  War,  there  were  sent  to  this  sea, 
in  1855,  a  number  of  war  vessels  having  on 
board  16,500  French,  English  and  Turks. 
With  this  hostile  array,  the  allies  bom- 
barded the  ports  and  cut  off  supplies  in- 
tended for  Sebastopol. 

Az'tecs,  the  name  of  the  people  found  in 
Mexico  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  invasion, 
1519,  though  the  name  strictly  belongs  to 
only  one  of  the  seven  tribes  occupying  the 
country  at  that  time.  Aztec  tradition  repre- 
sents these  people  as  starting  from  a  place 
called  Aztlan  and  wandering  for  about  150 
years  before  reaching  Chapultepec.  Where 
Aztlan  was,  and  what  was  the  origin  of  the 
Aztec  tribes,  are  still  doubtful.  Mexico  had 
been  previously  occupied  by  a  people  called 
Toltecs,  a  superior  race  whose  ruins  still 

¥rove    skill    in    the    arts    of    civilized    life, 
hese    Toltecs    were    almost  destroyed  by 
famine  and  pestilence  in  the  nth  century, 
so  that  the  Aztecs  found  only  a  few  rude, 


savage  races  occupying  the  land.  In  1325, 
they  built  the  City  of  Mexico,  called  Ten- 
ochtitlan,  named  after  their  chief,  Tenoch. 
It  was  built  on  a  few  small  islands  in  Lake 
Chalco,  and  was  approached  only  by  long 
and  narrow  causeways.  It  was  so  strongly 
fortified  as  to  resist  even  the  conquering 
Spaniards.  The  Aztecs  seem  to  have  been 
a  fierce,  savage  people,  yet  with  many 
traces  of  civilization,  some  of  it  probably 
borrowed  from  the  Toltecs  who  preceded 
them.  Their  chief  was  chosen  by  the  nobles; 
the  laws  were  severe,  but  the  courts  were 
open.  The  records  are  preserved  in  the 
picture-writing  of  Mexico;  the  women 
shared  in  all  the  occupations  of  the  men, 
and  were  taught  to  read  and  write,  sing 
and  dance,  and  were  even  learned  in  astron- 
omy and  astrology.  They  believed  in  one 
god,  but  they  had  many  lower  gods,  of 
whom  the  chief  was  the  frightful  Huit- 
zilopochtli.  His  magnificent  temples  were 
drenched  with,  the  blood  of  human  sacri- 
fices; no  less  than  20,000  victims,  of  whom 
only  the  heart  was  used  as  an  offering,  were 
immolated  yearly  to  supply  his  altars.  The 
priests  were  a  large  and  powerful  class,  who 
had  charge  of  the  education  as  well  as  the 
religion  of  the  nation;  5,000  were  attached 
to  the  great  temple  of  Mexico  alone.  The 
last  king  of  the  Aztecs  was  Moctezuma,  who 
was  treacherously  imprisoned  by  Cortes  and 
killed  by  the  Aztecs  in  their  revolt  against 
the  Spaniards.  See  Popular  History  of  the 
Mexican  People  and  Native  Races  of  the 
Pacific  States,  by  Hubert  H.  Bancroft 


B 


BABEL,  TOWER  OF 


B 


B  (be),  the  second  letter,  is  a  consonant, 
and  is  called  a  sonant  labial,  because  made 
by  the  lips  and  representing  a  sound,  as  in 
able,  boy,  cab.  After  ra  in  the  same  syllable 
or  before  t,  it  usually  is  silent,  as  in  bomb, 
debt,  bdellium.  The  form  is  Roman,  from 
Greek  0,  which,  perhaps,  is  of  Phoenician 
origin.  All  letters  of  the  English  alphabet, 
except  J,  U  and  W,  come  from  the  Latin, 
which  derived  them  through  the  Greek 
from  the  Phoenician. 

Baal  (bd'al),  the  principal  god  of  the 
Phoenician  and  Canaanitish  nations,  among 
whom  Ashtoreth  was  the  principal  goddess. 
He  was  the  god  of  the  sun,  as  ruling  and 
giving  life  to  nature,  while  Moloch  repre- 
sented the  sun  as  a  destroyer,  and  both 
these  ideas  were  united  later  in  the  god 
Melkarth.  The  oldest  form  of  his  worship 
was  on  the  tops  of  mountains;  thus  the 
Midianites  and  Amalekites  worshiped  him 
on  Mount  Peor;  the  Phoenicians  on  Carmel 
and  the  Canaanites  on  Hermon.  Upright 
conical  stones,  either  in  the  open  air  or  in 
temples,  were  a  mark  of  his  presence,  but 
there  were  no  images  of  him.  From  the 
earliest  foundations  of  Tyre  he  seems  to 
have  been  the  protecting  god  of  that  city. 
His  worship  spread  among  all  the  towns  of 
Phoenicia,  including  their  distant  colonies, 
such  as  Malta,  Carthage  and  Cadiz.  The 
Greeks  connected  him  with  Hercules,  calling 
him  the  Tyrian  Hercules.  The  worship  of 
Baal  was  very  attractive  to  the  Jews,  and 
many  years  of  punishment  were  necessary 
to  banish  it  from  Israel.  The  word  Baal  is 
often  used  in  connection  with  some  epithet; 
as  Baal-Berith  (the  Covenant  Lord),  and 
Baal-Zebub  or  Beelzebub  (the  Fly-God), 
the  idol  of  the  Philistines  at  Ekron,  where 
he  had  a  temple.  Such  proper  names  as 
Jezebel  and  Hannibal  are  compounds  of 
the  word  Baal. 

Babcock  Test,  a  method  of  determining 
the  amount  of  butter-fat  in  milk,  named 
after  Prof.  S.  M.  Babcock,  of  Wisconsin 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  who  in- 
vented it  in  1890.  It  depends  upon  (i) 
the  separation  of  light  from  heavy  parts 
by  centrifugal  force  and  (2)  the  action  of 
sulphuric  acid  on  all  the  solids  of  the  milk 
other  than  butter-fat.  The  machine  con- 
sists of  deep  brass  cups  attached  to  an 
upright  revolving  shaft,  so  that  they  will 
swing  out  horizontally  when  the  machine 
is  rotated  by  hand  or  steam  power.  In  the 
cups  are  placed  Babcock  milk  bottles. 


These  are  vase  shaped  with  long  narrow 
necks,  and  hold  about  2  £  cubic  inches.  Almost 
equal  parts  of  milk  and  acid  are  mixed  in 
the  bottles  in  a  special  way.  The  acid 
decomposes  the  other  solids  and  frees  the 
fat.  Being  warmed  by  the  chemical  action, 
the  fat  particles  run  together,  and  being  so 
much  lighter  than  the  acid  mixture,  the 
fat  rises  into  the  neck,  which  is  so  graduated 
that  the  amount  of  fat  can  be  read  off  in 
percent.  The  rapid  rotation  of  900  to  2,000 
or  more  revolutions  per  minute  separates 
practically  all  the  fat.  The  Babcock  test 
was  the  first  practical  method  of  testing 
milk  for  commercial  use.  It  has  made  it 
possible  for  creameries  to  pay  for  milk  on 
a  basis  of  cream  value  and  has  made  it 
possible  for  the  dairyman  to  estimate 
accurately  the  performance  of  each  of  his 
cows  and  so  tell  the  amount  of  cream 
produced  by  each.  Milk  from  different 
cows  may  vary  in  amount  of  butter-fat 
from  2%  to  8%.  Some  cows  will  test 
less  than  others,  but  may,  by  reason  of 
a  greater  quantity  of  milk,  produce  the 
same  amount  of  butter.  Milk  for  retailing 
is  usually  required  by  law  to  test  at  least 
3%  of  cream.  Cream  is  sold  in  different 

frades,    as    12%,    18%,    etc.      See    CREAM 
EPARATOR.       Ref. :     L.     L.     Van     Slyke: 
Modern  Methods  of  Testing  Milk  and  Milk 
Products. 

Ba'bei,  Tower  of.  According  to  the  story 
in  Genesis  xi,  the  descendants  of  Noah 
journeyed  from  the  east  till  they  came  to 
the  plain  of  Shinar  (Chaldaea),  the  Hebrew 
form  of  the  native  name  Sumir,  and  there 
began  to  build  a  tower  of  burned  bricks 
and  pitch,  whose  top  should  reach  the  sky. 
But  God  confounded  the  language  of  the 
builders  so  that  they  could  not  understand 
each  other,  and  the  tower  was  called  Babel 
or  Confusion.  A  similar  story  has  been 
found  among  the  Babylonians,  and  the 
Greek  story  of  the  giants  who  attempted  to 
scale  the  sky  but  were  overthrown  by  Zeus 
has  some  likeness  to  it.  The  site  of  the 
tower  was  somewhere  in  Babylonia.  It  is 
usually  supposed  to  be  represented  by  the 
great  pile  of  Birs  Nimrud,  which  stood 
eight  miles  from  the  city  of  Babylon, 
was  dedicated  to  Nebo,  and  was  called  the 
Temple  of  the  Seven  Lights.  It  had 
stood  unfinished,  till  Nebuchadnezzar  under- 
took to  finish  it,  and  its  ruins  still  rise  153 
feet  above  the  plain.  Another  possible  site 
is  the  ruin  called  Amram,  within  the  city 


BABOON 


152 


BABYLONIA 


itself.     This  mound  is  1,100  yards  long  and 
800  yards  broad. 

Baboon  (btib-oon'),  a.  family  of  monkeys, 
native  to  Africa  and  found  also  in  parts  of 
Asia.  Thoy  have  dog-shaped  heads,  long 
muzzles,  large  cheek-pouches  in  which  a 
great  quantity  of  food  can  be  temporarily 
stowed  away,  frequently  large  and  brightly- 
colored  calloused  cushions  on  their  hips. 
In  the  adult  males  the  canine  teeth  are 
developed  into  formidable  tusks.  They  are 
quadrupeds,  running  swiftly  on  all-fours, 
climbing  with  great  vigor,  fond  of  sitting  on 
their  haunch  pads  and  especially  at  home 
in  mountainous  districts.  They  often  live 
in  herds,  and.  led  by  patriarchs  and  guarded 


by  sentinels,  fight  other  herds  or  defend 
themselves  against  other  wild  beasts.  Often 
when  fighting  they  will  stand  erect.  They 
are  playful  and  amiable  when  young.  It  is 
said  the  ancient  Egyptians  trained  them  to 
pick  fruit.  When  older,  especially  when 
kept  confined,  they  are  very  savage.  Their 
food  is  largely  made  up  of  fruits,  roots, 
seeds,  insects,  worms,  etc.  Their  raids  on 
plantations  are  much  dreaded.  About  a 
dozen  different  kinds  are  known.  The 
largest  and  fiercest  is  called  the  mandril  or 
ribbed-nose  baboon,  and  is  a  native  of  the 
Guinea  coast.  This  form  has  a  rudimentary 
tail,  while  the  common  baboon  has  a  well 
developed  tail,  twenty  inches  long  in  the 
adult.  The  baboon  is  thought  to  have  been 
an  object  of  worship  in  Egypt,  inspiring 
reverence  because  of  his  wise-looking  face. 
Bab'ylon,  capital  of  the  empire  of  Baby- 
lonia on  the  Euphrates  River,  was  said  by 
the  ignorant  Greeks  to  have  been  founded  by 
Queen  Semiramis,  who,  it  is  related,  employed 
two  million  workmen  in  building  it.  In 
Nebuchadnezzar's  time,  it  stood  on  both 
sides  of  the  river,  in  the  form  of  a  square. 
It  was  surrounded  by  walls,  some  60  miles 
long,  with  100  brazen  gates  Here  was  a 
famous  temple  of  Baal,  by  some  thought  to 


be  built  over  the  ruins  of  the  tower  of  Babel; 
also  the  hanging  gardens  of  Semiramis,  one 
of  the  wonders  of  the  old  world.  The  Persi- 
ans ruined  Babylon  by  their  conquest,  Xerxes 
in  particular,  ravaging  the  temple  of  Baal. 
Alexander  the  Great  undertook  to  rebuild 
the  city;  but  when  his  ten  thousand  work- 
men, after  two  months'  labor,  had  not  even 
cleared  away  the  rubbish,  he  gave  up  the 
project.  After  that  it  rapidly  fell  into 
ruin,  and  its  materials  were  used  in  build- 
ing the  new  city,  Seleucia,  by  Alexander's 
successor,  Seleucus. 

Babylo'nia  was  the  name  given  to  the 
low  plain  watered  by  the  lower  streams  of 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  The  country  has 
always  been  one  of  the  most  fertile  spots 
in  western  Asia.  Herodotus  tells  us  that 
it  supplied  one  third  of  the  corn  of  the 
whole  Persian  empire.  This  fertility  was 
increased  by  a  network  of  canals  irrigating 
the  whole  country. 

It  has  always  been  a  land  of  many  races 
and  tongues,  and  almost  every  country  is 
represented  in  the  mixed  gathering  of 
nations  living  on  its  plains.  Chronicles  and 
lists  of  kings  have  been  found  that  afford 
us  considerable  knowledge  of  the  Babylo- 
nians. Boys  became  free  citizens  at  the 
age  of  fourteen;  women  were  well-treated; 
they  could  trade  and  own  slaves,  and 
offenses  against  the  mother  were  severely 
punished.  Slaves  must  not  be  treated 
cruelly,  and  all  free  Chaldaeans  must  be 
educated  and  learn  tablet-writing.  Judges 
sat  in  the  gates  of  the  temple,  and  taxes 
were  fixed  by  law.  They  were  also  no  mean 
sculptors,  and  had  learned  the  art  of  cast- 
ing metals. 

Babylonia's  history  in  age  rivals  that  of 
Egypt,  going  back  at  least  4,000  years  be- 
fore Christ.  The  first  king  who  appears  to 
have  united  the  different  towns  into  one 
kingdom  was  Urbaku  (about  2,700  B.  C,). 
In  2 1 20  B.  C.,  came  in  the  Kassite  dynasty, 
and  then  Babylon  came  to  be  known  as 
the  capital  of  the  empire.  From  1150  B.  C. 
there  were  many  wars  between  Babylo- 
nia and  Assyria.  Even  the  great  kings 
suffered  invasions  from  the  north,  as  Nabo- 
nassar,  who  reigned  fourteen  years,  be- 
ginning in  747  B.  C.,  and  whose  kingdom 
was  twice  invaded  by  the  Assyrian  army. 
Tiglath-Pileser  III,  the  Assyrian,  completely 
overran  the  country,  and  ascended  its  throne 
as  King  Pul,  being  known  by  a  different 
name  in  each  of  his  kingdoms.  This  con- 
quest brought  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  the 
two  capitals,  into  close  relations.  Merodach- 
Baladan  II  succeeded,  in  722  B  C.,  in  free- 
ing the  country  from  its  northern  neighbor, 
and  by  skillfully  sending  an  embassy  to 
Hezekiah  of  Judaea  and  other  Syrian 
princes  led  them  to  revolt,  and  so  kept  the 
Assyrian  Sargon  too  busy  to  march  inss- 
Babylonia;  but  in  710  B.  C.  it  was  again 
conquered.  When  Assyria  fe&.  Babylonia 


BACCHUS 


153 


BACILLUS 


rose  on  its  ruins  as  a  conquering  empire. 
Nebuchadrezzar,  its  greatest  king,  reigned 
forty-three  years  (604-561  B.  C.),  recon- 
quered provinces,  rebuilt  temples  and  pal- 
aces, and  made  Babylon  once  more  queen 
of  nations.  Among  other  conquests  he 
captured  Jerusalem,  carrying  its  king, 
Jehoiachim,  captive  to  Babylon,  and  eleven 
years  later  destroyed  the  Jews'  capital  and 
removed  most  of  the  people  to  Chaldaea. 
The  last  notable  king  was  a  usurper,  Nabu- 
naid,  who  drove  out  Nebuchadrezzar's 
grandson,  and  who  left  almost  as  many 
inscriptions  on  bricks,  cylinders  or  tablets 
as  the  great  Nebuchadrezzar  himself.  The 
whole  land  revolted  against  him  because 
he  neglected  the  duties  of  government  and 
religion,  leaving  everything  to  his  son,  Bel- 
shazzar.  This  made  the  country  an  easy 
prey  for  the  Persian  conqueror  Cyrus,  who 
captured  Babylon  in  538  B.  C.  It  was 
afterward  ruled  by  Alexander,  by  the 
Syrians,  Parthians,  Romans,  the  caliphs  of 
Baghdad  and  several  dynasties  of  the  Per- 
sians and  the  Turks. 

Bacchus  (bak'kus),  one  of  the  names 
among  the  Greeks,  and  the  usual  name 
among  the  Romans,  for  Dionysus,  the  god 
of  wine.  In  Italy,  he  was  connected  with 
the  god  Liber.  He  was  the  son  of  Jupiter, 
and  was  brought  up  by  the  nymphs  at  Nysa 
in  India.  Many  stories  are  told  of  his 
adventures.  He  flayed  Damascus  alive, 
who  opposed  him  in  Syria;  made  Lycurgus, 
king  of  the  Edones,  mad,  so  that  he  killed 
his  own  son,  and  when  he  became  sane, 
caused  him  to  be  torn  in  pieces  by  horses; 
he  also  overcame  the  Amazons.  Bacchus 
taught  men  to  cultivate  the  vine  and  to 
make  wine.  He  collected  bands  of  wor- 
shipers, mainly  wo,men,  and,  surrounded  by 
them,  seated  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  panthers 
or  leopards,  passed  through  many  countries. 
He  was  represented  in  some  works  of  art 
as  an  infant,  but  generally  by  the  Greeks 
as  a  beautiful  boy,  while  in  the  east  he  was 
pictured  as  a  man  of  middle  age,  clothed  in 
long  robes.  Festivals  in  his  honor  were 
first  held  in  Thrace,  but  the  most  famous 
were  at  Athens  and  were  four  in  number; 
the  country  festival  in  December,  when  the 
vintage  was  just  over;  the  wine-press  festi- 
val in  January,  when  the  wine  was  just 
made  and  the  presses  cleaned;  the  flower 
festival  in  February,  lasting  three  days; 
and  the  great  festival  in  March,  when  the 
city  was  filled  with  strangers  from  all 
Greece.  In  these  festivals,  banquets,  pro- 
cessions and  plays  composed  the  program, 
and  they  were  scenes  of  riotous  merriment 
and  drunkenness.  In  Rome  the  Bac- 
chanalia, as  it  was  called,  was  celebrated 
every  third  year;  but  it  became  so  immoral 
and  dangerous  that  the  consuls  in  186  B.C. 
forbade  its  observance.  After  this,  the 
Liberalia  were  celebrated  yearly  on  the  1 6th 
of  March,  on  which  day  the  young  men 


began  to  wear  the  toga  virilis,  the  badge 
of  manhood. 

Bach    (bdk),   Johann    Sebastian,  one  of 

the  greatest  musicians  of  the  world,  was 
born  at  Eisenach,  Germany,  in  March,  1685. 
He  belonged  to  a  distinguished  musical 
family,  and  at  Erfurt,  where  a  branch  of 
the  family  lived  for  many  years,  the  town 
musicians  were  called  Bachs,  even  when 
no  member  of  the  family  was  connected 
with  them.  Losing  his  father  before  he 
was  ten  years  old,  his  older  brother  under- 
took his  musical  education,  but  found  it 
hard  to  keep  his  genius  in  check.  He  tried 
to  hide  from  him  a  manuscript  volume  of 
organ  pieces,  but  Sebastian  managed  to  get 
hold  of  it  and  worked  for  six  months  copy- 
ing it  by  the  light  of  the  moon,  for  fear  of 
being  found  out;  but  was  discovered  and 
his  copy  taken  from  him.  At  fifteen  he 
entered  the  choir  of  St.  Michael's  school  at 
Luneburg.  Here  he  remained  as  a  violinist 
after  losing  his  beautiful  voice.  In  1703 
he  was  given  a  court  appointment  at  Wei- 
mar, and  in  1704  became  organist  at  Arn- 
stadt,  where  he  composed  many  of  his 
church  cantatas.  During  the  nine  years 
spent  as  court  organist  at  Weimar,  he 
studied  Italian  music  and  did  some  com- 
posing. Some  years  followed  at  the  court 
of  Prince  Leopold,  where  he  wrote  the  first 
half  of  the  collection  known  as  Forty-eight 
Preludes  and  Fugues.  His  next  appoint- 
ment was  at  Leipsic,  where  all  his  greatest 
works  for  chorus  were  written.  In  1747 
he  paid  a  visit  to  Frederick  the  Great  at 
Potsdam,  who  received  him  with  great 
honor.  On  a  theme  proposed  by  the  king, 
Bach  composed  his  Musical  Offering,  which, 
with  his  Art  of  Fugue,  is  a  work  of  wonder- 
ful ingenuity  and  learning.  An  operation 
on  his  eyes  resulted  in  total  blindness.  He 
died  July  28,  1750.  Piano-players  owe  to 
Bach  the  method  of  tuning,  by  which  they 
can  play  in  all  keys,  and  also  the  mode  of 
fingering  which  brings  all  the  fingers  into  use. 

Bache  (bach),  Alexander  Dallas,  a 
noted  American  scientist.  He  was  a  great- 
grandson  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  was 
born  at  Philadelphia  in  1806.  He  graduated 
with  high  honors  at  West  Point,  where  he 
was  made  an  instructor.  He  was  professor 
of,  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  at  Philadelphia, 
and  later  president  of  Girard  College  at  the 
same  place.  He  organized  a  system  of  free 
schools  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  superin- 
tendent of  the  United  States  coast  survey 
and  regent  of  the  Smithsonian  institution. 
He  was  prominent  in  scientific  circles,  and 
was  connected  with  many  scientific  societies 
in  both  hemispheres.  He  died  at  Newport, 
Rhode  Island,  February  17,  1867. 

Bacil'lus  (bd-sil'lus),  a  genus  of  the 
plants  known  as  Bacteria,  and  distinguished 
from  the  other  forms  by  consisting  of  rather 
elongated  rod-shaped  cells.  See  BACTERIA. 


BACON 


154 


BACTERIA 


Da  con,  Francis,  one  of  the  most  extra- 
ordinary men  that  any  age  can  Boast.  A 
scholar,  a  wit,  a  lawyer,  a  statesman  a 
philosopher,  his  writings  will  endure  as  long 
as  the  language  in  which  they  are  written. 
He  was  born  in  London,  January  22,  1561. 
He  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Cambridge 
at  the  age  of  twelve.  Before  he  was  sixteen 
he  wrote  a  paper  against  the  philosophy  of 
Aristotle,  and  at  nineteen  a  work  called 
On  the  State  of  Europe,  the  result  of  his 
studies  while  a  member  of  the  suite  of  the 
English  ambassador  at  Paris.  He  was 
knighted  in  1603,  appointed  consul  to  the 
crown,  and  in  1613  attorney-general.  In 
1617  he  was  made  keeper  of  the  great  seal, 
and  in  1618  appointed  lord  chancellor,  with 
the  title  of  'Lord  Verulam,  and  soon  after 
was  created  Viscount  St.  Albans.  His  fall 
was  as  sudden  as  his  rise  was  rapid.  He 
was  accused  of  bribery  and  convicted  on 
his  own  confession.  He  was  fined  $200,000, 
and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower.  Though  the 
fine  was  remitted  and  the  imprisonment 
lasted  but  two  days,  shame,  added  to  fail- 
ing health,  kept  him  from  appearing  again 
at  court.  His  death,  April  9,  1626,  was 
caused  by  a  cold  taken  while  making  an 
experiment  to  test  the  power  of  snow  to 
preserve  flesh.  Bacon's  writings  are  numer- 
ous, but  he  is  known  best  by  his  philosoph- 
ical works,  Advancement  of  Learning  and 
Novum  Organum,  which  introduced  a  new 
method  into  philosophy.  "He  rang  the 
bell  which  called  the  other  wits  together," 
is  his  own  description  of  the  effect  of  these 
writings.  The  most  popular  of  his  works  is 
tris  Essays,  fifty-eight  m  number,  on  such 
subjects  as  Pride,  Truth,  Ambition,  Riches, 
and  they  well  repay  study  both  of  their 
contents  and  style. 

Ba'con,  Leonard,  was  the  son  of  a  mis- 
sionary to  the  Indians,  and  was  born  at 
Detroit,  Mich.,  in  1802.  After  graduating 
at  Yale  College  and  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  he  was  a  Congregational  pastor 
at  New  Haven  for  many  years.  In  1866  he 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Yale  Divin- 
ity School  and,  later,  lecturer  on 
church  history.  He  was  a  prom- 
inent contributor  to  the  Christian 
Spectator  and  the  New  Englander, 
and  was  for  several  years  one  of 
the  editors  of  the  New  York  In- 
dependent. He  also  published  a 
number  of  works.  He  died  at  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  December  24, 1881. 

Bacon,  Nathaniel,  a  colonial 
leader,  of  English  birth,  the  chief 
figure  in  Bacon's  Rebellion,  in 
Virginia,  under  the  governorship 
of  Sir  Wm.  Berkeley.  He  was 
born  in  Suffolk,  England,  January 
2,  1647,  and  died  (nominally  a 
rebel)  after  the  burning  of  Jamestown, 
Va.,  in  October,  1676.  He  was  educated 
at  the  London  Inns  of  Court  as  a  lawyer, 


and  emigrating  to  Virginia,  settled  on  the 
upper  James  River,  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  governor's  council.  The  col- 
onists of  the  region  were  then  har- 
assed by  the  Indians,  and  being  dis- 
satisfied with  Governor  Berkeley's  measures 
for  the  defense  of  the  colony,  they  chose 
Bacon  as  their  leader  in  the  Indian  war. 
Berkeley,  however,  proclaimed  the  expedi- 
tion a  treasonable  one,  and  captured  and  tried 
Bacon;  but  he  was  acquitted  by  the  council 
and  reinstated  as  a  member  of  the  body. 
Bacon  meanwhile  opposed  the  governor's 
authority  in  other  ways,  and  especially  his 
arbitrary  and  unjust  taxation  of  the  colon- 
ists, his  inefficient  Indian  policy;  and  his 
measures  of  restricted  suffrage.  The  In- 
dians again  invading  the  colony,  Bacon 
once  more  set  out  to  subdue  them.  This  he 
did,  but  had  also  to  fight  the  governor  and 
his  forces,  who  once  more  had  proclaimed 
Bacon  a  rebel.  In  the  struggle,  Jamestown, 
the  capital  of  the  colony,  was  taken  by 
Bacon  and  burned,  the  governor's  forces 
being  routed,  while  Berkeley  himself  had 
to  take  refuge  on  an  English  ship  in  the 
river.  At  this  juncture  Bacons  however, 
died,  and  the  war  (styled  Bacon's  Re- 
bellion) came  to  an  end.  Its  influence  on 
the  subsequent  American  Revolution  is 
capable  of  being  traced. 

Ba'con,  Roger  (1214-94),  was  an  English 
monk  and  scientist.  He  studied  at  Oxford 
rnd  Paris,  became  a  Franciscan  monk  about 
1250,  and  devoted  himself  to  science.  He 
made  discoveries  that  ignorant  people  con- 
sidered magic.  So  he  was  imprisoned 
twenty  years,  with  one  brief  space  of  free- 
dom. He  wrote  a  Latin  book,  called  Opus 
Majus,  giving  a  comprehensive  view  of  the 
progress  of  human  knowledge.  He  in- 
vented or  improved  the  telescope.  As  a 
scientific  discoverer  he  was  centuries  ahead 
of  his  age. 

Bacte'ria,  an  immense  group  of  ex- 
tremely small  plants  which  have  attracted 
great  attention  on  account  of  their  relation 
to  man  and  his  interests.  They  are  the 


(A)  Bacterium. 


(B)  bacillus  (above),  leptothrix  (below), 
spirillum  (E)  sarcina. 


(C.D) 


smallest  known  of  living  organisms  whose 
adult  bodies  are  sometimes  barely  visible 
under  the  highest  powers  of  the  microscope 


BADEN 


155 


BADGER 


They  multiply  by  division  with  wonderful 
rapidity,  and  occur  in  the  air,  in  the  water, 
in  the  soil,  in  the  bodies  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals. Some  of  them  are  harmless,  some 
are  useful,  and  some  are  exceedingly  dan- 
gerous. They  are  the  agents  of  the  proc- 
esses known  as  fermentation  and  decay,  in- 
ducing fruit  juices,  milk,  etc.  to  sour,  and 
also  pus  to  form  in  connection  with  wounds 
and  decay,  What  is  called  antiseptic  sur- 
gery is  the  use  of  various  means  to  exclude 
bacteria  and  so  prevent  inflammation  and 
decay.  As  producers  of  disease,  bacteria 
are  known  by  various  names,  such  as  bacilli, 
microbes,  germs,  etc.  They  are  the  causes 
of  contagious  diseases,  such  as  pear-blight 
and  melon-wilt  among  plants,  and  such 
human  diseases  as  tuberculosis,  cholera, 
diphtheria,  typhoid  fever,  etc.  From  the 
fact  that  bacteria  are  mostly  ciliated  and 
have  powers  of  locomotion,  they  are  asso- 
ciated in  the  popular  mind  with  animals. 

Baden  (ba'aen),  The  Grand  Duchy  of, 
lies  in  the  southwestern  corner  of  the  Ger- 
man empire,  separated  from  Switzerland  by 
the  Rhine.  It  is  divided  into  a  plain  and 
highlands,  and  of  the  latter  the  Black 
Forest  is  the  most  important  part.  It  is 
drained  by  the  Rhine  and  Danube,  and  so 

¥ours  its  waters  into  two  opposite  seas, 
he  country  is  fertile,  especially  the  Rhine 
valley,  and  rich  in  minerals.  It  is  famous 
for  its  mineral  springs.  Among  its  manu- 
factures the  wooden  clocks  and  straw  plait- 
ings  of  the  Black  Forest  are  known  over  the 
world;  of  clocks  alone  over  seventy  thous- 
and are  made  yearly.  The  manufactures 
of  jewelry  at  Pforzheim  are  the  most  im- 
portant in  Germany.  Baden  has  a  good 
school  system,  a  Protestant  university  at 
Heidelberg  and  a  Catholic  university  at 
Freiburg.  The  population  is  2,010,728,  of 
which  a  large  majority  are  Catholics.  A 
parliament  of  two  houses  limits  the  power 
of  the  sovereign,  whose  home  is  at  Karlsruhe. 
The  earliest  people  of  Baden  were  the 
Alemanni,  and  the  present  house  of  Baden 
began  in  the  nth  century.  At  the  time  of 
the  French  Re  volution ,  the  spirit  of  change 
which  was  abroad  in  all  Germany  passed 
into  Baden.  The  Grand  Duke  Leopold  was 
driven  out,  but  was  restored  to  his  throne 
by  the  aid  of  the  Prussians.  In  1867 
though  Baden  had  sided  with  Austria 
against  Prussia,  it  was  forced  to  enter  the 
North  German  Confederation.  The  troops 
of  Baden  fought  with  distinction  in  the 
Franco-Prussian  War,  and  the  Grand  Duchy 
became  a  part  of  the  restored  German  em- 

Jire.  The  present  grand  duke  is  Frederick 
,  who  came  to  the  throne  in  1852.  The 
area  of  the  duchy  is  5,823  square  miles; 
Karlsruhe  (population,  111,249)  is  the  capi- 
tal; but  Mannheim  (population,  163,693) 
is  the  chief  town. 

Baden-Baden,  a  town  in  the  duchy  of 
Baden,  famous  as  a  summer  resort.  It  lies 


on  the  edge  of  the  Black  Forest.  Though 
its  actual  population  is  only  about  16,200, 
its  summer  visitors r  average  over  50,000, 
and  many  strangers  remain  through  the 
winter.  Its  hot  springs,  which  attract 
many  strangers,  were  known  in  the  time  of 
the  Romans,  Baden-Baden  claiming  to  have 
been  founded  by  Hadrian  in  the  2d  century  < 
In  laying  the  foundations  of  the  summer 
home  of  the  grand  duke,  the  remains  of  a 
vapor  bath  and  a  dungeon  of  that  period 
were  found.  There  are  thirteen  hot  springs, 
with  a  temperature  of  115°  to  150°.  The 
chief  spring  discharges  in  twenty-four  hours 
about  4,200  cubic  feet  of  water.  The  water 
of  these  springs  is  useful  in  skin  diseases, 
gout  and  rheumatism.  The  attraction  of 
Baden-Baden  used  to  be  its  gaming  tables, 
once  the  most  famous  in  Europe,  but  now 
closed,  which,  besides  paying  a  rent  ot 
$70,000,  devoted  as  large  a  sum  to  adorn- 
ing the  promenades  and  public  gardens. 
The  scenery  is  beautiful.  The  picturesque 
ruins  of  the  old  castle  still  crown  the  sum- 
mit of  the  Schlossberg,  from  which  is  had 
a  fine  view  of  the  Rhine  valley. 

Baden-Powell  (bd'den-po'el),  Robert 
Stephenson  Smyth,  British  general  and 
one  of  the  dashing  and  popular  figures  in 
the  Boer  war  (1899-190.1,),  is  the  son  of 
the  late  Rev.  Baden-Powell  of  Oxford,  and 
was  born  February  22,  1857  and  educated 
at  Charterhouse,  London.  In  1876  he 
joined  the  i3th  English  Hussars,  and  served 
as  adjutant  of  that  regiment  in  India, 
Afghanistan  and  South  Africa.  In  1887-89 
he  served  in  South  Africa  as  assistant  mili» 
tary  secretary  on  the  staff  took  part  m  the 
operations  in  Zululand,  for  which  be  was 
mentioned  in  dispatches;  was  employed  for 
a  time  in  Malta;  and  in  the  command  of 
the  native  levies  in  the  war  in  Ashanti  (for 
which  he  received  a  star  and  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel).  In  the 
Matabele  War,  he  was  chief  staff  officer  in 
that  campaign.  In  the  Boer  War, -he  was 
given  command  of  the  5th  Dragoon  Guards, 
and  with  a  force  of  1,200  men  was  besieged 
in  Mafeking,  on  the  Bechuanaland  frontier, 
from  October,  1899  till  the  town  was  re- 
lieved (May  18,  1900),  the  general  display- 
ing great  tact  and  coolness  in  the  conduct 
of  the  defense.  He  afterward  took  part  in 
the  advance  on  Pretoria,  and  was  given 
command  of  the  South  African  police  for 
the  pacification  of  the  country.  He  is  now 
British  Inspector-General  of  Cavalry,  and 
is  the  author  of  a  work  on  Reconnaissance 
and  Scouting,  Vidette  Duty,  Cavalry  in- 
struction, The  Downfall  of  Prempeh,  The 
Matabele  Campaign  and  on  Pig-Sticking 
or  Hog-Hunting.  He  is  a  noted  sportsman, 
actor  and  athlete. 

Badger  (baj'er),  a  burrowing  animal  com- 
mon in  Europe,  Asia  and  America.  It  is 
notable  for  the  flatness  of  its  short,  clumsy 
body.  Its  head  is  pointed  at  the  snout 


BEAR 


156 


BAGDAD 


its  feet  armed  with  long  claws,  used  for 
digging  and  also  for  defense.  All  badgers 
have  heavy  fur  marked  very  distinctly.  They 
are  creatures  of  great  strength  and  courage 
and  wonderful  acuteness.  Left  alone,  they 
are  timid  and  gentle.  They  live  in  burrows 
dug  by  themselves,  are  very  shy  about  being 


BADGER 

seen,  usually  come  forth  only  at  night. 
The  fur  is  valuable,  the  hairs  used  in  mak- 
ing artists'  brushes.  The  European  badger, 
unlike  the  American,  is  fond  of  deep  woods. 
Badger-baiting,  a  low  sport  once  practiced 
in  England,  had  to  do  with  the  arraying 
of  one  badger's  strength  against  that  of  a 
number  of  dogs;  from  this  comes  the  word 
"badgering,"  meaning  persistent  annoying. 
In  Scotland  the  badger  is  sometimes 
domesticated.  The  American  badger  be- 
longs to  the  west,  and  shows  a  fondness  for 
open  prairie.  He  is  about  two  feet  long, 
his  color  greyish  with  irregular  black  bands 
on  the  back,  underneath  whitish,  throat 
and  sides  of  the  face  white,  in  front  of  each 
eye  a  black  patch,  legs  and  feet  black. 
The  markings  of  the  face  remind  one  of  a 
clown.  With  his  strong  claws  he  lays  open 
the  burrows  of  prairie  dogs,  ground  squirrels, 
gophers,  field-mice,  etc.;  feeds  on  these  and 
on  birds,  frogs,  small  snakes,  lizards,  grass- 
hoppers and  other  insects.  He  very  seldom 
shows  himself;  if  ever  caught  a  distance 
from  home  will  flatten  himself  "almost  like 
a  doormat  or  a  turtle.  His  long,  silky,  grey 
hairs,  parted  in  the  middle  down  along  his 
spine,  spread  out  into  the  grass  on  each 
side,  so  that  he  seems  to  be  only  a  slight 
hummock  in  the  prairie."  (American  Ani- 
mals: Stone  and  Cram). 

Baer,  Karl  Ernst  von  (Jon  bar)  (1792- 
1876),  a  distinguished  Russian  naturalist, 
the  founder  of  modern  embryology.  He 
was  educated  in  Germany  and  became  a 
professor  in  the  University  at  Konigsberg, 
where,  in  1828,  he  published  The  Develop- 
ment of  Animals  (Entwickelungsgeschichte 
der  Tiere),  a  set  of  careful  observations  and 
philosophical  reflections  that  are  most 
remarkable  for  clearness  and  thoroughness. 
This  book  made  an  epoch  in  the  science  of 
the  development  of  animal  life. 

Baffin's  Bay,  a  gulf  on  the  northeast 
coast  c*  North  America,  lying  between 


Greenland  and  the  great  islands  northeast 
of  Hudson  Bay.  It  is  open  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  by  Davis  Strait,  and  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean  by  Smith  Sound  and  Lancaster 
Sound.  It  is  about  800  miles  long,  and  on 
an  average  200  miles  in  width.  The  shores 
are  for  the  most  part  lofty  and  steep,  and 
backed  by  snow-clad  mountains.  Baffin's 
Bay  was  discovered  in  1562,  but  was  named 
from  William  Baffin,  who  as  pilot  of  an 
expedition  in  1615  first  explored  it.  It  is 
navigable  for  only  about  four  months  in 
the  summer,  on  account  of  the  ice.  Whal- 
ing and  seafishing  are  carried  on  in  its 
waters. 

Bag'dad,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
the  same  name  in  the  southeast  of  Asiatic 
Turkey.  It  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  Tigris, 
which  is  spanned  by  a  bridge  of  boats  220 
yards  long.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a 
brick  wall  five  miles  around  and  forty  feet 
high,  with  four  gates.  The  place  looks  pic- 
turesque from  the  outside,  but  a  closer  view 
shows  dirty,  narrow  streets  and  houses 
without  windows  in  front.  The  insides  of 
the  buildings,  however,  are  often  gorgeous, 
with  vaulted  ceilings,  rich  mouldings,  in- 
laid mirrors  and  massive  gildings.  The 
mosques  and  bazaars  are  the  most  notice- 
able of  the  buildings.  Though  the  former 
great  traffic  of  Bagdad  has  been  greatly 
cut  off  since  Persia  began  to  trade  with 
Europe  through  Trebizond  on  the  north  and 
by  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  south,  the  bazaars 
are  still  filled  with  the  produce  of  both 
Turkish  and  European  markets,  and  many 
European  houses  keep  agents  in  the  town. 
Red  and  yellow  leather,  silk  and  cotton 
goods  are  rranufactured,  and  dates,  wool, 
grain  and  v.unbac  (a  substitute  for  tobacco) 
are  exported.  Rain  does  not  fall  for  r.:ore 
than  twenty  or  thirty  days  during  the  year.but 
when  the  snows  melt  on  the  hills  of  Armenia, 
the  Tigris  is  filled,  and  floods  often  lay 
waste  the  country.  In  1831  a  flood  de- 
stroyed half  the  town  and  several  thousand 
people.  Bagdad  is  sometimes  visited  with 
the  cholera,  from  which  disease  4,000  people 
perished  daily  for  several  days  in  1830. 

Discoveries  around  Bagdad  have  shown 
that  it  dates  back  to  the  time  of  Nebuchad- 
rezzar. About  754  it  became  the  seat  of 
the  Mohammedan  empire,  and  was  long 
famous  as  the  home  of  the  caliphs.  The 
Caliph  Haroun-al-Raschid  and  his  son  in 
the  gth  century  greatly  improved  the  city 
and  made  it  the  seat  of  Arabic  learning  and 
literature.  It  has  been  frequently  taken  by 
the  Turks  and  Persians.  While  at  one  time 
its  population  was  estimated  at  2,000,000, 
it  is  reported  now  to  have  only  150,000, 
made  up  of  Turks,  Arabs,  Christians,  Jews, 
Armenians,  Hindoos,  Afghans  and  Persians. 
The  province  or  vilayet  of  Bagdad  (in 
Mesopotamia),  lying  between  Persia  and 
Arabia,  includes  the  greater  part  of  the 
basin  of  the  lower  Tigris  and  Euphrates— 


BAGEHOT 


BAINB  RIDGE 


area,  54,540  square  miles.  The  population 
of  the  province  is  about  615,000. 

Bagehot  (bdg'ut  or  baj'ut),  Walter,  a 
noted  English  economic  writer  and  litter- 
ateur, was  born  at  Langport,  Somersetshire, 
February  3,  1826,  and  died  there  March  24, 
1877.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of 
London  in  1848,  studied  law,  and  was  called 
to  the  English  bar.  Instead,  however,  of 
making  law  his  profession,  he  joined  his 
father  in  banking,  and  was  soon  recognized  as 
an  authority  in  finance,  and  widely  known 
as  an  accomplished  writer  and  critic.  From 
1854  to  1863  he  was  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  National  Review,  to  which  he  contributed 
many  able  papers  on  literary,  biographical 
and  theological  subjects.  At  the  Review's 
decease  he  wrote  for  The  Fortnightly,  and 
between  the  years  1860  and  1877  was  editor 
of  The  Economist.  He  published  a  number 
of  widely-known  books,  among  which  are 
a  text-book  on  The  English  Constitution; 
Lombard  Street,  a  description  of  the  money 
market;  Physics  and  Politics,  "a  work  which 
does  for  human  society  what  the  Origin  of 
Species  does  for  organic  life;"  and  three 
volumes  entitled  respectively,  Literary 
Studies,  Economic  Studies  and  Biographical 
Studies.  The  latter  was  not  published  until 
after  Bagehot's  death,  when  it  appeared, 
edited  by  R.  H.  Hutton. 

Bag'pipe,  a  wind  instrument  still  com- 
mon in  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  and  in 
use  in  some  other  countries.  At  different 
times  it  has  been  used  in  all  parts  of  Europe. 
It  is  a  large  bag  made  of  leather,  usually 
covered  with  cloth,  having  a  mouth  tube 
by  which  the  player  fills  the  bag  with  his 
breath.  There  is  a  pipe  with  finger-holes 
upon  which  the  tune  is  played,  and  also 
three  other  pipes  called  drones,  each  of 
which  constantly  sounds  a  single  low  tone. 
Sometimes  a  bellows  is  used  instead  of  the 
piper's  breath  to  blow  up  the  bag.  The 
bagpipe  is  a  very  ancient  instrument.  It 
is  spoken  of  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  was 
used  by  the  Egyptians,  Greeks  and  Romans. 
It  is  the  national  instrument  of  the  Scottish 
Highlanders,  pipers  being  attached  to  their 
regiments  and  usually  present  at  their 
festivals. 

Baha'mas,  a  chain  of  islands  belonging 
to  Great  Britain,  stretching  nearly  600 
miles  in  a  northwesterly  direction  from 
Hayti  to  Florida.  There  are  twenty-nine 
islands,  66 1  islets  and  2,387  reefs,  occupy- 
ing an  area  of  5,450  square  miles.  The 
population  of  the  islands  is  about  58,175, 
of  whom  6,500  are  Europeans.  Many 
woods  and  valuable  fruits  grow  there,  and 
the  main  trade  is  in  oranges,  pineapples, 
salt  and  sponges.  The  Bahamas  were  the 
first  land  discovered  by  Columbus  (1492), 
but  the  exact  spot  of  his  landing  is  doubt- 
ful. Cat  Island  and  Watling's  Island  or 
San  Salvador  each  claim  the  honor.  Nas- 
sau is  the  capital.  The  constitution  calls 


for  a  governor,  an  executive  council  of 
nine  and  a  representative  assembly  of 
twenty-nine. 

Bahia  (bd-e'a)  or  San  Salvador  is  the 
capital  of  the  state  of  Bahia  in  Brazil,  and 
the  second  city  in  the  republic.  It  lies 
on  the  east  shore  of  the  Bay  of  All  Saints, 
one  of  the  finest  bays  in  America.  It  is 
built  partly  on  the  shore  and  partly  on 
high  ground,  and  the  two  parts  of  the  city 
are  connected  by  steps  and  a  hydraulic 
elevator.  It  has  a  university,  exchange, 
arsenal  and  a  national  dockyard,  over  sixty 
churches  and  many  other  public  institu- 
tions. It  has  a  railroad  to  the  interior  and 
connection  with  several  cities  by  submarine 
telegraph.  It  exports  sugar,  coffee,  rice, 
cocoanuts,  cotton,  dyestuffs,  fancy  woods 
and  diamonds.  Bahia  is  the  oldest  city 
in  Brazil.  The  bay  was  discovered  in 
1503  by  Amerigo  Vespucci,  and  the  city 
was  founded  by  a  Portuguese  navigator, 
named  Correa,  in  1510.  It  is  visited  by 
yellow  fever  and  other  epidemics  yearly. 
Population  is  about  230,000,  and  that  of 
Bahia  state  is  2,117,956,  with  an  area  of 
164,643  square  miles. 

Baikal  (bi-kal'},  Lake,  a  large  and  very 
deep  body  of  fresh  water  in  Siberia,  Rus- 
sia in  Asia,  lying  north  of  Mongolia  and 
the  vast  range  of  the  Altai  Mountains. 
It  is  situated  in  the  Department  of  Irkutsk, 
in  latitudes  51°  to  55°  N.;  longitudes  103°  to 
110°  E.,  and  is  fed  by  numerous  streams 
from  the  Baikal  Mountains,  a  spur  of  the 
Altai  Range.  It  has  several  outlets,  the 
chief  being  the  Angara  River,  a  confluent 
of  the  Yenisei.  The  Trans-Siberian  Rail- 
road which  connects  St.  Petersburg  via 
Manchuria  with  the  ports  of  Vladivostok, 
Dalny  and  Port  Arthur  on  the  Pacific, 
formerly  crossed  Lake  Baikal,  the  trains 
being  transported  across  the  lake  on  an 
ice-breaking  ferry-boat.  The  area  of  the 
lake,  which  is  crescent-shaped,  is  estimated 
at  13,000  square  miles,  with  a  shore  line 
1,000  miles  in  length.  Its  depth  off  its 
southwest  shore  is  close  upon  4,500  feet, 
over  2,800  feet  below  ihe  level  of  the  ocean. 
It  abounds  in  fish,  including  salmon,  stur- 
geon and  fresh-water  seals.  Steamboats 
have  of  recent  years  begun  to  develop 
trade  on  the  shores  of  the  lake,  which  are 
rich  in  mineral  springs  and  petroleum  wells. 
The  region  is  subject  to  earthquakes. 

Bainbridge,  Commodore  William,  an 
American  naval  officer,  who  did  staunch 
and  loyal  service  during  the  War  of  1812, 
was  born  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  May  7,  1774, 
and  died  at  Philadelphia,  July  28,  1833. 
His  career  as  a  naval  commander  dates 
from  1798,  when  the  United  States  navy 
was  recognized.  Early  in  the  century  he 
was  actively  engaged  in  the  Mediterranean  in 
successive  command  of  the  frigates  George 
Washington,  Essex  and  Philadelphia,  was 
once  captured  by  the  French,  and  had  to 


BAIRD 


158 


BA.KER 


surrender  his  ship  fai  the  United  States 
war  with  Tripoli.  When  the  War  of  1812 
broke  out,  he  was  <  given  command  of  a 
squadron,  consisting  of  the  Constitution, 
Essex  and  Hornet,  which  sailed  from  Bos- 
ton in  that  year.  When  cruising  off  the 
coast  of  Brazil  toward  the  close  of  1812, 
he  captured  jfhe  British  frigate,  Java,  of 
49  guns,  for*  which -Congress  voted  him  a 
gold  medal,  together  with  a  share  in  the 
prize-money.  During  the  remaining  months 
of  the  war  he  had  charge  of  the  Charles- 
town  Navy  Yard;  and  from  1815  to  1821 
he  was  again  in  command  of  a  squadron 
at  sea.  Later  on,  Commodore  Bainbridge 
acted  as  president  of  the  board  of  navy 
commissioners. 

Baird,  Spencer  Fuller  ton,  a  noted 
naturalist,  was  born  at  Reading,  Pennsyl- 
vania, February  3,  1823.  He  was  educated 
at  Dickinsorf  College,  Carlisle,  and  was  after- 
ward professor  of  natural  science  in  the 
institution.-'; He  was  secretary  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  at  Washington,  and 
afterward  commissioner  of  fish  and  fisheries. 
He  wrote  many  papers  on  birds,  reptiles, 
fishes,  etc.,  and  under  his  direction  the 
National  Museum  was  begun  in  1850. 
In  connection  with  other  editors  he  pub- 
lished The  Birds  of  North  America,  The 
Mammals  of  North  America  and  a  History 
of  the  Birds  of  North  America  in  five  vol- 
umes. He  died  at  Wood's  Holl,  Mass., 
August  19,  1887. 

Baireuth  or  Bayreuth  (bi'roit'),  famous 
as  the  home  of  Wagner  and  Jean  Paul 
Richter,  is  a  city  of  Bavaria,  on  the  Red 
Main.  Its  population  is  about  30,000. 
The  most  interesting  sight  in  Bayreuth 
is  the  national  festival  theater,  designed 
by  Richard  Wagner,.,  and  opened  in  1876 
with  a  performance  of  his  Ring  of  the  Nib- 
elungen.  This  theater  is  devoted  to  music; 
and  the  audience  is  expected  to  be  silent 
and  refrain  from  applause  during  the  per- 
formances. 

Baker,  Alfred,  M.  A.,  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  University  of  Toronto 
since  1887.  Born  in  Toronto,  of  Yorkshire 
parents.  Was  educated  at  Toronto  Gram- 
mar School  and  University  of  Toronto. 
Appointed  mathematical  tutor  in  Univer- 
sity College,  Toronto  in  1875;  registrar, 
1880;  dean  of  residence,  1884;  elected  by 
graduates  a  member  of  Senate  of  University 
of  Toronto  1887-1906,  in  last  year  be- 
coming a  member  ex-officio.  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  Canada;  member  of 
the  Society  Mathematique  de  France  and 
of  the  American  Mathematical  Society; 
president  of  the  Ontario  Educational  As- 
sociation 1895;  president  of  Section  in 
Royal  Society  of  Canada,  1905;  member 
of  Executive  Committee  British  Empire 
League  in  Canada  and  of  Navy  League. 
In  1904,  in.  conjunction  with  Di.  Seath, 
he  reorganized  geometrical  teaching  in  the 


schools  of  Ontario.  He  has  published  ar- 
ticles relating  to  Geometry  of  Position,  Quat- 
ernions and  Foundations  of  Geometry,  in  pro- 
ceedings of  Royal  Society  of  Canada,  the 
last  named  article  being  translated  into  Jap- 
anese; also  elementary  treatises  on  Analytic 
and  Synthetic  Geometry,  Trigonometry  and 
Mechanics. 

Baker,  Edward  Dickinson,  an  Ameri- 
can senator  and  soldier.  He  was  born  in 
London  in  1811,  and  came  to  the  United 
States  when  three  years  old,  living  first 
at  Philadelphia  and  then  at  Belleville, 
Illinois.  He  practiced  law  in  Springfield, 
Illinois,  when  he  was  elected  to  the  legis- 
lature, state  senate  and  finally  to  the 
house  of  representatives.  In  1846  he 
resigned  his  seat  in  Congress  to  become 
colonel  of  a  regiment  of  volunteers  from 
Illinois  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  was  pres- 
ent at  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  com- 
manded a  brigade  at  Cerro  Gordo,  He 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate 
from  Oregon  in  1860.  At  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  appointed 
colonel  of  a  regiment  he  had  raised  in 
New  York  and  Philadelphia.  He  was 
killed  when  in  command  'of  a  brigade  at 
the  battle  of  Ball's  Bluff,  October  ai, 
1861. 

Baker,  Sir  Samuel  White,  an  African 
traveler,  was  born  in  London  in  1821,  and 
educated  there  and  in  Germany.  He  super- 
intended the  building  of  the  railroad 
which  connects  the  Danube  with  the 
Black  Sea.  In  1860,  with  his  wife,  a 
Hungarian  lady  of  great  talent,  he  entered 
upon  an  exploring  journey  to  discover 
the  sources  of  the  Nile.  Starting  from 
Khartum,  with  an  escort  of  90  men,  29 

camels,  horses 
and  asses  and 
three  large 
boats,  he  as- 
cended the 
White  Nile. 
He  met  the 
explorers  Speke 
and  Grant,  who 
reported  their 
own  discovery 
of  the  Lake 
Victoria,  and 
told  him  of  an- 
other large  lake 
call?d  by  the 

"at.ives     Luta 

Nzige.  He  re- 
solved  to  reach 
this  lake,  and 

after  many  adventures,  on  March  4,  1864, 
from  the  top  of  lofty  cliffs,  he  saw  the  vast 
inland  sea,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  Albert  Nyanza.  During  1869-73  he 
commanded  an  expedition  organized  by 
the  khedive  of  Egypt  to  suppress  slavery 
ana  to  annex  the  equatorial  regions  olt 


sia  SAMUEL  WHITE  BAKER 


BAKING  POWDER 


159 


BALBOA 


the  Nile  Basin.  He  published  The  Rifle 
and  the  Hound  in  Ceylon,  The  Albert  Nyanza 
as  I  Saw  It,  Ismaila  and  Cast  up  by  the  Sea. 
He  died  at  Newton  Abbot,  England,  Dec- 
ember 30,  1893. 

Baking  Powder,  a  combination  chem- 
ically prepared,  of  tartaric  acid  and  bicar- 
bonate of  soda,  mixed  with  flour  for  the 
making  of  bread,  biscuits,  cakes,  etc. 
The  powder,  when  water  is  added,  causes 
the  bread  to  rise,  as  in  the  olden  method 
of  making  bread  by  the  fermenting  of 
yeast.  Some  bakers  substitute  the  bicar- 
bonate of  ammonia  for  that  of  soda,  which 
is  unobjectionable;  though  the  use  of  alum 
in  lieu  of  tartaric  acid  is  objectionable 
if  one  desires  to  have  wholesome  bread. 

Baku  (bd-kod'),  a  province  of  Russia, 
in  Transcaucasia,  situated  on  the  western 
shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  southeast  of 
Tiflis  and  north  of  the  rivers  Kur  and 
Aras,  the  latter  separating  Russia  in  Asia 
from  Persia.  Area,  15,061  square  miles; 
population  of  province  (1910),  1,013,900, 
and  of  the  city  (in  1909),  the  seat  of  ad- 
ministration for  the  Transcaucasian  re- 
gion, 177,777.  The  province  in  1806  passed 
from  Persian  to  Russian  control,  though 
the  population  largely  remains  Tartar 
and  Armenian  rather  than  Russian.  There 
is  a  good  harbor  at  the  port  of  Baku,  of 
importance  to  Russia  as  a  naval  station 
on  the  Caspian  Sea  and  utilized  as  ship- 
building yards,  as  well  as  a  pert  for  the 
shipment  of  petroleum,  the  chief  product 
of  this  region,  and  the  yield  of  which  is 
estimated  at  about  nine  million  tons  an- 
nually. Just  north  of  the  port  is  the 
great  oil-well  emporium  and  refineries, 
known  as  the  Black  Town,  where,  be- 
sides the  crude  oil  works,  are  a  number  of 
chemical  works,  mills  and  tobacco  fac- 
tories. Much  of  the  trade  of  Persia  passes 
into  Russia  and  western  Europe  through 
the  port  of  Baku.  Here  spouting  wells 
of  petroleum  may  be  seen  all  about,  many 
destructive  fires  frequently  occurring  from 
the  easily  igniting  gases  as  well  as  from 
the  large  areas  of  oil-saturated  land. 

Ba'laam,  a  Midianite,  the  son  of  Peor, 
who  was  hired  by  Balak,  King  of  Moab, 
to  curse  the  children  of  Israel  while  the 
latter  were  encamped  in  the  land  of  Moab 
on  their  way  to  the  Promised  Land.  Al- 
though Balaam  made  three  attempts  to 
pronounce  the  curse  desired  by  Balak, 
he  was  each  time  constrained  by  the 
Lord  to  bless  instead  of  curse.  Balaam 
was  afterward  killed  by  the  Israelites  in 
a  war  with  the  Midianites.  See  Numbers 
xxn-xxiv,  also  xxxi. 

Balaklava  (bd'ld-kla'va),  a  small  Rus- 
sian fishing  village  in  the  Crimea,  near 
Sebastopol.  In  the  Crimean  War  the 
British  made  it  their  headquarters  and 
began  building  a  railroad  to  Sebastopol. 
It  was  attacked  by  the  Russians,  October 


*5,  1854;  but  they  were  repulsed.  During 
this  attack  the  famous  charge  of  the  light 
brigade  was  made.  Upon  a  probably 
mistaken  order,  Lord  Cardigan  led  his 
light  brigade  of  600  men  against  a  large 
force  of  Russians.  With  great  bravery 
they  cut  their  way  to  the  Russian  guns, 
but  finding  that  they  could  do  nothing 
there,  turned  and  cut  their  way  back 
again.  Only  150  men  survived  the  brilliant 
but  fruitless  charge.  Tennyson's  ode  in 
commemoration  of  it  is  well  known.  The 
English  left  the  town  in  June,  1856. 

Balanced  Ration,  the  daily  food  of 
farm  animals  containing  the  proportion 
of  tissue-producing  and  heat-producing 
food-elements  calculated  to  give  the  best 
results  under  different  conditions  of  de- 
velopment and  requirements  of  work. 
The  first  sort  of  foods  are  the  nitrogenous 
(protein)  foods,  of  which  egg-albumen 
and  wheat  gluten  are  familiar  types  drawn 
from  human  foods.  The  second  includes 
the  carbonaceous  foods,  as  starches  and 
sugars  (carbohydrates)  and  fat,  or,  more 
strictly  speaking,  materials  soluble  in 
ether  (ether  extract).  Protein  can  also 
furnish  heat,  but,  being  so  much  more 
expensive,  the  feeder's  problem  is  to  add 
as  much  carbonaceous  food  as  will  sup- 
ply the  ^  necessary  heat  and  also,  if  the 
animal  is  intended  for  food,  as  can  be 
converted  into  fat.  The  proportion  of 
protein  to  heat-producing  elements  is 
called  the  nutritive  ratio.  When  the 
proportion  of  heat-producing  elements  is 
large,  the  ratio  is  said  to  be  wide;  when 
small,  it  is  narrow.  Thus  timothy 
hay  and  oat-straw,  with  proportions  of 
i  :  16.7  and  i  :  34,  are  examples  of  wide 
ratios.  Soy  beans,  1:1.9,  have  a  narrow 
ratio.  Corn,  1:10,  has  a  medium  ratio. 
For  growing  cattle  a  balanced  ration  is 
about  1:4.5;  f°r  fattening  cattle,  1:6;  for 
heavily  worked  horses,  i :  6 ;  for  light- 
worked  horses,  1:7.  It  is  no  more  im- 
portant to  know  the  amount  of  these  ma- 
terials in  a  ration  than  to  know  the  per- 
centage of  their  digestibility.  The  re- 
sults of  the  many  analyses  and  experi- 
ments in  feeding  have  been  embodied  in 
the  Wolff-Lehmann  feeding  standards, 
which  form  the  basis  of  all  calculations 
of  the  feeding  value  of  different  food  com- 
pounds used  by  stockmen.  See  Henry's 
Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Balboa  (bal-bo'd),  Vasco  Nunez  de,  a 
Spanish  conqueror,  was  born  in  1475. 
He  crossed  the  ocean  and  began  farm- 
ing in  St.  Domingo,  but  fell  into  debt 
and  to  escape  his  creditors  smuggled  him- 
self on  board  a  ship  and  joined  an  expedi- 
tion to  Darien  in  1510.  An  insurrection 
which  took  place  there  gave  him  the  chief 
place  in  the  new  colony.  Rumors  reached 
him  here  of  a  great  western  ocean,  and 
in  1513  he  set  out  in  search  of  it.  On  Sep- 


BALDER 


160 


BALFOUR 


tember  25,  1513,  he  first  saw  the  Pacific 
Ocean  from  a  peak  of  Darien.  Owing  to 
intrigues  against  him,  Balboa  was  obliged 
to  give  up  his  command,  but  undertook 
many  successful  expeditions  while  in  a 
subordinate  position.  Davilla,1  however, 
who  succeeded  him  as  commander,  envious 
of  his  success,  accused  him  of  plotting  a 
rebellion,  and  had  him  beheaded  in  1517. 

Bal'der,  the  beautiful  god  of  light  in  the 
Norse  mythology.  He  was  the  son  of 
Odin  and  Frigg  and  was  beloved  of  gods, 
men  and  nature.  Through  a  charm  Bal- 
der was  made  incapable  of  injury  from 
any  object  save  the  mistletoe.  Loke, 
the  god  of  fire,  jealous  of  Balder,  found 
out  through  deceit  the  one  thing  which 
could  injure  him,  and  persuaded  the  blind 
god  Hoder  to  throw  at  him  a  weapon 
made  of  mistletoe.  Balder  was  slain,  and 
the  twilight  of  the  gods  began.  A  mes- 
senger was  sent  to  the  lower  world  to  beg 
for  the  return  of  Balder.  The  promise 
was  given  that  he  would  be  permitted 
to  return  if  all  things,  both  animate  and 
inanimate,  would  weep  for  him.  Loke, 
in  the  disguise  of  a  giantess,  refused  to 
weep  and  so  Balder  remained  in  the  lower 
world.  See  Anderson's  Norse  Mythology, 
and  Bulfinch's  Age  of  Fable. 

Bald'win,  James  Mark  (1861),  American 
psychologist,  was  born  at  Columbia,  S.  C., 
in  1884  graduated  from  Princeton,  and 
subsequently  studied  at  Leipsic,  Berlin 
and  Tubingen.  In  1886-87  he  was  in- 
structor in  German  in  his  alma  mater, 
and  in  the  two  following  years  he  was 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Lake  Forest 
University,  occupying  the  same  chair 
from  1889  to  1903  in  the  University  of 
Toronto,  Canada.  Subsequently  he  de- 
voted himself  to  psychological  studies, 
gaining  prominence  in  the  science  and 
making  a  number  of  contributions  to  its 
varied  branches;  while  at  the  same  time 
filling  the  chair  of  psychology  at  Prince- 
ton. In  conjunction  with  Professor  Cat- 
tell  of  Columbia  he  founded  the  Psychologi- 
cal Review,  and  in  1901  became  editor- 
in-chief  of  the  Dictionary  of  Philosophy 
and  Psychology.  His  other  publications, 
besides  his  translations  from  French  and 
German,  include  A  Handbook  of  Psychology, 
in  two  volumes  (1888),  Elements  of  Psychol- 
ogy (1893),  The  Story  of  the  Mind  and 
Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations  in  Men- 
tal Development  (1897-98).  He  made  many 
original  discoveries  and  reasearches  in  his 
own  special  department  of  work,  and  con- 
tributed a  number  of  articles  to  reviews 
and  encyclopaedias. 

Baldwin,  Hon.'  Robert,  born  in  city 
of  Toronto,  1804,  of  Irish  descent.  His 
father,  the  Hon.  W.  W.  Baldwin,  was  a 
member  of  the  Parliament  of  Upper  Canada. 
Practiced  law  very  successfully  and  profita- 
bly from  1825  to  1848.  First  elected  to 


the  Upper  Canada  Legislature  in  1829, 
The  executive, '  although  in  a  minority, 
rejected  year  after  year  the  legislation 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly.  He  be- 
came the  champion  of  responsible  govern- 
ment. Lord  Durham  supported  him  and 
oligarchical  rule  was  doomed.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  executive  council  in 
1836.  In  1840  he  became  solicitor  general. 
In  1842  be  became  attorney-general  in 
Upper  Canada.  Mr.  Lafontaine  was  at- 
torney-general in  Lower  Canada.  Hence, 
the  name  of  "Baldwin-Lafontaine  Govern- 
ment.'- Held  the  position  until  1851. 
Died  1858.  Called  the  father  of  respon- 
sible government  in  Canada. 

Bal'ear'ic  Isles  (bal'e-ar'ik),  a  group 
of  islands  lying  off  the  Mediterranean 
coast  of  Spain.  They  are  Majorca  or 
Mallorca,  Minorca,  Iviza,  Formentera,  Cab- 
rera and  several  islets.  From  1232  to  1344 
they  formed  the  kingdom  of  Mallorca, 
but  in  1349  were  united  with  the  kingdom 
of  Aragon.  They  now  form  a  Spanish 
province,  Balleares,  with  an  area  of  1,935 
square  miles,  where  vines,  olives  and  fruit 
trees  are  abundant.  Port  Mahon,  in  Min- 
orca, is  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  Europe. 
The  Phoenicians  and  Greeks  visited  the 
islands  in  early  times.  Later  they  were 
subject  to  Carthage,  but  were  added  to  the 
Roman  empire  in  123  B.  C.  The  natives 
were  famous  slingers  and  their  name, 
Baleares,  comes  from  the  Greek  word 
meaning  "to  throw."  Population,  311,649. 

Balfe  (half),  Michael  William,  a  mu- 
sician and  composer  (born  1808,  died 
1870).  He  studied  under  various  mas- 
ters, and  in  1826  wrote  his  first  work, 
La  Perouse,  which  was  performed  at  Milan. 
In  the  same  year  he  sang  in  Italian  opera 
at  Paris,  and  later  conducted  the  Lon- 
don Italian  opera.  His  most  successful 
operas  are  The  Bohemian  Girl,  The  Rose 
of  Castile  and  The  Talisman.  Many  of 
his  songs  are  favorites. 

Balfour  (bal'foor},  The  Right  Hon. 
Arthur  James,  an  English  statesman  and 
prime-minister  (1902-05),  was  born  July 
25,  1848.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge 
University,  and  in  1874  entered  parlia- 
ment as  a  member  of  the  Conservative 
party,  and  during  1878-80  he  was  private 
secretary  to  his  uncle,  Lord  Salisbury. 
He  was  president  of  the  local  government 
board  (1885),  secretary  for  Scotland  (1886) 
and  chief  secretary  for  Ireland  (1887), 
and  then  filled  the  important  position  of 
leader  of  the  Conservative  party  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  In  July,  1902,  on  the 
retirement  of  Lord  Salisbury,  Mr.  Bal- 
four became  prime  minister,  a  post  he 
held  until  the  close  of  1905,  when  he  re- 
signed the  premiershp  and  was  succeeded 
by  the  Liberal  leader,  Sir  Henry  Camp- 
bell-Bannerman.  He  is  a  fine  scholar, 
I  a  man  of  letters,  a  metaphysician  and  a 


BALFOUR 


161 


BALLAD 


brilliant  debater.  He  has  shown  himself 
cool,  clear-sighted,  quick  to  think,  speak 
and  act.  He  is  the  author  of  quite  a  well- 
known  work  call- 
ed a  Defense  of 
Philosophic 
Doubt.  Besides 
this  work  he 
has  published 
(1905)  a  vol- 
ume of  essays 
and  addresses. 
During  the  Euro- 
pean War  he  was 
first  lord  of  the 
admiralty,  later 
foreign  secretary 
and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  com- 
mission sent  by 
ARTHUR  JAMES  BALFOUR  the  Allies  to  the 

United  States. 

Balfour,  Francis  Maitland  (1851- 
1882),  brother  of  Arthur.  A  highly  gifted 
young  naturalist,  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  His  investigations,  es- 
pecially in  the  line  of  embryology,  were 
of  great  importance.  Between  1879  and 
1882  he  brought  together  all  that  was 
known  about  the  developmental  stages 
of  animals  in  his  Comparative  Embryology, 
a  work  of  almost  priceless  value  to  students 
of  embryology.  In  1882  he  and  his  single 
guide  were  killed  on  the  Alps  by  slipping 
while  attempting  to  climb  one  of  the 
spurs  of  Mont  Blanc. 

Balfour,  Rt.  Hon,  Gerald  W.,  an- 
other nephew  of  the  late  Marquis  of  Salis- 
bury and  brother  of  Arthur  J.  Balfour, 
entered  the  English  Parliament  in  1885, 
and  in  the  third  Salisbury  administration 
he  was  appointed  chief  secretary  for  Ire- 
land, having  much  to  do  with  the  passing 
of  the  Irish  Land  Bill  (1895)  and  the  ex- 
tension of  local  government  to  Ireland 
in  1898,  including  the  creating  of  a  depart- 
ment of  agriculture  and  technical  instruc- 
tion on  the  island.  Subsequently,  he 
was  president  of  the  English  Board  of 
Trade.. 

Baliol  (bd'ti-ul  or  bal'-yul),  John,  king  of 
Scotland,  was  born  in  1249.  Through  his 
mother  he  was  connected  with  the  royal 
family,  and  on  the  death  of  the  heir  to  the 
throne,  the  Maid  of  Norway,  he  became 
a  competitor  for  the  throne  with  Robert 
Bruce.  The  question  was  left  to  Edward 
I  of  England  to  decide.  He  chose  John 
Baliol,  who  swore  obedience  to  him  as 
his  feudal  lord.  In  consequence  of  his 
oath,  he  soon  found  he  had  no  real  power, 
but  had  to  endure  whatever  Edward  I 
put  upon  him.  In  1295  he  made  a  treaty 
with  Prance,  which  was  then  at  war  with 
England.  Immediately  Edward  invaded 
Scotland,  and  taking  Baliol  prisoner,  com- 
pelled him  to  give  up  his  csowti.  In  1302 


he  was  allowed  to  settle  on  some  estates 
of  his  in  Normandy,  where  he  died  in  1315. 

Balize.     See  BELIZE. 

Balkan  (bdl-kan')  (the  ancient  Hasmus), 
a  mountain  range  that  separates  the  waters 
of  the  lower  Danube  from  those  that  flow 
into  the  ^Egean  Sea.  The  name  is  also 
given  to  the  whole  mountain  system  from 
the  Adriatic  to  the  Black  Sea.  The  main 
chain  has  an  average  height  of  4,000  or 
5,000  feet,  and  rises  in  various  parts  to  a 
height  of  7,000  to  8,000  feet.  Toward 
the  east  it  is  broken  into  a  number  of 
chains  and  ridges  running  parallel  to  each 
other.  Scardus,  the  highest  mountain, 
is  9,700  feet  above  the  sea.  Most  of  the 
rivers  on  the  northern  side  flow  into  the 
Black  Sea,  while  those  on  the  south  fall 
into  the  Mediterranean.  There  are  many 
passes  through  the  mountains,  but  most 
of  them  are  very  difficult  to  traverse. 
The  mountains  are  mostly  of  granite-like 
rock. 

Balkan  Peninsula,  that  part  of  Europe 
having  the  Adriatic  and  Mediterranean 
Sea's  on  one  side  and  the  ^Egean  and  Black 
Seas  on  the  other.  It  includes  Rumania, 
Bulgaria,  Servia,  Turkey,  Greece,  Monte- 
negro and  Herzegovina.  Nearly  the  whole 
of  the  peninsula  is  mountainous,  the  chief 
plains  being  those  along  the  Danube  River. 
There  is  great  variety  of  climate,  both 
as  to  the  range  of  temperature  and  the 
amount  o.f  rainfall.  Much  of  the  land 
in  the  east  and  south  depends  upon  irriga- 
tion to  make  it  productive.  The  indus- 
tries are  chiefly  cattle-raising,  agricul- 
ture, fruit-growing  and  manufacturing,  the 
latter  being  carried  on  largely  by  hand. 
The  country  is  rich  in  minerals,  but  min- 
ing is  little  developed  because  of  the  re- 
pressive government  to  which  the  people 
were  so  long  subjected.  The  total  popu- 
lation is  about  17,000,^00,  and  nearly 
half  of  the  people  are  Slavs. 

Ball,  Sir  Robert  Stawell,  British  astron- 
omer, one  of  the  most  popular  scientific 
lecturers  of  the  day,  and  one  of  the  few  who 
can  invest  abstruse  subjects  with  fascinat- 
ing interest.  He  was  born  at  Dublin  on 
July  ist,  1840.  He  has  been  successively 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal  Irish 
College  of  Science,  astronomer  royal  for 
Ireland  and  Lowndean  professor  of  as- 
tronomy and  geometry  at  Cambridge. 
His  writings  include  an  Atlas  of  Astronomy, 
Story  of  the  Heavens,  Time  and  Tide  and 
The  Story  of  the  Sun. 

Bal'lad,  originally  a  song  sung  or  acted 
in  a  dance.  The  name  is  used  for  any 
simple  narrative  poem  of  short  stanzas 
in  which  a  story  is  told  in  a  forcible,  straight- 
forward manner.  Ballads  are  found  among 
all  European  nations,  and  belong  to  times 
when,  in  the  nation  to  which  they  belong, 
life  was  simple  and  civilization  not  so  far 
advanced  as  English  civilization  is  at 


BALLARAT 


162 


BALTIMORE 


present.  Percy's  Rehques  if  Ancient  Eng- 
lish Poetry  and  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Min- 
strelsy of  the  Scottish  Border  are  famous 
collections  of  these  old  English  and  Scottish 
ballads.  The  ballad  of  Chevy  Chase  is 
probably  the  most  famous  in  the  English 
language.  The  story  of  Robin  Hood  was 
also  a  favorite  subject  of  popular  song, 
and  has  been  sung  in  various  forms. 

Bal'larat',  a  large  Australian  town,  next 
in  importance  to  Melbourne,  is  in  the 
province  of  Victoria.  It  owes  its  rise  to 
the  discovery  of  the  goldfields  there  in 
1851,  being  the  oldest  but  one  of  the  gold 
fields  of  the  colony.  It  is  in  the  center  of 
one  of  the  richest  gold  fields  of  the  world. 
The  largest  gold-nugget  ever  discovered 
was  found  here  in  1858.  It  was  sold  for 
over  $50,000.  In  1910  about  16,553  men 
were  employed  in  the  gold  fields  of  Victoria 
colony,  2,000  of  whom  were  Chinese.  Popu- 
lation 50,000. 

Balliol  (bdl'-yul)  College,  Oxford,  is  at 
present  probably  the  most  important  of  the 
colleges  of  Oxford  University.  It  was  found- 
ed about  the  middle  of  the  i3th  century. 
The  greatest  of  its  masters  in  the  middle 
ages  was  John  Wiclif ;  and,  perhaps,  in  the 
igth  century  Jowett  and  Caird.  Among 
poets,  Balliol  College  has  educated  Southey, 
Matthew  Arnold,  Clough  and  Swinburne. 
The  philosophers,  T.  H.  Green  and  Sir 
William  Hamilton,  were  men  of  Balliol; 
as  was  the  late  Archbishop  Temple.  There 
are  about  600  names  of  members  on  the 
books. 

Balloon.     See  AERONAUTICS. 

Ball's  Bluff,  a  bluff  on  the  Virginia 
side  of  the  Potomac,  thirty  miles  from 
Washington,  was  the  scene  of  a  battle  in 
the  Civil  War,  October  22,  1861.  A 
small  force  of  Federal  troops  was  surrounded 
by  a  larger  Confederate  force.  The  Federals 
were  defeated,  and  a  large  number  were 
killed  or  captured,  among  the  killed  being 
the  commander,  Col.  E.  D.  Baker.  See 
BAKER,  EDWARD  DICKINSON. 

Bal'moral,  a  home  of  the  English  royal 
family  in  Scotland.  It  is  926  feet  above 
the  sea,  on  a  plain  that  slopes  from  a  height 
of  1,437  feet  to  the  River  Dee,  and  lies  45 
miles  west  of  Aberdeen.  In  1852  the 
prince  consort,  husband  of  the  late  Queen 
Victoria,  bought  the  estate  for  $160,000, 
and  built  a  new  granite  castle  in  the  Scottish 
baronial  style,  which  cost  about  $500,000. 
The  estate  now  includes  about  25,000  acres. 

Baltic  (bal'tik),  Battle  of  the,  a  naval 
battle  between  the  English  and  Danish 
fleets  in  the  harbor  of  Copenhagen,  April  2, 
1 80 1.  The  English  fleet,  under  Sir  Hyde 
Parker,  with  Lord  Nelson  second  in  com- 
mand, was  ordered  to  the  Baltic  to  break 
up.  the  alliance  just  formed  between  Rus- 
sia, Prussia,  Denmark  and  Sweden.  Nel- 
son led  the  attack,  and  when  Parker  gave 
the  signal  to  stop  the  fight,  Nelson  put  the 


glass  to  his  blind  eye,  and  said  he  could 
not  see  the  signal.  He  continued  the  at- 
tack and  captured  or  destroyed  nearly  the 
whole  Danish  fleet.  His  victory  helped 
greatly  to  break  up  the  alliance. 

Baltic  Sea  is  the  great  inland  sea,  bor- 
dered by  Denmark,  Germany,  Russia, 
Finland  and  Sweden.  It  is  nearly  900 
miles  long,  from  100  to  200  miles  broad, 
and  40  to  140  fathoms  deep,  and  has  an 
area,  including  the  Gulfs  of  Finland  and 
Bothnia,  of  184,496  square  miles,  over 
12,000  square  miles  being  occupied  by 
islands.  The  great  number  of  islands, 
the  sudden  changes  of  wind  and  the  violent 
storms  make  navigation  very  dangerous. 
The  main  gulfs  are  those  of  Bothnia,  Fin- 
land and  Riga.  About  250  rivers  flow 
into  it,  which  makes  the  sea  much  more 
nearly  fresh  water  than  other  bodies  of 
salt  water.  For  this  reason  it  freezes 
easily,  so  that  navigation  is  interfered 
with  from  three  to  five  months  in  the  year. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Oder,  Vistula, 
Niemen,  Duna,  Narva  and  Neva.  The 
shipping-trade  is  large,  the  exports  of  the 
countries  around  the  Baltic  being  timber, 
hides,  tallow  and  grain.  The  Eider  and 
Gotha  Canals  connect  the  Baltic  and  the 
North  Sea.  A  larger  canal  for  ships  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  to  Kiel  Bay  was 
begun  in  1887  and  completed  in  1895.  It 
cuts  the  base  of  the  peninsula  or  Jutland 
through  Schleswig-Holstein.  It  is  about 
sixty  miles  long  and  saves  a  dangerous 
voyage  of  about  600  miles.  Another  pro- 
jected canal  is  a  Russian  enterprise,  which 
is  designed  to  connect  the  Gulf  of  Riga 
with  southern  Russia  at  Kherson,  north 
of  the  Crimea.  It  will  utilize  the  water 
ways  of  the  Duna  and  the  Dnieper.  The 
most  important  harbors  on  the  Baltic  are 
Copenhagen,  Kiel,  Lubeck,  Stralsund,  Stret- 
tin.  Dantzic,  Konigsberg,  Memel,  Riga, 
Narva,  Kronstadt,  Sveaborg,  Stockholm 
and  Karlskrona.  A  noticeable  feature  of 
the  Baltic  is  the  slow  vertical  movement 
of  its  coasts  downward  in  the  south  of 
Sweden  and  an  upward  movement  farther 
north.  Its  area  is  said  to  be  gradually 
decreasing.  The  Germans  call  it  the  East 
Sea.  The  Baltic  is  connected  with  the 
Cattegat  and  the  North  Sea  by  the  Sound 
and  the  Great  and  Little  Belts. 

Baltimore,  known  also  as  the  Monu- 
mental City,  is  the  metropolis  of  Maryland 
and  the  largest  town  on  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board south  of  Philadelphia.  The  city  is 
at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Patapsco 
River,  fourteen  miles  from  the  Chesapeake 
Bay.  It  is  on  the  highway  of  travel  be- 
tween the  cities  of  the  east  and  those  of  the 
south  and  west,  being  38  miles  from  Wash- 
ington and  97  miles  from  Philadelphia. 
Baltimore  is  an  important  shipping  port,  a 
large  railroad  center  and  a  rapidly  growing 
manufacturing  town.  The  Patapsco  ex- 


BALTIMORE 


163 


BALTIMORE 


pands  just  below  the  city,  affording  an 
extensive  and  safe  harbor,  with  an  outer  bay 
which  is  able  to  accommodate  the  largest 
ocean  steamships  and  an  inner  harbor  or 
basin  for  small  coastwise  and  bay  crafts. 
Thirty-two  steamboat  and  steamship  lines 
connect  the  city  directly  with  Liverpool, 
Bremen,  Rotterdam  and  other  foreign  ports, 
and  with  nearly  all  the  bay  and  river  towns 
of  Maryland  and  Virginia  as  well  as  the 
larger  American  seaports  of  the  Atlantic. 
The  city  is  on  the  main  line  of  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railroad  between  New  York, 
Washingon  and  the  west;  it  is  on  the 
Philadelphia-Washington  division  of  ^the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad;  and  is  the  terminus 


THE  WATERWAYS 

TO 

BALTIMORE  & 
WASHINGTON 


of  the  Northern  Central  Railway,  a  branch 
of  the  same  system.  The  city  is  the  termi- 
nus of  the  Western  Maryland  Railroad — the 
outlet  of  the  Shenandoah  and  Cumberland 
valleys — which  has  been  made  _  a  part  of 
the  Wabash  system;  and  it  is  also  the 
terminus  of  both  the  Maryland  &  Penn- 
sylvania and  the  Baltimore  &  Annapolis 
Railways.  The  city  has  direct  connections, 
too,  with  the  Southern  Railway,  the  At- 
lantic Coast  Line  and  the  Seaboard  Air  Line. 


Baltimore  is  the  youngest  of  the  great 
American  cities  on  the  Atlantic  coastline. 
The  city,  consisting  then  of  sixty  acres,  was 
first  laid  out  in  1730,  and  was  created  upon 
the  petition  made  a  year  earlier  by  certain 
residents  upon  the  Patapsco  to  the  Mary- 
land legislature.  In  1732  another  town  was 
started  across  a  small  stream  from  Balti- 
more-Town, and  this  settlement  took  the 
name  of  Jones'  Town,  from  the  stream — 
Jones'  Falls.  The  two  towns  were  consoli- 
dated in  1745;  and  Baltimore  was  enlarged 
from  time  to  time  thereafter  until  with  the 
large  addition  gained  by  the  taking  in  of 
the  Annex  in  1888  it  now  covers  31^  square 
miles.  The  city  was  called  after  Cecilius 
Calvert,  Lord  Baltimore  and  one  of  the 
proprietaries  of  the  province  of  Maryland. 
It  was  originally  included  in  Baltimore 
County,  and  became  the  county  seat  in  1767. 
Subsequently,  however,  the  city  and  county 
were  divorced,  and  Baltimore  today  has  an 
independent  government  from  the  county 
by  which  it  is  surrounded.  During  the 
Revolutionary  War  Baltimore  became  an 
important  center,  and  for  a  while  housed  the 
Continental  Congress,  after  that  body  was 
forced  to  retire  from  Philadelphia.  In  1780 
Baltimore  became  a  port  of  entry,  and  in 
1796  was  incorporated  into  a  city.  During 
the  second  war  with  England  the  city  was 
subjected  to  two  attacks  by  the  British — one 
by  land  and  the  other  by  sea;  but  both 
were  unsuccessful.  The  land  attack  resulted 
in  the  Battle  of  North  Point,  (Sept.  12, 
1814,)  when  the  British  lost  their  com- 
mander, Gen.  Ross,  and  retired  without 
accomplishing  their  purpose.  The  follow- 
ing day,  September  13,  the  fleet  opened  fire 
upon  Fort  McHenry — the  city's  chief  de- 
fense. The  bombardment  lasted  all  day 
and  night,  and  had  the  fort  been  taken 
Baltimore  would  have  fallen  prey  to  the 
enemy.  But  on  the  morning  of  the  i4th 
the  American  flag  was  seen  still  flying  over 
the  ramparts  of  the  unconquered  stronghold, 
and  the  enemy  abandoned  all  hope  of  taking 
Baltimore.  It  was  the  sight  of  this  Amer- 
ican flag  waving  over  Fort  McHenry  that 
inspired  Francis  Scott  Key,  who  had  been 
detained  by  the  British  during  the  bombard- 
ment, to  write  America's  national  anthem — 
The  Star-spangled  Banner.  Shortly  after 
the  War  of  1812-15  the  residents  of  Balti- 
more raised  two  monuments — one  to  Wash- 
ington and  the  other  to  the  defenders  of 
North  Point ;  and  these  memorials  won  for 
the  town  the  name  of  the  Monumental  City. 
The  first  blood  of  the  Civil  War  was  shed  in 
Baltimore  (April  19,  1861),  when  a  mob 
sought  to  prevent  the  passage  through  the 
city  of  the  Sixth  Massachusetts  and  the 
Seventh  Pennsylvania  regiments,  then  on 
their  way  to  Washington  in  response  to 
Lincoln's  call  for  volunteers.  Historically, 
there  are  other  important  events  connected 
with  the  city  of  Baltimore :  It  was  the  first 


BALTIMORE,  LORD 


104 


BALUCHISTAN 


American  city  lighted  by  gas;  the  first 
steam  passenger  train  in  America  ran  from 
Baltimore  to  Ellicott  City;  the  first  steam- 
ship to  cross  the  Atlantic  sailed  from  Balti- 
more; the  first  electric  telegraph  line  was 
strung  from  Baltimore  to  Washington;  the 
first  paid  fire  department  in  America  was 
that  of  Baltimore;  the  first  school  of  den- 
tistry in  the  world  was  established  in  the 
Monumental  City;  the  first  iron  building 
was  the  former  home  of  the  Baltimore  Sun; 
and  the  first  American  Methodist  Episcopal 
church  was  organized  in  Baltimore. 

On  February  7-8,  1904,  the  entire  business 
section  of  the  city  was  wiped  out  by  a  fire 
which  destroyed  $70,000,000  worth  of  prop- 
erty. The  conflagration  proved  the  begin- 
ning of  a  new  era  in  the  life  of  the  city.  Not 
only  were  the  destroyed  buildings  replaced, 
in  most  instances  by  better  structures,  but 
the  municipality  seized  the  opportunity  for 
extensive  improvements.  Many  important 
business  streets,  which  had  been  too  narrow 
to  accommodate  the  heavy  traffic  imposed 
upon  them,  were  widened.  The  two  thor- 
oughfares skirting  upon  the  wharf  property 
of  the  basin — Light  and  Pratt  Streets — 
were  changed  from  narrow  and  unattractive 
streets  to  avenues  of  great  width.  At  the 
same  time  a  new  system  of  modern  concrete 
piers  was  begun  along  Pratt  Street,  ranging 
in  length  from  550  to  1,450  feet  and  having 
docks  150  feet  wide,  giving  a  total  surface 
area  of  23^  acres.  At  the  same  time  a 
complete  sewerage  system  was  undertaken, 
at  a  cost  of  $10,000,000.  Enormous  sums 
of  money  were  appropriated  for  improving 
the  streets  and  roads  of  the  Annex,  while 
considerable  additions  were  made  to  the 
city  parks,  which  include  one  of  the  finest 
natural  pleasure  grounds  of  the  world  in 
Druid  Hill  Park. 

Baltimore  has  made  great  advance  as  a 
manufacturing  town  in  the  past  two  decades, 
and  ranks  seventh  among  the  manufactur- 
ing cities  of  America.  It  is  the  largest  city 
for  the  slaughtering  and  packing  of  meat 
upon  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  The  city 
ranks  first  in  the  canning  and  preserving  of 
fruits  and  vegetables  and  also  in  the  canning 
and  preserving  of  oysters.  It  ranks  third 
in  the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  factory- 
made  clothing  for  men,  women  and  children, 
and  sixth  in  the  hand-trades  manufactures. 
The  city  is  also  an  important  center  for  the 
manufacture  of  tobacco  goods,  foundry  and 
machine  shop  products,  factory-made  furni- 
tura.  Baltimore  is  a  great  export  center  for 
both  coal  and  grain. 

Baltimore  ranks  as  a  foremost  educational 
center.  The  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
opened  in  1876,  is  primarily  an  institution 
for  graduate  and  research  work,  but  has 
also  an  efficient  undergraduate  depart- 
ment. The  Peabody  Institute  contains  a 
world-famed  historical  library  and  has  con- 
nected with  it  a  conservatory  of  music. 


The  Woman's  College,  the  Maryland  Insti- 
tute— School  of  Art  and  Design ;  and  colleges 
of  medicine,  law,  dentistry  and  pharmacy 
are  located  in  the  city.  The  public  schools 
are  equal  to  those  of  any  other  American 
city.  The  Enoch  Pratt  Free  Library — with 
more  than  200,000  volumes  and  numerous 
branches — is  one  of  the  greatest  free  libraries 
in  America.  The  public  buildings  include 
the  magnificent  new  Custom-House,  the 
marble  Court-House,  Walter's  Art  Gallery — 
containing  one  of  the  finest  private  collec- 
tions of  paintings  in  the  United  States,  the 
Johns  Hopkins  Hospital — covering  several 
city  blocks — and  numerous  other  notable 
structures.  Baltimore  is  the  seat  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  archbishopric  and  of  a 
Protestant  Episcopal  bishopric.  Popula- 
tion, city  and  suburbs,  700,000. 

Bal'timore,  Lord,  a  title  of  the  Calvert 
family.  In  1625  Sir  George  Calvert  was 
made  first  Lord  Baltimore  by  James  I,  and 
granted  land  in  Newfoundland;  but  the 
colony  which  he  founded  was  a  failure.  He 
then  petitioned  Charles  I  for  a  charter  to 
found  a  new  colony,  but  died  (1632)  before 
the  charter  was  issued.  His  son,  Cecil  Cal- 
vert, second  Lord  Baltimore,  received  the 
charter  in  June,  1632,  and  was  thus  the  real 
founder  of  Maryland  colony.  The  whole 
state  of  Maryland  was  included  in  the  grant, 
and  Leonard  Calvert,  a  brother  of  Lord 
Baltimore,  came  with  an  expedition  as  gov- 
ernor in  1633.  Under  the  Calverts  the  col- 
ony was  managed  in  a  wise  and  tolerant 
manner. 

Baltimore  Oriole  or  Baltimore  bird,  also 
called  Firebird,  is  a  beautiful  bird,  very 
common  in  North  America,  from  Canada  to 
Mexico.  The  birds  come  from  the  south  in 
May,  and  in  trees  and  vines  near  houses  build 
their  hanging  nests  of  moss  and  fibers  skill- 
fully woven  together.  Threads,  strings  and 
horsehairs  are  used  in  building  the  nest, 
which  is  a  deep  hanging  pouch  about  six 
inches  long.  The  birds  are  about  seven 
inches  long,  with  sharp  bills,  pointed  wings 
and  rounded  tail.  The  plumage  is  beautiful, 
especially  in  the  males,  being  a  glossy  black, 
mixed  with  bright  orange  and  yellow. 
These  were  the  colors  of  Lord  Baltimore's 
livery,  hence  the  name.  Their  song  is 
strong  and  pleasant,  a  ringing  whistle  easily 
imitated.  They  are  valuable  for  their  de- 
struction of  insect  larvae,  like  the  tent-cater- 
pillar, canker  worm,  etc.  Lady  Baltimore, 
as  the  nest  builder  is  called  by  the  author 
of  Bird  Neighbors,  is  one  of  the  best  archi- 
tects in  the  world.  Of  the  splendid  male 
the  poet  Lowell  says:  "Hush!  'tis  he!  My 
oriole,  my  glance  of  summer  fire." 

Baluchistan  (bd-loo'chis-tan'),  a  rugged 
country  of  southwestern  Asia,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Afghanistan,  on  the  south  by 
the  Arabian  Sea,  on  the  west  by  Persia  and 
on  the  east  by  Hindustan.  It  has  an  area 
of  131,855  square  miles. 


BALTIMORE     ORIOLES     AND     NEST 


BALZAC 


165 


BANCROFT 


Surface.  Baluchistan  is  mountainous,  but 
has  also  broad  and  high  tablelands  and  some 
extensive  sandy  deserts.  One  of  its  moun- 
tain systems  extends  north  and  the  other 
east  and  west.  Many  of  the  mountains 
have  great  height  and  are  snow  covered, 
while  the  tablelands  are  very  hot  in  summer 
and  extremely  cold  in  winter.  Its  most 
important  rivers  are  the  Bolan  and  Mula, 
which  are  located  in  the  northeast. 

Natural  Resources.  It  is  believed  that 
the  mineral  wealth  is  quite  important,  and 
includes,  gold,  silver,  lead,  copper,  iron, 
mineral  salts  and  saltpetre.  Throughout  the 
country  there  is  a  great  scarcity  of  water, 
and  the  soil  generally  speaking  is  not  fertile. 
The  following  articles,  however,  are  produced 
to  some  extent:  wheat,  barley,  millet, 
cotton,  rice,  indigo  and  tobacco.  Orchard 
and  garden  fruits  are  grown  near  the  towns 
and  vegetables  are  very  plentiful.  Atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  breeding  of  fine  camels. 

Manufactures.  The  manufacturing  inter- 
ests are  unimportant,  and  consist  mainly  of 
coarse  fabrics,  matchlocks  and  other  weap- 
ons. 

Government.  The  khan  or  tribal  ruler 
receives  an  annual  grant  from  India,  and 
resides  at  Kelat,  while  his  rule  is  almost 
confined  to  the  surrounding  country.  Quet- 
ta  is  the  largest  town  and  has  railway  con- 
nection with  India.  It  is  strongly  fortified, 
and  is  occupied  by  a  British  garrison.  The 
country  is  a  British  protectorate,  and  while 
not  wholly  under  their  rule,  is  completely 
under  British  influence.  Population  over 
9 1 5 ,000. 

Balzac  (bal'zdk'),  Honore  de,  a  great 
French  novelist,  was  born  at  Tours  in  1799. 
He  studied  law,  but  gave  it  up  and  went  to 
Paris  to  try  his  fortune  as  an  author.  For 
ten  years  he  lived  in  wretched  circumstances, 
writing  stories  which  were  of  little  value.  In 
his  thirtieth  year  he  wrote  his  first  great 
novel,  The  Last  Chouan,  which  brought 
him  into  notice.  Soon  after  he  began 
his  great  work,  called  The  Human  Comedy, 
which  was  intended  to  be  a  complete  picture 
of  modern  life.  He  was  a  very  hard  worker, 
and  wrote  eighty-five  novels  in  twenty  years. 
Few  writers  have  shown  such  power  in 
describing  character  and  in  giving  reality 
and  life  to  their  characters.  Some  of  his 
best  works  are  Scenes  of  Provincial  Life, 
Scenes  of  Parisian  Life,  La  Peau  de  Chagrin 
(The  Magic  Skin),  Le  Cousin  Pons,  Sera- 
phita,  Conies  Drolatiques,  Eugenie  Grandet 
and  Father  Goriot.  He  died  at  Paris,  Aug. 
18.1850. 

Bamboo',  a  kind  of  tree-like  grass,  which 
grows  to  a  large  size  in  the  warmer  parts  of 
Asia  and  America.  Some  kinds  are  at  least 
eighty  feet  high.  It  is  used  for  a  great 
variety  of  purposes,  such  as  housebuilding, 
shipmasts,  furniture,  spear-shafts  and  walk- 
ing sticks.  As  the  stem  is  hollow  and  very 
strong,  it  is  also  used  for  water  pipes.  In 


some  varieties  a  sweet  juice  is  found,  which 
in  India  is  used  for  cooking. 

Banana,  (bd-nd'na),  the  name  of  a  fruit 
and  also  of  the  plant  which  produces  it.  It 
is  thought  to  be  a  native  of  India,  but  is 
now  grown  in  all  tropical  countries.  We 
get  our  bananas  largely  from  the  West  Indies 
and  Central  America.  The  fruit  is  grown 
extensively  in  our  island  possessions,  and 
some  is  produced  in  Florida,  Louisiana  and 
California.  There  are  many  varieties;  the 
one  commonly  exported  is  the  Martinique, 
which  shows  a  large  bunch  of  yellow  fruit. 
A  delicious  variety  is  the  apple  banana,  a 
small  banana  with  fragrance  and  taste  of 
the  apple.  In  Hawaii,  just  in  the  home 
garden  of  the  sugar  planter,  may  be  grown 
fifteen  different  kinds.  Common  in  tropical 
countries  is  a  popularly  called  cooking 
banana,  not  edible  raw;  with  thick, 
salmon-colored  flesh  and  dark  skin,  similar 
to  the  plantain  of  the  South  Seas.  It  is 
told  that  the  natives  of  one  of  the  South 
Sea  islands  subsist  entirely  on  bananas;  on 
many  islands  it  is  the  main  food.  Between 
the  plantain  and  the  banana  there  is  little, 
if  any,  botanical  difference.  Both  are  Musa 
sapientum.  The  plantain,,  a  much  less 
familiar  fruit,  is  large,  solid  and  mealy 
compared  with  the  ordinary  banana.  The 
banana  is  very  nutritious  and  wholesome 
when  thoroughly  ripe.  The  bunches  are 
cut  off  when  green;  those  for  export,  so 
they  will  ship  well;  those  for  home  use,  to 
keep  them  from  the  birds.  They  are  often 
hung  from  the  beam  of  the  veranda  to  ripen. 
Some  bunches  grow  to  enormous  size,  one 
occasionally  weighing  80  pounds.  A  small 
area  of  land  will  produce  a  rich  crop. 

A  plant  bears  but  a  single  bunch,  then  the 
stalk  is  cut  down  and  the  sprouts  take  its 
place.  When  about  three  feet  high,  these 
are  transplanted,  put  far  enough  apart  to 
allow  space  for  the  great  leaves  that  will 
outspread  wide  when  full  grown.  The  plant 
or  tree  varies  in  height  from  10  to  40  feet, 
and  at  the  top  of  the  stalk  the  immense, 
undivided  leaves  are  from  six  to  ten  feet 
long  and  one  to  two  feet  wide.  The  flower- 
bearing  is  most  curious;  the  flower  cluster 
with  its  tight-overlapping  scales  is  a  great 
elongated  purple  bud  in  appearance.  Under 
each  scale  is  a  true  flower  of  which  there 
may  be  over  a  hundred  in  each  "bud," 
forming  that  many  bananas  as  they  develop. 
Under  favorable  conditions  a  banana  plant 
bears  when  from  twelve  to  eighteen  months 
old.  Bananas  grown  for  their  fruit  are  per- 
petuated by  root-cuttings,  by  sprouts  and 
suckers. 

Ban'croft,  George,  a  distinguished 
American  historian,  was  born  in  Worcester, 
Massachusetts,  in  1800.  He  graduated  from 
Harvard  College,  and  studied  two  years  at 
Gottingen,  Germany.  He  was  tutor  in  Greek 
at  Harvard  for  one  year,  and  with  a  fellow 
student  carried  on  a  school  in  Northampton 


BANCROFT,  HUBERT 


166 


BANKS 


till  1830.  The  first  volume  of  his  History 
of  the  united  States  was  published  in  1834, 
and  two  other  vol- 
umes soon  followed. 
The  next  five  vol- 
umes came  out  from 
1852  to  1860,  and  in 
1866  and  in  1874 
two  more  volumes 
were  published,  which 
bring  the  history  to 
the  preliminary  treaty 
of  peace  with  Great 
Britain  in  1782.  Two 
other  volumes,  on 
the  formation  of  the G1 
constitution,  appeared  in  1882.  Bancroft 
was  collector  of  the  port  of  Boston  under 
President  Van  Buren ;  under  President  Polk 
he  was  secretary  of  the  navy  and  minister  to 
England.  In  1867  he  was  appointed  minister 
to  Berlin,  where  he  remained  until  recalled 
at  his  own  request  in  1874.  He  died  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  Jan.  17,  1891. 

Bancroft,  Hubert  Howe,  an  American 
historian,  was  born  at  Granville,  Ohio,  in 
1832,  and  settled  in  San  Francisco,  where,  in 
the  book  business,  he  made  a  large  fortune. 
He  collected  a  library  of  60,000  volumes, 
mainly  on  early  American  history.  He  was 
so  fortunate  as  to  secure  the  library  of  the 
Mexican  Emperor  Maximilian.  His  well- 
known  work  in  five  volumes,  The  Native 
Races  of  the  Pacific  States,  forms  the  first 
part  of  his  immense  History  of  the  Pacific 
States  of  North  America,  complete  in  forty 
volumes. 

Banff.  A  charming  and  very  fashionable 
summer  resort  on  the  main  line  of  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railway,  922  miles  west  of  Win- 
nipeg and  560  miles  east  of  Vancouver. 
Famous  for  its  hot  sulphur  springs  and  grand 
majestic  scenery.  The  National  Park  of 
Canada  is  at  Banff.  The  journey  from 
Winnipeg  to  the  Pacific  coast  is  generally 
broken  at  Banff. 

Bangalore'  (b&n'ga-ldr'),  a  strongly  for- 
tified town  of  Mysore,  one  of  the  native  states 
in  India,  in  a  district  of  the  same  name. 
When  Mysore  was  occupied  by  England  in 
1831,  Bangalore  was  made  the  capital,  and 
when,  in  T  88 1 ,  Mysore  was  restored  to  the  rule 
of  its  native  prince,  the  district  of  Banga- 
lore was  exempted  from  native  control.  The 
city  lies  3,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  con- 
sequently very  healthy.  Silk  and  carpets 
are  the  principal  manufactures.  Population 
189,485.  The  district  of  Bangalore  has  a 
population  of  669,139. 

Bangkok',  the  capital  of  Siam,  situated  on 
both  banks  of  the  Menam.  One  third  the 
population  are  Chinese,  who  control  the  large 
trade  of  the  city.  For  the  right  to  trade 
there  the  Chinese  pay  a  poll-tax  of  about 
three  dollars  every  third  year,  which  exempts 
them  from  the  half-yearly  military  service 
which  all  other  foreign  residents  have  to  give. 


A  large  number  of  the  houses  are  built  on 
rafts  in  the  river.  They  are  made  of  bam- 
boo boards,  wicker  work  or  palm  leaves, 
usually  with  a  veranda  in  front  and  a  wing  at 
each  end.  On  land  the  houses  are  raised  on 
piles  six  or  eight  feet  from  the  ground  and 
reached  by  ladders.  The  walls  of  the  city 
are  about  six  miles  in  circumference.  The 
traffic  of  the  city  is  carried  on  mainly  by 
canals,  there  being  only  a  few  streets.  Bang- 
kok is  the  residence  of  the  king  of  Siam. 
The  palace  is  surrounded  by  a  high  wall, 
nearly  a  mile  long,  which  incloses  temples, 
public  offices,  a  theater  and  accommodation 
for  several  thousand  soldiers  and  for  about 
3,000  women,  600  of  whom  are  the  wives  of 
the  icing.  The  temples  of  the  city  are  very 
numerous,  decorated  in  the  most  gorgeous 
style  and  served  by  20,000  priests.  The 
chief  exports  are  rice,  sugar,  pepper,  hides, 
ivory  and  feathers,  while  the  imports  are 
tea,  silk,  opium,  hardware,  machinery  and 
glassware.  The  building  of  steamships,  the 
introduction  of  gas  into  the  royal  palaces  and 
the  houses  of  the  noblemen,  the  starting  of 
a  regular  mail  to  the  city  in  1884,  followed 
by  Siam  joining  the  International  Postal 
Union  in  1885,  show  the  recent  progress. 
A  railway  is  now  running  from  Bangkok  to 
Paknam  (14  miles  in  length),  while  one  runs 
from  the  capital  to  Korat  (165  miles) ;  there 
are  also  electric  tramways  now  in  the  king- 
dom. Telegraphs  connect  Bangkok  with 
Burma  and  Cambodia.  Population  is 
628,675. 

Ban'gor,  a  city  and  port  in  the  state  of 
Maine,  on  the  Penobscot  River,  about  sixty 
miles  from  its  mouth.  The  harbor  is 
accessible  during  the  open  season  to  all 
except  the  very  largest  shipping  vessels. 
Bangor  is  one  of  the  largest  lumber  stations 
in  the  world.  About  200,000,000  feet  are 
yearly  shipped  during  the  season  of  eight 
months.  The  city  has  some  shipbuilding, 
several  sawmills,  furniture  factories,  foun- 
dries, etc.  When  under  the  English  govern- 
ment it  was  called  Kenduskeag.  Its  present 
name  was  derived  from  the  well-known 
tune  of  that  name.  Population,  24,803. 

Bangs,  John  Kendrick,  (1862),  Ameri- 
can humorist,  born  at  Yonkers,  New  York, 
and  educated  at  Columbia  College.  He 
early  took  to  literature  as  a  profession,  and 
has  been  connected  editorially  or  as  a  writer 
with  Harper's  Weekly  and  Magazine,  with 
Life,  the  Metropolitan  Magazine,  etc.  He 
has  written  a  number  of  amusing  and  enter- 
taining books,  among  the  best  known  of 
which  are  A  Houseboat  on  the  Styx,  The 
Pursuit  of  the  Houseboat,  Mr.  Bonaparte  of 
Corsica,  Coffee  and  Repartee,  Uncle  Sam, 
Trustee,  The  Idiot  at  Home,  The  Bicyclers 
and  Other  Farces,  Toppleton's  Client,  A 
Rebellious  Heroine,  Olympian  Nights  and 
The  Enchanted"  Typewriter. 

Banks  (from  the  Italian  banco,  meaning 
a  bench).  The  Babylonians  and  Chinese  as 


BANKS 


167 


BANKS 


well  as  the  Greeks  and  Romans  are  known 
to  have  made  use  of  the  principles  of  bank- 
ing; but  the  bank  of  Venice  in  the  i2th 
century  was  the  first  institution  which 
carried  on  banking  business  as  it  is  now 
practiced.  The  bank  of  Barcelona  was 
founded  in  1401 ;  and  one  at  Genoa,  started 
in  1407,  was  for  centuries  one  of  the  first 
banks  in  Europe.  The  bank  of  Amsterdam 
(1609)  was  the  great  warehouse  for  bullion 
during  the  i7th  century,  giving  receipts 
for  the  coin  and  bullion  put  there,  which 
receipts  were  used  as  money. 

Modern  banking  begins  with  the  i8th 
century,  and  the  modern  bank  in  its  simplest 
form  is  an  institution  which  receives  money 
from  its  depositors  and  loans  it  out  to  bor- 
rowers, charging  the  latter  interest  for  the 
loan.  The  difference  between  the  higher 
rate  of  interest  which  the  bank  charges,  the 
borrowers  and  the  lower  rate  which  it  pays 
its  depositors  is  the  gross  profit  which  the 
bank  makes. 

The  money  which  the  bank  loans  is  repre- 
sented in  the  bank  by  notes,  which  are 
promises  to  pay  back  the  money  at  a  cer- 
tain time  and  place,  signed  by  the  borrowers. 
In  order  that  the  bank  may  safely  loan 
money  it  requires  the  borrower  to  give 
security.  This  may  be  in  the  form  of 
an  endorsement  which  is  the  signature  of 
a  person,  firm  or  corporation  on  the  back 
of  the  note,  and  this  endorsement  makes 
the  endorser  guarantee  the  payment  of  the 
note  and  interest.  Other  forms  of  security 
are  stock,  bonds,  mortgages,  etc.  If  the 
borrower  fails  to  pay  the  note  when  it  is 
due,  the  bank  can  then  sell  the  stock, 
bonds,  mortgages,  etc.,  and  apply  the  pro- 
ceeds in  payment  of  the  note. 

In  the  United  States  banks  may  be 
divided  into  national  banks,  state  banks, 
trust  companies,  savings  banks  and  private 
banks.  National  banks  are  organized  and 
operated  under  the  national  banking  laws, 
and  are  examined  by  national  bank  exam- 
iners who  are  under  the  Comptroller  of  the 
Currency  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  make 
their  reports  to  him.  National  banks  are 
also  required  to  make  sworn  statements  of 
their  condition  to  the  comptroller  whenever 
he  calls  for  them.  State  banks,  savings 
banks  and  trust  companies  are  organized 
and  operated  under  the  banking  laws  of 
the  states  in  which  they  are  located.  They 
are  subject  to  examinations  by  state  bank 
examiners  and  must  make  sworn  state- 
ments of  their  conditions  when  the  proper 
state  official  calls  on  them  to  do  so.  Pri- 
vate banks  are  not  organized  under  the 
national  or  state  banking  laws  and  are  not 
subject  to  the  supervision  of  federal  or 
state  officials.  When  a  bank  is  organized 
under  the  national  or  state  banking  laws, 
it  is  known  as  a  chartered  bank,  because 
the  national  or  state  government  gives  the 
owners  of  the  bank,  known  as  stockholders, 


a  charter  which  authorizes  them  to  conduct 
a  banking  business. 

The  stockholders  supply  the  money  to 
start  the  bank,  and  this  money  is  called  the 
capital  of  the  bank.  As  the  bank  prospers, 
it  lays  aside  a  certain  amount  of  its  net 
earnings  each  year  in  a  fund  called  surplus. 
Some  banks  have  a  surplus  larger  than  the 
capital.  The  capital  and  surplus  belong  to 
the  stockholders;  but  if  for  some  cause 
the  bank  should  fail — that  is,  be  unable 
to  pay  back  to  the  depositors  the  money 
they  had  deposited,  then  the  public  author- 
ities take  the  capital  and  surplus  to  pay 
the  depositors  what  is  owing  them.  If  this 
is  not  sufficient,  an  assessment  is  made  on 
the  stockholders,  sometimes  for  as  much  as 
the  par  or  face  value  of  the  amount  of 
stock  they  own. 

Stockholders  of  a  bank  meet  each  year 
and  elect  diiectors  to  represent  them  in 
the  management  of  the  bank.  The  direc- 
tors in  turn  elect  the  officers  of  the  bank 
to  whom  they  delegate  authority  to  operate 
the  bank.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  directors 
to  see  that  the  bank  is  properly  managed 
and  that  the  officers  conduct  the  bank's  bus- 
iness carefully,  safely  and  properly  and 
with  profit,  for  unless  the  bank  makes 
a  profit  it  cannot  pay  dividends  upon  its 
stock.  A  dividend  is  a  division  of  the  net 
profits  of  the  bank  among  the  stockholders 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  stock  each 
holds  and  is  designated  as  a  percentage  of 
the  capital.  Thus,  if  a  bank  pays  10  per 
cent,  dividends,  it  divides  each  year  among 
the  stockholders  an  amount  of  money  equal 
to  10  per  cent,  of  its  capital  stock.  The 
par  or  face  value  of  the  stock  of  national 
or  state  banks  is  $100.  Its  real  value  is 
what  it  sells  for.  The  stock  of  some  banks 
is  worth  many  times  its  par  or  face  value. 

The  first  chartered  bank  in  this  country 
was  the  Bank  of  North  America.  The 
charter  was  granted  by  the  Congress  of  the 
Confederation  in  1780.  Because  there  was 
some  doubt  as  to  the  power  of  Congress  to 
do  this,  the  bank  was  rechartered  by  Penn- 
sylvania in  1781.  In  1784  the  Bank  of 
Massachusetts  and  the  Bank  of  New  York 
were  organized.  In  1791  Congress  estab- 
lished the  Bank  of  the  United  States;  the 
charter  was  limited  to  20  years.  The 
capital  was  $10,000,000  one  fifth  of  which 
was  supplied  by  the  government.  The 
headquarters  of  the  bank  was  in  Philadel- 
phia, with  branches  in  other  cities  of  the 
country.  When  the  charter  expired  in 
1811,  Congress  refused  to  renew  it.  In 
1816  the  second  United  States  Bank  was 
chartered  by  the  government  with  a  capi- 
tal of  $35,000,000  of  which  the  government 
subscribed  one  fifth.  This  bank  was  used 
as  a  depository  for  government  funds,  and 
five  of  its  25  directors  were  appointed  by 
the  government.  In  1832  Congress  passed 
an  act  renewing  its  charter,  but  President 


BANKS 


t68 


BANKS 


Jackson  vetoed  it.  The  bank  became  a 
great  political  issue,  and  President  Jackson 
ordered  the  public  funds  to  be  removed  from 
the  bank  and  deposited  in  state  banks.  In 
1836  the  bank's  charter  expired,  but  a  few 
days  before  this  occurred  Pennsylvania  gave 
it  a  state  charter  and  it  became  the  United 
States  Bank  of  Pennsylvania.  Between 
1836  and  1863  only  state  banks  existed 
in  the  United  States. 

The  several  state  banking-systems,  no 
two  alike,  caused  great  dissatisfaction  and 
losses.  Each  state  had  its  own  banking 
laws  and  under  them  the  state  banks  issued 
currency.  The  laws  were  so  loosely  drawn 
that  suspensions  and  failures  were  frequent. 
In  many  instances  the  privilege  of  issuing 
notes  to  circulate  as  currency  was  grossly 
abused.  This  led  Secretary  Chase  in  1861 
to  suggest  a  national-bank  act,  and  in  1863 
such  an  act  was  passed  by  Congress  and 
became  the  basis  of  the  present  national 
banking  laws.  Congress  in  1865  levied  a 
tax  of  10  per  cent,  on  all  circulating  notes 
other  than  those  issued  by  national  banks, 
and  this  prohibitive  tax  put  an  end  to 
state-bank  currency. 

National  banks  can  issue  their  own  bank- 
notes to  circulate  as  currency  by  depositing 
United  States  bonds  with  the  Comptroller 
of  the  Currency.  The  bank  can  issue  notes 
to  an  amount  equal  to  the  bonds  so  deposited 
but  not  to  exceed  the  amount  of  the  bank's 
capital  stock.  Thus  a  national  bank,  hav- 
ing a  capital  of  $1,000,000,  can  issue  $1,000,- 
ooo  national  bank-notes,  provided  it  de- 
posits $1,000,000  United  States  bonds. 

Any  five  citizens  of  the  United  States 
can  organize  a  national  bank.  In  towns 
or  cities  of  less  than  3,000  population  a 
national  bank  with  but  $25,000  capital  can 
be  organized;  where  the  population  is  be- 
tween 3,000  and  6,000  the  capital  stock 
must  be  at  least  $50,000;  between  6,000  and 
50,000  population  the  capital  stock  must 
be  at  least  $100,000  and  over  50,000  popu- 
lation the  capital  stock  must  be  at  least 
$200,000. 

In  May  of  1908  Congress  enacted  what  is 
known  as  the  Emergency-Currency  Law. 
Under  the  provisions  of  this  law  ten  or 
more  national  banks,  each  having  an  unim- 
paired capital  and  surplus  of  not  less  than 
20  per  cent,  of  its  capital  stock,  all  of  the 
banks  having  a  total  capital  and  surplus  of 
at  least  $5,000,000  were  allowed  to  form  a 
National  Currency  Association  for  the  purpose 
of  providing  for  an  issue  of  emergency  currency 
in  times  of  financial  stress  or  panics.  Any 
bank  belonging  to  a  National  Currency  Asso- 
ciation could  use  stocks,  bonds  or  commercial 
paper  (the  notes  of  commercial  houses)  which 
had  been  approved  by  the  association  as  a  basis 
for  additional  circulation.  To  secure  this 
emergency  currency  from  the  government 
through  the  currency  association,  the  bank 


must  meet  certain  requirements  and  do 
certain  things  laid  down  in  the  emergency 
currency  law  but  always  under  the  direction 
and  control  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury. 

The  law  also  provided  for  the  issuance 
of  emergency  circulation  to  the  banks 
direct  without  compelling  the  bank  to 
secure  such  circulation  through  the  medium 
of  a  currency  association.  A  special  tax 
on  emergency  circulation  was  provided  for; 
it  amounted  to  five  per  cent,  a  year  for  the 
first  month  such  circulation  was  outstanding 
and  one  per  cent,  a  year  for  each  additional 
month  until  the  tax  reached  10  per  cent. 
a  year.  This  tax  was  levied  to  make  it  un- 
profitable for  a  bank  to  issue  emergency 
circulation,  the  idea  being  that  such  cir- 
culation should  only  be  used  when  the 
emergency  was  so  great  as  to  imperil  the  banks. 
The  law  also  carried  a  provision  for  a  cur- 
rency commission  of  eighteen  members,  the 
Speaker  of  the  national  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives to  name  nine  and  the  presiding 
officer  of  the  United  States  Senate  to  name 
nine.  This  commission  also  inquired  into 
the  entire  subject  relating  to  currency  and 
made  a  report  to  Congress.  The  emergency 
currency  law  expired  by  limitation  on  June 
30,  1914. 

France  claims  the  credit  of  being  the 
mother  of  savings  banks,  basing  this  claim 
on  a  savings  bank  said  to  have  been  estab- 
lished in  1765  in  the  town  of  Brumuth,  but 
it  is  of  record  that  the  savings  bank  idea 
was  suggested  in  England  as  early  as  1697. 
There  was  a  savings  bank  in  Hamburg, 
Germany,  in  1778  and  in  Berne,  Switzerland, 
in  1787.  The  first  English  savings  bank 
was  established  in  1799,  and  postal  savings 
banks  were  started  in  England  in  1861. 

The  first  chartered  savings  bank  in  the 
United  States  was  the  Boston  Provident 
Savings  Institution,  incorporated  December 
13,  1816.  The  Philadelphia  Savings  Fund 
Society  began  business  the  same  year,  but 
was  not  incorporated  until  1819.  In  1818 
banks  for  savings  were  incorporated  in 
Baltimore  and  Salem,  and  in  1819  in  New 
York,  Hartford,  Newport  and  Providence. 

Savings  banks  are  organized  and  main- 
tained for  the  conveniences  of  the  person 
of  small  means  who  by  making  small  de- 
posits can  in  time  accumulate  a  comfortable 
sum  of  money.  Such  banks  differ  widely 
in  the  conduct  of  their  business  from  com- 
mercial banks.  Deposits  in  commercial 
banks  are  subject  to  withdrawal  without 
notice,  but  savings  banks  reserve  the  right 
to  require  from  30  to  60  days — and  in  some 
instances  six  months' — notice  of  with- 
drawal of  funds.  Interest  ranging  from 
three  to  five  per  cent,  per  annum  is  paid 
on  savings  deposits,  but  such  deposits  must 
remain  in  the  bank  for  a  certain  period— 
the  time  varying  according  to  tne  rules 
of  the  banks — before  interest  is  allowed. 


BANKRUPT 


169 


BANKRUPTCY 


If  the  funds  are  withdrawn  before  interest 
time,  the  depositor  loses  the  interest. 

The  postomce  savings  banks  which  were 
established  in  England  in  1861  at  first  were 
tried  at  only  a  few  postoffices,  but  later  the 
system  was  extended  to  include  all  the 
money-order  offices  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

In  the  United  States  the  Postal  Savings 
System  was  inaugurated  under  act  of  con- 
gress in  1911.  On  June  3oth,  1912,  the  num- 
ber of  depositors  was  8,113,  and  the  deposits 
were  approximately  $20,300,000. 

Deposits  bear  interest  at  two  per  cent  per 
annum,  principal  and  interest  being  guar- 
anteed by  the  United  States  Government. 
Accounts  may  be  opened  and  deposits  made 
by  any  person  of  the  age  of  10  years  or  over. 
Deposits  are  received  from  individuals  only, 
and  not  from  corporations,  associations  or 
firms.  Receipts  for  deposits  are  given  in 
the  form  of  postal  savings  certificates  which 
are  issued  in  denominations  of  $i,  $2,  $5, 
$10,  $20,  $50,  and  $100  each.  No  person  is 
permitted  to  deposit  more  than  $100  in  any 
one  month,  nor  have  more  than  $500  on 
deposit  at  one  time.  A  depositor  is  per- 
mitted to  exchange  his  deposits  for  sums  of 
$20,  $40,  $60,  $80,  $100  or  multiples  of 
$100  up  to  $500  into  United  States  bonds 
bearing  interest  at  2?  per  cent  per  annum, 
payable  semi-annually.  Pull  information 
concerning  the  Postal  Savings  System  may 
be  obtained  at  any  depository  office  or  by 
ad/dressing  the  Postmaster  General  (Postal 
Savings  System),  Washington,  D.  C. 

A  trust  company  is  a  banking  institution 
organized  under  the  laws  of  a  state.  In 
some  states  trust  companies  are  not  per- 
mitted to  exercise  all  the  functions  of  a 
bank;  in  other  states  banks  are  permitted 
to  perform  the  functions  of  a  trust  company 
in  addition  to  general  banking.  Trust  com- 
panies act  as  trustees,  guardians,  adminis- 
trators and  executors  of  estates,  conserva- 
tors, agents,  etc.  In  short,  they  can  act 
in  all  matters  of  trust  as  if  they  were  human 
individuals.  A  trust  company  can  be  ap- 
pointed guardian  by  a  court  for  orphan 
children.  It  can  manage  the  estate  of  a 
dead  person.  It  can  be  appointed  to  take 
care  of  an  insane  person  or  to  manage  the 
affairs  of  a  spendthrift.  Its.  varied  and 
many  functions  bring  it  into  close  personal 
relationship  with  its  clients.  It  also  acts 
as  trustee  for  railroads  and  other  corpora- 
tions issuing  bonds,  and  does  many  things 
which  banks  cannot  do.  Many  trust  com- 
panies have  savings  departments,  and,  be- 
sides, do  a  large  real  estate  business. 

One  of  the  most  important  services  ren- 
dered by  a  bank  is  the  transmission  of  funds 
or  credit  from  one  part  of  the  country  to 
another.  For  instance,  a  debtor  in  New 
York  who  wants  to  pay  his  creditor  in 
Chicago,  pays  the  money  to  a  New  York 
oank  which,  for  a  small  charge,  gives  him 
a  draft  on  a  Chicago  bank.  This  he  sends 


to  his  Chicago  creditor,  who  presents  it 
to  the  bank  in  Chicago  and  receives  the 
money.  No  money  is  sent  by  the  banks  in 
New  York  to  Chicago,  because  Chicago 
banks  send  drafts  to  New  York,  and  an 
account  of  how  they  stand  toward  each  other 
is  all  that  is  necessary,  and  in  this  way  the 
sending  of  money  from  one  place  to  another 
is  avoided.  In  the  same  way,  one  bank  in 
a  large  city  is  constantly  paying  out  money 
in  exchange  for  checks  and  drafts  which 
strictly  should  be  paid  by  another  bank. 
But  instead  of  the  first  bank  making  the 
second  bank  at  once  pay  back  the  same 
amount,  all  the  banks  of  the  city  meet 
together  once  or  twice  a  day,  each  showing 
how  much  it  has  paid  out  for  the  others, 
and  how  much  they  have  paid  for  it,  and 
the  difference  only  is  paid  in  cash.  This 
is  called  a  clearing-house.  The  first  clear- 
ing-house originated  in  London.  Many 
cities  in  the  United  States  now  have  them. 

Following  are  the  number  of  banks,  with 
their  capital,  surplus,  deposits,  etc.  in  the 
United  States,  as  shown  in  the  report  of  the 
comptroller  of  the  currency  for  1911: 

National  Banks.  Number,  7,301,  capital 
stock  paid  in,  $1,025,441,384;  surplus,  $670,- 
041,576;  United  States  bonds  to  secure  cir- 
culation, $707,204,380;  national  bank  notes 
outstanding,  $696,982,033;  deposits,  $5,489,- 
995,011. 

State  Banks.  Number,  17,115,  divided  into 
following:  commercial  banks,  12,864;  cap- 
ital, $452,944,684;  surplus,  $170,566,937;  de- 
posits, $2,777,566,835;  loan  and  trust  com- 
panies, 1,251;  capital,  $385,782,993;  surplus, 
$400,406,067;  deposits,  $3,2951855.895; 
mutual  and  stock  savings  banks,  capital, 
$72,177,899;  surplus,  $261,834,082;  deposits, 
$4,212,583,598;  savings  depositors,  9,794,- 
647,  having  an  average  deposit  of  $430.09. 

There  are  also  1,1 16  private  banks,  having 
a  capital  of  $21,872,416,  surplus  $7,329,974 
and  deposits,  $142,277,224. 

MALCOLM  McDowELL. 

Bankrupt  is  a  term  applied  to  a  person 
who  is  unable  to  pay  his  debts,  and  bank- 
ruptcy laws  are  laws  which  prescribe  the 
methods  by  which  the  estate  of  an  insolvent 
debtor  is  applied  in  payment  of  his  debts 
and  the  debtor  himself  is  relieved  from  fur- 
ther obligation. 

Bankruptcy  may  be  voluntary  or  in- 
voluntary. Voluntary  bankruptcy  occurs 
when  a  debtor  asks  to  be  declared  a  bankrupt, 
involuntary  bankruptcy  when  his  creditors 
ask  it.  In  the  United  States  Congress  legis- 
lates as  to  bankruptcy,  though  the  states 
may  do  so,  but  a  federal  statute  suspends 
a  state  law  covering  the  same  ground.  Con- 
gress has  four  times  passed  a  national  bank- 
ruptcy law,  that  of  1898  being  the  latest. 
Proceedings  begin  by  a  debtor  committing 
an  act  of  bankruptcy,  either  by  becoming 
unable  to  pay  or  by  attempting  dishonestly 
to  alienate  his  property.  Then  a  petition 


BANKS,  NATHANIEL 


170 


BARBAROSSA 


is  filed,  and  the  court  orders  the  property 
to  be  put  under  the  control  of  a  receiver. 
The  deotor  states  his  affairs  on  oath  and  is 
publicly  examined,  and  the  creditors  meet. 
He  may  offer  to  compound  with  them,  that 
is,  to  pay  part  of  what  he  owes.  If  his 
creditors  approve,  the  court  or  receiver  may 
allow  the  arrangement.  If  he  does  not 
offer  to  pay,  the  court  says  he  is  a  bankrupt 
and  the  creditors  appoint  a  trustee.  He 
administers  the  estate  and  controls  the 
bankrupt's  movements.  The  latter  can  at 
any  time  after  being  declared  a  bankrupt  ask 
to  be  discharged,  but  this  may  be  refused, 
suspended  or  granted  conditionally.  When 
the  trustee  has  divided  the  debtor's  prop- 
erty among  his  creditors  in  proportion  to 
the  amount  he  owed  each,  he  is  released 
from  his  debts  and  discharged  from  bank- 
ruptcy. 

The  ancient  Roman  law  against  bank- 
ruptcy regarded  it  as  a  crime,  so  that  the 
creditors  might  sell  the  debtor  into  slavery 
or  divide  his  body  into  pieces.  An  English 
act  of  1622,  again,  condemned  a  debtor  who 
failed  to  show  just  reason  for  being  unable 
to  pay  his  debts  to  have  one  ear  nailed  to  the 
pillory  and  afterwards  cut  off.  The  mild- 
ness of  recent  laws  against  bankruptcy  is 
not  only  due  to  a  more  humane  spirit,  but 
also  to  the  great  complexity  of  modern 
business,  which  may  cause  a  man  to  become 
bankrupt  to  a  greater  degree  than  formerly 
through  no  fault  of  his  own. 

Banks,  Nathaniel  Prentiss,  an  Ameri- 
can general,  born  in  1816  at  Waltham, 
Massachusetts.  He  studied  law  and  was 
elected  to  the  state  legislature,  being  made 
speaker  of  the  house  in  1851.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1 85  2, but  being  opposed 
to  slavery  left  the  Democratic  party.  In 
1854  he  was  again  sent  to  congress  by 
the  Republicans  and  Know-nothings,  and 
was  chosen  speaker  of  the  house  in  1856. 
He  was  governor  of  Massachusetts  from 
1857  to  1860.  Soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  he  was  given  command  of  an  army  corps 
on  the  Potomac.  In  1862  he  succeeded 
General  Butler  in  the  command  of  the 
Department  of  the  Gulf.  In  1863  he  cap- 
tured Port  Hudson  with  6,000  prisoners, 
which  effected  the  opening  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  and  in  1864,  with  Admiral  Porter  in 
charge  of  a  gunboat  fleet,  he  led  an  unsuc- 
cessful expedition  up  the  Red  River,  and 
was  there  relieved  of  his  command  in  May, 
1864.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from 
1864  to  1870  and  again  from  1874  to  1876, 
and  was  re-elected  in  1888.  He  died  Sept. 
i,  1894. 

Banks  of  Newfoundland,  The,  extend- 
ing for  a  length  of  some  six  hundred  miles, 
are  famous  for  their  cod  fisheries.  Other 
fish  are  also  abundant  on  the  Banks;  and 
it  may  be  said  that  Newfoundland  depends 
almost  entirely  upon  its  cod,  seal  and  herring 
industries.  The  Banks  are  believed  to  have 


been  gradually  formed  through  the  melting 
of  icebergs,  which  here  come  into  contact 
with  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream 
and  deposit  the  earth  and  stones  which 
they  may  have  carried  from  Arctic  shores. 

Ban'nockburn,  a  Scottish  village  on  the 
stream  of  that  name.  It  is  noted  for  the 
great  battle  fought  there  in  1314  between 
the  English  under  Edward  II,  with  100,000 
men,  and  the  Scotch  under  Robert  Bruce, 
with  30,000,  in  which  the  English  were  com- 
pletely defeated,  losing  nearly  30,000  men. 
The  stone  on  which  Bruce  is  said  to  have 
fastened  his  standard  is  still  to  be  seen,  and 
near  it  a  flagstaff,  1 20  feet  high,  was  erected 
as  a  memorial. 

Ban'yan  or  Banian,  a  tree  of  India  and 
tropical  Africa,  remarkable  for  the  great 
branches  which  it  sends  down  to  the  earth, 
and  which  take  root  again,  forming  new 
trunks.  In  this  way  the  tree  spreads  over 
a  great  surface  and  lasts  for  many  ages, 
though  the  original  trunk  may  decay.  One 
has  been  described  as  having  350  trunks 
as  large  as  oak  trees  and  more  than  3,000 
smaller  ones.  It  grows  from  seventy  to 
a  hundred  feet  high.  Alexander  Campbell 
is  said  to  have  once  sheltered  7,000  men 
under  a  banyan.  Great  numbers  of  birds 
and  monkeys  live  in  the  tree  and  eat  its 
fruit, — a  kind  of  fig.  The  Brahmans  hold 
the  tree  in  great  reverence. 

Barba'dos,  the  most  eastern  of  the  West 
Indian  Islands,  to  the  eastward  of  the  Wind- 
ward Islands.  It  is  twenty-one  miles  long 
and  fourteen  and  one-half  miles  broad.  It 
contains  166  square  miles,  or  106,470  acres, 
of  which  about  100,000  are  cultivated.  The 
island  is  almost  surrounded  by  coral  reefs. 
The  highest  point  of  land  is  Mount  Hillaby, 
which  is  1,104  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
climate  is  very  healthy,  but  the  people  are 
in  constant  danger  from  hurricanes,  which 
destroy  an  immense  amount  of  property 
and  many  lives.  One  storm,  in  1780,  killed 
4,326  persons  and  swept  away  about  $6,000,- 
ooo  worth  of  property.  Since  the  suppres- 
sion of  slavery  in  the  island  in  1834,  its 
prosperity  has  greatly  increased.  The  pop- 
ulation is  199,542,  a  large  part  of  which  is 
colored.  England  first  settled  the  island 
in  1625,  and  it  still  belongs  to  her.  The 
capital  is  Bridgetown  (population,  33,000). 

Barbarossa.    See  FREDERICK  I. 

Barbaros'sa  (meaning  Red  Beard) ,  three 
brothers,  natives  of  Greece,  who,  as  Turkish 
pirates,  were  the  terror  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  during  the  first  half  of  the  1 6th  century. 
One  of  them  murdered  the  chief  men  in 
Algiers  and  seized  the  town,  but  was  cap- 
tured in  1518  and  beheaded.  His  younger 
brother  took  his  place  in  Algiers,  and,  putting 
himself  under  the  protection  of  Turkey, 
conquered  Tunis  for  her.  He  defeated  the 
Christian  nations  several  times  in  sea-fights, 
and  helped  the  French  to  take  Nice  in  1543. 
With  thousands  of  captives  he  returned  in 


BARBARY  STATES 


X7I 


BAR  HARBOR 


triumph  to  Constantinople,  where  he  died  in 
1546. 

Bar'bary  States,  a  large  region  in  north- 
ern Africa,  comprising  modern  Barca,  Tripoli 
Proper,  Fezzan,  Tunis,  Algeria  and  Morocco. 
In  ancient  times  the  countries  included  in  it 
were  called  Mauritania,  Numidia,  Africa 
Proper  and  Cyrenaica.  It  is  divided  by  the 
Atlas  Mountains,  and  stretches  from  Egypt 
to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  to  the  Desert  of  Sahara.  The 
whole  or  parts  of  it  have  been  conquered  at 
different  times  by  the  Romans,  Vandals, 
Arabs,  Turks  and.  French.  Excepting  the 
French  and  other  Europeans,  the  inhabi- 
tants are  mostly  Mohammedans. 

Barca,  known  also  as  Benghazi,  a  Turk- 
ish vilayet  in  Tripoli-in-Barbary,  projecting 
into  the  Mediterranean,  opposite  Greece  and 
the  island  of  Crete,  and  having  to  the  south 
of  it  the  Libyan  Desert.  It  is  flanked  on 
the  east  by  Egypt  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Nile  River,  and  on  the  west  by  Tripoli,  the 
Gulf  of  Sidra  and  Algeria.  In  early  days  the 
region  was  the  Dorian  colony  of  Cyrene, 
subsequently  captured  and  pillaged  by  the 
Persians.  Later  on  it  became  a  province  of 
Greece,  but,  declaring  itself  independent,  it 
was  invaded  and  conquered  in  A.  D.  641 
by  the  Arabs.  With  Tripoli  it  fell  under 
Turkish  dominion,  and  in  1835  tne  entire 
region  was  proclaimed  a  Turkish  vilayet; 
though,  forty  years  subsequently  it  was 
placed  under  a  separate  administration 
directly  responsible  to  the  Porte.  The 
country  is  in  the  main  arid  and  sandy,  with 
a  few  elevations,  together  with  fringes  of 
arable  and  pasture  land,  where  barley  and 
wheat  are  grown,  cattle  and  sheep  are  bred, 
and  fruits,  including  dates,  olives,  oranges 
and  lemons,  are  grown.  Sponges  also  are 
among  its  exports,  besides  goat-skins,  ostrich- 
feathers,  ivory  and  the  produce  brought 
by  caravans  from  the  Libyan  Desert  and 
the  Sudan.  Arabic  is  the  tongue  commonly 
spoken  in  the  district,  though  the  official 
language  is  Turkish.  The  population  of 
Barca  or  Benghazi  is  320,000  to  520,000, 
mostly  Berber,  though  Jews  are  numerous. 

Barcelo'na,  the  most  important  manu- 
facturing city  in  Spain,  and  next  to  Madrid 
in  size,  is  situated  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
It  is  divided  into  the  old  and  new  towns 
by  a  beautiful  promenade  called  La  Ramble. 
It  has  a  Gothic  cathedral  600  years  old,  a 
university,  public  libraries,  museums  and 
theaters.  It  is  the  most  important  port  of 
Spain  except  Cadiz.  Silk,  lace,  woolen  and 
cotton  goods,  shoes  and  firearms  are  its 
principal  manufactures.  It  is  a  very  old 
place,  supposed  to  have  been  founded  400 
years  before  the  Romans,  and  rebuilt  by 
Hamilcar  Barca,  the  father  of  the  great 
Carthaginian  general,  Hannibal.  In  878 
it  became  an  independent  city  under  the 
counts  of  Barcelona,  but  was  joined  to  the 
kingdom  of  Aragon  in  the  i2th  century. 


During  the  middle  ages  it  was  a  flourishing 
seaport.  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  received 
Columbus  here,  in  1493,  after  his  discovery  of 
America.  In  1714  it  was  captured  by  the 
Duke  of  Berwick  for  the  French  after  a 
long  siege,  and  the  town  pillaged.  Napoleon 
got  possession  of  it  in  1804,  and  it  was 
held  by  the  French  till  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in 
1814.  Barcelona  is  also  a  province  of  Spain, 
area,  2,968  square  miles,  population,  1,133,- 
883.  The  city's  population  is  560,000. 

Barebone's  Parliament,  a  name  applied 
in  derision  to  an  assembly  of  Roundheads 
summoned  by  Cromwell  in  1653  to  govern 
the  then  Puritan  England  after  turning  out 
the  "Rump"  of  the  Long  Parliament.  It 
was  composed  of  about  140  members,  and 
received  from  the  Cavaliers  its  nickname 
of  Barebone's  Parliament  from  the  name  of 
an  officious  member,  Praise-God  Bare- 
bone,  a  leather  merchant  of  Fleet  Street, 
London.  The  assembly,  though  composed 
in  part  of  many  responsible  and  capable 
as  well  as  godly  men,  proved  rather  unman- 
ageable, and  as  it  began  to  originate  laws 
of  a  more  or  less  radical  order,  which  the 
Lord-Protector  deemed  beyond  the  legiti- 
mate province  of  the  assembly,  Cromwell 
ordered  its  dissolution  after  many  of  the 
body  had  personally  surrendered  their  vested 
power  into  his  hands.  The  Parliament 
lasted  from  July  4th  to  Dec.  i2th,  1653, 
and  in  spite  of  its  wittily  applied  name  it 
enacted  several  wise  measures  of  reform. 
Before  resigning  as  a  body,  it  named  a 
new  Council  of  State,  and  this  council 
proceeded  to  draft  a  constitution,  histor- 
ically known  as  the  Instrument  of  Govern- 
ment. Under  this  instrument  Cromwell 
was  made  Lord-Protector  of  the  common- 
wealth, and  was  given  a  council  of  twenty- 
one  members,  by  whose  advice  he  was  to 
be  guided  in  foreign  and  domestic  affairs. 

Bar  Harbor,  a  famous  summer  resort, 
is  situated  on  Mt.  Desert  Island  off  the  coast 
of  Maine.  This  island,  the  largest  on  the 
New  England  coast,  was  discovered  by 
Champlain  who  named  it  L'Isle  des  Monts 
Deserts  or  the  isle  of  the  desert  mountains. 
In  its  area  of  100  square  miles  there  are 
fifteen  mountains  from  700  to  1,500  feet 
above  the  sea  level,  and  as  many  beautiful 
lakes  from  a  few  acres  to  several  square 
miles  in  area. 

Bar  Harbor  has  a  permanent  population 
of  5,000.  In  the  summer  this  is  increased 
to  12,000  or  more.  It  contains  several 
large  hotels  but  is  becoming  more  each 
year  a  city  of  magnificent  summer  residences 
which  are  popularly  known  as  cottages. 
These  are  occupied  during  the  summer  by 
members  of  some  of  the  wealthiest  and  best 
known  families  of  the  large  cities.  In  addi- 
tion to  its  natural  attractions  of  mountain, 
lake  and  shore,  Bar  Harbor  has  many  pub- 
lic improvements  including  fine  roads,  bridle 
paths,  excellent  drainage,  an  abundance  of 


BARK 


172 


BARNACLE 


pure  water,  electric  lights  and  unusual 
railroad,  postal,  telephone  and  telegraph 
facilities. 

Bark,  the  portion  of  the  stems  of  trees  and 
shrubs  outside  the  wood.  Sometimes  ex- 
tended by  analogy  to  the  cortex  of  herbs, 
especially  of  such  as  the  flax,  hemp,  etc., 
which  contains  textile  fibers.  In  spring,  this 
part  is  usually  easily  separable  from  the 
wood,  because  young  cells  which  are  easily 
ruptured  are  forming  at  the  juncture  of  the 
two.  (See  CAMBIUM.)  In  Europe  (and  con- 
sequently in  English  translations  of  German 
books) ,  the  term  bark  is  applied  only  to  the 
dead  and  dry  outer  portions  of  what  Amer- 
icans call  bark.  The  bark  of  a  young  twig 
shows  three  parts :  the  outer,  corky  layer, 
composed  mainly  of  a  dead  tissue,  cork;  the 
green  layer  of  living  cells  capable  of  food- 
making;  the  inner  (often  fibrous)  layer  con- 
cerned in  the  transport  of  foods.  (See 
BAST.)  As  the  bark  grows  older  it  under- 
goes various  modifications:  (i)  The  outer 
part  either  becomes  thick  and  ridgy,  or  is 
sloughed  off  in  flakes  or  strings.  (2)  The 
green  color  disappears  from  the  middle  layer 
or  this  layer  also  may  be  sloughed  off ;  leav- 
in£  (3)  the  inner  portion  alone,  which,  being 
added  to  yearly,  consists  of  partly  dead  and 
partly  living  tissues  in  various  proportions 
in  different  plants.  Many  barks  are  of  great 
economic  importance  on  account  of  the  tan- 
nins, alkaloids,  aromatic  substances,  etc., 
which  they  contain.  The  bark  of  several 
oaks  and  of  hemlock  is  used  in  tanning 
leather;  Peruvian  bark  yields  quinine  and 
other  alkaloids,  used  as  medicine;  stick 
cinnamon  is  the  rolled  inner  bark  used  as 
a  spice. 

Barker,  Lewellyn  Franklin,  a  native 
of  Ontario,  graduated  in  medicine  in  Toronto 
University  in  1890.  Up  to  1893  assistant 
resident  physician  at  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital, 
associate  professor  of  anatomy  and  later  of 
pathology  in  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
A  member  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  commission 
for  the  study  of  tropical  diseases  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  in  1899.  ^n  1900  made  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  and  director  of  the  ana- 
tomical laboratories  of  the  University  of 
Chicago.  In  1901  he  was  a  member  of  the 
United  States  government  commission  for 
the  investigation  of  the  plague  in  San 
Francisco.  A  double  gold  medalist  of 
Toronto  University.  Has  spent  much  time 
studying  at  Leipsic,  Berlin,  Munich  and 
London.  In  1905  appointed  a  professor 
of  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital  and  School  of 
Medicine  as  successor  to  Dr.  Wm.  Osier. 

Bar 'ley,  a  well-known  grain  produced  by 
a  species  of  the  genus  Hordeum,  which  be- 
longs to  the  grass  family.  The  ordinary 
barley  is  the  H .  sativum.  In  its  cultivated 
form  it  is  unknown  in  nature,  but  is  com- 
monly supposed  to  have  originated  from  a 
wild  speeies  which  is  now  growing  from  Asia 
Mmor  and  the  Caucasus  to  Persia  and  Ba- 


luchistan.    All    the    cultivated    forms  are 
probably  derived  from  this  one  stock. 

Barmecide's  Feast,  an  imaginary  ban- 
quet, from  the  story,  in  Arabian  Nights,  of 
one  of  the  Barmecide  family  who  put  a 
number  of  empty  dishes  before  a  starving 
beggar,  giving  them  fine  names  as  he  did  so. 
The  beggar  humored  the  joke,  pretending  to 
eat  heartily,  and  at  last  feigned  to  be  so 
intoxicated  with  the  imaginary  wine  that 
he  boxed  the  ears  of  his  host.  The  host 
was  so  pleased  with  the  beggar's  patient 
humor,  that  he  set  a  real  dinner  before 
him  at  once. 

Bar'men,  a  busy  city  in  Rhenish  Prussia. 
Nowhere  else  in  Germany  are  so  many  fac- 
tories found  in  one  place.  It  has  the  largest 
factories  for  ribbon-weaving  on  the  conti- 
nent, and  also  manufactures  lace,  thread, 
buttons,  braid,  cotton  cloth,  silk  goods, 
steel  wares  and  plated  goods.  It  is  made 
up  of  a  number  of  villages,  which  form 
almost  one  continuous  street  six  miles 
long.  Population,  169,201. 

Bar'nabas,  one  of  the  early  Jewish  Chris- 
tians, best  known  for  his  connection  with  the 
Apostle  Paul,  was  born  at  Cyprus.  His 
name  was  Joses,  Barnabas  being  a  surname 
which  means  son  of  exhortation.  He  was 
sent  to  Antioch  to  learn  the  truth  of  the 
story  which  had  reached  Jerusalem  of  the 
conversion  of  Paul,  and  was  with  him  there 
a  year,  helping  him  in  his  work.  They  were 
sent  together  on  a  mission  to  Cyprus  and 
Asia  Minor.  The  people  of  Lystra,  on  this 
mission,  called  him  Jupiter,  and  Paul,  Mer- 
cury, from  which  it  is  thought  Barnabas 
must  have  been  large  and  fine  looking. 
Nothing  further  is  known  certainly  about 
him,  though  some-  scholars  think  he  wrote 
Hebrews.  The  Gospel  of  St.  Barnabas  in 
Arabic  is  not  considered  his  writing.  The 
Roman  Catholic  church  observes  the  nth 
of  June  as  St.  Barnabas's  day. 

Barnacle.  Among  the  most  common 
objects  at  the  sea-coast  are  the  acorn-shells, 
attached  to  rocks,  and  other  forms  of  barna- 
cles attached  to  the  piles  supporting  wharves 
and  other  submerged  objects.  These  ani- 
mals possess  a  shell,  but  are  not  related  to 
the  clams,  oysters  and  sea-snails;  on  the 
other  hand,  they  are  closely  related  to  the 
crabs,  shrimps  and  lobsters.  In 
one  .of  the  common  forms,  the 
shelled  animal  is  perched  on  a 
flexible  stalk  (see  Fig.).  This  is 
the  common  ship-barnacle  or 
Lepas,  frequently  attached  to  the 
bottom  of  ships.  Feathery-like 
limbs  protrude  from  the  shell, 
which,  by  moving,  produce  cur- 
rents in  the  -water  that  bring 
BARNACLE  food  to  the  animal. 

(Lefas     These  animals    have    a    strange 

anattfera)  life-history.      The      females    lay 

eggs,     but      the     young,     when 

hatched,  do    not    look    like    the    parents; 


BARNARD  COLLEGE 


BARNUM 


they  are  free  swimming  anet  higher  de- 
veloped, and  show  their  resemblance  to  the 
other  Crustacea  (crabs,  lobsters,  etc.) .  After 
swimming  freely  for  a  time,  these  young 
forms  settle  down  and  grow  firmly  attached 
to  some  object  in  the  water.  Then  they 
undergo  changes  that  carry  them  down- 
ward instead  of  upward  in  the  scale  of  life ; 
therefore,  the  adults  are  not  on  as  high  a 
plane  as  the  young.  The  forms  growing  to 
the  rocks  have  no  stalks.  A  myth  of  the 
middle  ages  led  to  the  strange  belief  that  a 
kind  of  goose-barnacle  gave  birth  to  goslins. 

Barnard  College  is  the  institution  which 
cares  for  the  undergraduate  women 
students  of  Columbia  University.  It  is 
named  in  honor  of  President  Frederick  A. 
P.  Barnard,  former  president  of  Columbia 
University,  to  whose  recommendations  and 
efforts  this  college  owes  its  existence.  In 
1883  the  trustees  of  Columbia  College 
authorized  the  bestowal  of  "suitable  aca- 
demic honors  and  distinctions"  upon  women 
who  had  pursued  successfully  courses  of 
study  outside  of  Columbia  College,  but  under 
the  observation  of  its  authorities.  Women 
students  began  at  once  to  take  advantage 
of  this  privilege,  and  from  that  beginning 
the  present  college  has  grown.  The  college 
buildings  are  beautifully  situated  at  i2Oth 
Street,  Morningside  Heights,  New  York  City. 
It  takes  very  high  rank  among  institutions  of 
advanced  learning  for  women. 

Barnard,  Frederick  A.  P.,  American 
educator  and  scientist,  was  born  in  Massa- 
chusetts in  1809,  and  died  in  New  York  city, 
April  27,  1889.  Educated  at  Yale,  he  occu- 
pied for  a  time  the  mathematical  chair  at  the 
University  of  Alabama,  and  later  on  was 
successively  president  of  the  University  of 
Mississippi  and  of  Columbia  College,  New 
York.  In  the  latter  post  he  did  admirable 
work,  and  at  his  death  his  estate  was  devised 
to  it.  In  his  honor  Barnard  College  for 
women  was  founded  as  an  annex  to  Colum- 
bia. In  1867  President  Barnard  repre- 
sented the  United  States  as  commissioner 
to  the  Paris  exposition ;  he  was  also  president 
of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science.  Besides  a  number  of  works 
of  an  educational  character,  President  Bar- 
nard published  treatiseson  The  Metric  System, 
on  the  Undulatory  Theory  of  Light  and  a 
History  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey. 

Barneveldt  (bdr'ne-velt),  John  Van 
Olden,  grand  pensionary  of  Holland,  who 
held  an  important  place  in  the  long  struggle 
against  Spain,  was  born  in  the  province  of 
Utrecht  in  1547.  In  1585  he  was  sent  on  an 
embassy  to  Queen  Elizabeth  of  England, 
and  on  his  return  was  made  advocate-general 
of  Holland.  He  became  the  head  of  the 
republican  party,  and  opposed  the  warlike 
tendencies  of  Prince  Maurice,  who  then  was 
stallholder.  In  1609  he  secured  peace  with 
Spain.  He  was  in  favor  of  the  more  tolerant 
of  the  two  parties  in  Holland,  called  the 


Remonstrants  or  Arminians,  while  Maurice 
sided  with  the  other,  called  the  Gomarites. 
Barneveldt  tried  to  bring  about  an  agree- 
ment between  them  in  religious  matters, 
but  his  enemies  claimed  that  he  was  acting 
secretly  in  the  interest  of  Spain.  In  1618 
he  was  illegally  tried  and  convicted  of  trea- 
son, _  though  his  country  really  owed  its 
political  existence  to  him.  He  was  beheaded 
at  The  Hague  in  May,  1619.  His  story 
is  well  known  to  American  readers  through 
the  Life  and  Death  of  John  of  Barneveldt, 
written  by  the  historian  Motley. 

Bar'ney,  Joshua,  an  American  commo- 
dore, was  born  at  Baltimore,  Maryland,  in 
1759.  After  distinguishing  himself  in  sev- 
eral engagements  and  being  imprisoned  in 
England,  he  was  appointed  captain  of  the 
famous  ship  Hyder  Ali.  In  1782  he  cap- 
tured the  British  ship  General  Monk,  for 
which  he  received  the  rank  of  commodore. 
After  the  Revolution  he  was  for  a  time  in 
the  French  navy.  In  the  War  of  1812  he 
commanded  a  fleet  of  gunboats,  and  also  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  defense  of  Washing- 
ton. He  died  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  in  1818. 

Barnum,  Phineas  Taylor,  American 
showman,  was  born  at  Bethel,  Connecticut, 
July  5,  1810.  He  began  business  at  thirteen 
years  of  age  as  clerk  in  a  country  store, 
then  was  in  the  lottery  business,  and  after- 
ward edited  a  newspaper  in  Danbury,  Conn., 
where  he  was  imprisoned  sixty  days  for  libel. 
In  1834  he  bought  in  New  York  a  colored 
woman,  said  to  have  been  the  nurse  of 
Washington,  and  exhibited  her  as  Wash- 
ington's nurse.  In  1841  he  got  hold  of 
Scudder's  museum  in  New  York,  which 
soon  became  famous.  Here  he  exhibited 
the  famous  dwarf,  General  Tom  Thumb, 
whom  he  afterward  showed  through  Europe. 
In  1849  he  induced  Jenny  Lind  to  sing  in 
New  York  and  other  cities  at  $1,000  a  night 
for  150  nights.  The  tour  was  successful, 
Barnum  receiving  $700,000  from  the  sale 
of  tickets  at  auction.  In  1871  he  organized 
a  museum,  menagerie  and  circus,  which 
took  500  men  and  horses  to  carry  it 
through  the 
country.  This 
he  enlarged  in 
later  years  un- 
til it  required  a 
hundred  rail- 
road cars  to 
transport  it.  In 
1879  he  said 
that  90,000,000 
people  had  vis- 
ited his  show, 
and  the  num- 
ber enormously 
increased  i  n 
later  years.  Y 
Mr.  Barnum 
was  well  known 
as  a  benevolent  *>HINEAS  T.  BARNUM 


'BARODA 


174 


BARR 


man  and  also  as  author  of  several  books — an 
Autobiography  (1854),  The  Humbugs  of  the 
World  ( 1 865) ,  Struggles  and  Triumphs  (1869) 
and  Money-getting  (1883).  He  died  at 
Bridgeport,  Connecticut,  April  7,  1891. 

Baro'da,  a  city  of  Hindostan.  It  is  250 
miles  north  of  Bombay,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  railroad.  It  is  the  residence  of  the 
Gaikwar,  a  Mahratta  prince.  It  has  several 
Hindu  palaces  and  temples  and  the  court  of 
the  state  to  which  it  belongs.  Its  trade  is 
considerable.  Baroda  is  also  one  of  the  feuda- 
tory or  native  states  in  British  India  (area 
8,099  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
». 972,600).  Population  of  the  city,  103,790. 

Barom'eter,  an  instrument  for  measuring 
the  pressure  exerted  by  the  earth's  at- 
mosphere. It  consists  simply  of  a  U-tube, 
one  end  of  which  opens  into  the  earth's 
atmosphere,  the  other  into  a  vacuum,  the 
intermediate  portion  of  the  tube  being  filled 
with  a  liquid,  usually  mercury. 

To  clearly  understand  the  barometer,  we 
must  recall  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  1 7th 
century  the  two  following  facts  were  sup- 
posed to  be  entirely  independent,  namely,  (i) 
the  fact  that  "  nature  abhors  a  vacuum"  and 
(2)  the  fact  that  the  air  has  weight.  It  was 
Torricelli  (born  in  1608,  died  in  1647),  who 
first  showed  that  "nature  abhors  a  vacuum 
because  the  air  has  weight." 

(l)    MERCURIAL   BAROMETER. 

He  illustrated  this  by  taking  a  tube,  more 
than  76  centimeters  long  and  closed  at  one 
end,  which  he  filled  with  mercury,  as  indi- 
cated in  the  figure.  Placing  his  finger  over 
the  open  end,  he  inverted  the  tube  in  a  dish 
of  mercury.  The  column  of  mercury  fell  a 
short  distance,  but  remained  standing  in  the 
tube  approximately  at  the  height  of  76  cen- 
timeters above  the  surface  of  the  mercury  in 
the  dish. 

Torricelli  thus  showed  that  the  weight  of 
the  earth's  atmosphere  is  approximately  that 

of  an  ocean  of 
mercury  cover- 
ing the  entire 
earth  to  the 
depth  of  76 
c  e  n  t  i  meters. 
But  if  this  be 
the  fact  of  the 
case,  Torricelli 
argued  that  the 
height  o  f  t  h  e 
mercury  in  the 
inverted  tube 
should  dimin- 
ish as  one  as- 
cends in  the 
earth's  atmos- 
phere. This 
test  was  shortly 
made  by  Pas- 

TORRICELLIS  EXPERIMENT      caj       w^      c&r_ 

ried  the  inverted  tube  to  the  top  of  a  moun- 


tain in  France,  and  found  that  the  mercury 
fell  some  seven  or  eight  centimeters  in  the 
ascent.  Such  a  dish  of  mercury  and  in- 
verted tube  is  called  a  mercurial  barometer. 
The  vertical  distance  between  the  two 
surfaces  of  mercury,  one  in  the  tube,  the 
other  in  the  dish,  is  called  the  height  of  the 
barometer  or,  sometimes,  the  reading  of  the 
barometer.  Ordinary  barometers  are  fur- 
nished with  graduated  scales  by  which  this 
height  can  be  easily  read. 

In  general  the  height  of  a  barometer  de- 
pends upon  two  factors:  (i)  the  height  of  the 
atmosphere  and  (2)  the  average  density  of 
the  atmosphere.  Anything  which  changes 
either  one  of  these  will  change  the  reading 
of  the  barometer. 

Water  vapor,  when  under  the  same  pres- 
sure as  air,  has  a  density  which  is  less  than 
that  of  air.  If  then  there  be  much  water 
vapor  in  any  portion  of  the  earth's  atmos- 
phere, its  density  will  be  diminished  and  the 
mercury  column  which  it  supports  will 
become  shorter.  The  barometer  is  said  to 
fall.  But  the  same  thing  happens  when 
the  height  of  the  atmosphere  is  changed  or 
when  its  pressure  is  altered  by  cyclonic 
motion.  The  barometer  is  not,  therefore,  an 
instrument  for  telling  whether  or  not  it  is 
about  to  rain;  but  for  measuring  the  pres- 
sure of  the  earth's  atmosphere.  The  read- 
ings of  the  barometer  are,  however,  exceed- 
ingly useful,  os  one  factor,  in  predicting  the 
weather. 

(2)    ANEROID    BAROMETER. 

Since  the  mercurial  barometer  is  not  easily 
portable,  geologists  and  travelers  generally 
use  a  smaller  form  based  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  the  ordinary  steam  gauge.  It  con- 
sists essentially  of  a  hollow  cylinder  made  of 
thin  sheet- metal  and  bent  into  a  circular 
form.  After  the  air  has  been  partially 
removed  from  this  cylinder  it  is  hermetically 
sealed.  As  the  pressure  of  the  air  outside 
diminishes,  the  metallic  vessel  tends  to  un- 
coil from  the  circular  into  a  straight  form. 
By  a  system  of  levers  this  motion  is  com- 
municated to  an  index  moving  over  a  dial 
from  which  the  barometric  height  can  be 
read.  Such  an  instrument  is  called  an 
aneroid  barometer.  This  is  not  nearly  so 
reliable  as  the  mercurial  barometer;  but 
when  it  is  used  with  care  and  frequently 
compared  with  a  mercurial  barometer,  it  is 
exceedingly  convenient  for  measuring  alti- 
tudes. Hough,  Hipp  and  others  have  in- 
vented excellent  self-registering  barometers. 

Boudin  of  Paris  makes  a  delicate  ther- 
mometer which  by  changes  of  boiling-point 
of  water  will  indicate  differences  of  altitude 
as  small  as  30  feet.  Such  an  instrument 
is  equivalent  to  a  barometer  and  is  called  a 
hypsometer. 

Barr,  Amelia  Edith  (Huddleston),  An- 
glo-American novelist,  was  born  at  Ulver- 
ston,  Lancashire,  England,  March  29,  1831, 
and  was  educated  at  the  High  School  at 


BARRE 


175 


BARROWS 


AMELIA    E.    BARR 


Glasgow,  Scotland.  In  1850  she  married 
Wm.  Barr,  and  four  years  later  they  came  to 
this  country  and  settled  in  Texas,  where  the 
husband  and  three  children  died  of  yellow 
fever  at  Galveston 
in  1867.  With  her 
three  remaining 
children  (daugh- 
ters) ,  Mrs.  Barr  re- 
moved t  o  New 
York,  where  she 
began  to  write  for 
the  religious  pe- 
riodicals and  t  o 
publish  a  series 
,  of  semi-historical 
Stales  and  novels. 
\The  more  popular 
of  the  latter  are  A 
Bow  of  Orange 
Ribbon,  Jan  Ved~ 
der's  Wife,  A  Daughter  of  Fife,  Friend  Olivia, 
Beads  of  Tasmer,  Sister  to  Esau,  A  Rose  of  a 
Hundred  Leaves,  The  Lone  House  and  Pris- 
oners of  Conscience.  She  has  also  written 
Romance  and  Reality,  The  Hallam  Succession, 
Young  People  of  Shakespeare's  Time,  A 
Border  Shepherdess,  Bernicia,  Feet  of  Clay, 
Remember  the  Alamo  and  a  number  of 
other  stories. 

Barre,  Vt.,  a  city  in  Washington  County, 
six  miles  from  Montpelier.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  important  granite  centers  in  this 
country.  The  city  has  a  school  for  young 
men  and  women,  the  Spaulding  High  School, 
Goddard  Seminary,  a  public  library,  opera 
house,  banks,  newspapers,  etc.  It  has  the 
service  of  three  railroads.  Population, 
10,734. 

Ban-as  (bd'rdr),  Paul  Francois  Jean 
Nicolas,  Comte  de,  a  prominent  man  in 
the  French  Revolution,  was  born  in  June, 
1755.  ^e  s61"^60^  i*1  hi?  youth  as  a  soldier  in 
India  against  the  English,  leaving  the  army 
with  the  rank  of  captain.  His  dissipation 
soon  made  away  with  his  fortune,  and  he 
joined  the  Revolution  in  the  hope  of  regain- 
ing it.  He  became  a  member  of  the  states- 
general  in  1789,  of  the  national  convention 
in  1792,  and  was  an  active  opponent  of  the 
royalist  party,  voting  for  the  execution  of 
the  king.  He  conducted  the  siege  of  Tou- 
lon, where  he  first  met  Napoleon,  and  put 
down  with  great  cruelty  a  revolt  in  the  south 
of  France.  He  was  active  in  overthrowing 
Robespierre  in  1794.  In  1795  he  was 
appointed  general-in-chief,  and  by  calling 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  to  his  aid  put  down 
the  rebellion  which  was  just  starting. 
About  the  middle  of  1794  he  became  dicta- 
tor, but  his  love  of  pleasure  made  him  un- 
popular, and  he  had  to  yield  to  Napoleon 
in  1799.  His  later  years,  until  his  death 
in  1829,  were  spent  in  conspiracies  against 
the  government. 

Barrie,  Sir  James,  greatest  of  modern 
Scotch  novelists,  made  a  baronet  in  1913, 


was  born  at  Kirriemuir  ("Thrums"),  a 
little  Forfar  weaving  town,  May  9,  1860, 
and  educated  at  Dumfries  Academy  and 
at  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He 
began  his  literary  career  as  a  leader-writer  on 
a  newspaper  in  Nottingham,  England,  then 
became  a  journalist  in  London,  contributing 
under  the  pen  name  of  Gavin  Ogilvy  to 
the  British  Weekly,  the  Speaker  and  the 
National  Observer.  His  first  book,  Better 
Dead,  a  satire  on  London  life,  appeared  in 
1877,  and  was 
followed  by  two 
more  important 
and  far  more 
successful 
works,  A  ul d 
Licht  Idylls 
and  When  a 
Man's  Single. 
These  were 
followed  by  A 
Window  in 
Thrums  (1889), 
which  won  fame 
for  the  novelist; 
after  which  ap- 
p  e  a  r  e  d  An  JAMES  M.  BARRIE 

Edinburgh  Eleven,  My  Lady  Nicotine, 
Sentimental  Tommy  and  a  memoir  of  his 
mother,  Margaret  Ogilvy.  His  first  long 
story  now  appeared,  The  Little  Minister,  in 
which  he  shows  himself  the  literary  artist. 
In  1892  appeared  a  comedy,  Walker  London, 
which  enjoyed  a  phenomenal  run.  Tender 
sympathy  and  shrewd  humor,  mark  his 
style.  His  later  works,  beside  a  dramatic 
version  of  The  Little  Minister,  also  very 
successful  on  the  stage,  are  The  Professor's 
Love  Story,  Tommy  and  Grizel,  Peter  Pan 
and  Alice-sit-by-the-fire. 

Barrie,  county  seat  of  Simcoe  County, 
Ont.,  is  a  pleasant  city  of  6,575  inhabitants, 
situated  839  feet  above  the  sea  on  the  north 
side  of  Kempenfeldt  Bay  (Lake  Simcoe). 
The  Grand  Trunk  Railway  runs  through  it, 
and  here  starts  the  Lake  Simcoe  steamer, 
traversing  a  beautiful  body  of  water  30  miles 
long  and  26  wide.  In  the  vicinity  was 
fought  that  war  in  which  the  Iroquois  In- 
dians completely  destroyed  the  power  of 
the  Hurons.  The  summer  temperature  makes 
the  spot  a  favorite  resort. 

Barrows,  John  Henry,  president  of  Oberlin 
College,  Ohio,  and  a  minister  of  the  Presby- 
terian church,  was  born  at  Medina,  Mich.,  in 
1847,  and  in  1867  graduated  from  Olivet 
College,  Mich.  He  subsequently  studied  at 
Yale,  Union  and  Andover  theological  semi- 
naries, and  from  1881  to  1895  was  pastor  of 
the  First  Presbyterian  Church,  Chicago. 
During  the  Columbian  exposition  (1893) 
held  in  that  city,  he  was  chairman  of  the 
general  committee  on  religious  congresses. 
In  1896  he  resigned  his  pastoral  charge  in 
Chicago  and  proceeded  to  India,  to  lecture 
on  religious  subjects  under  the  auspices  of 


BARRY 


176 


BARTOLINI 


the  Haskell  endowment  of  the  University 
of  Chicago.  On  his  return  he  became 
lecturer  at  the  latter  on  Comparative  Reli- 
gions^ and  was  also  lecturer  at  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  New  York.  He  is  the 
author  of  a  History  of  the  Parliament  of 
Religions;  a  Life  of  Henry  Ward  Beecher; 
Christianity,  the  World  Religion;  and  The 
World  Pilgrimage.  Died  June  3,  1902.  His 
daughter  has  since  published  a  biography 
of  him. 

Barry,  John  (1745-1803),  an  officer  of 
the  United  States  Navy,  the  first  senior 
officer  of  the  service  to  have  the  rank  of 
commodore  conferred  upon  him  after  the 
reorganization  of  the  American  Navy  in 
1794.  Born  in  Wexford  County,  Ireland, 
he  early  began  to  follow  the  sea  as  a  pro- 
fession, first  as  master  of  a  trading  ship 
and  subsequently,  after  coming  to  America 
and  settling  in  Philadelphia,  as  an  officer 
of  the  United  States  Navy.  In  the  Revo- 
lutionary War  he  was  given  command  of 
the  Lexington,  in  which  he  made  some  cap- 
tures of  English  vessels;  while  after  being 
transferred  to  the  command  of  the  frigate 
Effingham  he  captured  an  English  war 
schooner  in  the  Delaware  River,  and  in  the 
winter  of  1776-77  he  assisted  at  the  battle 
of  Trenton.  In  1787  he  commanded  the 
Raleigh,  which  was  pursued  by  the  British 
and  driven  ashore;  he  later  on  commanded 
the  Alliance  and  in  a  sharp  engagement  he 
captured  the  Atlanta  and  the  Trepassy  and 
gained  well-earned  promotion. 

Barry,  William  Farquhar,  an  American 
major-general  and  artillery  officer,  was  born 
in  New  York  city  in  1818,  and  died  near  Bal- 
timore, Md.,  July  18,  1879.  After  service  in 
the  Indian  War  in  Florida,  in  the  Mexican 
War  and  on  the  western  frontier,  he  became 
chief  of  artillery  of  the  Army  of  the  Poto- 
mac in  the  Civil  War.  In  1864  he  gained 
promotion  for  gallantry  at  the  fall  of  Atlanta 
and  also  for  distinguished  service  in  the  cam- 
paign against  General  J.  E.  Johnston.  Later 
on  he  was  given  command  of  the  artillery  in 
the  armies  under  General  Sherman,  and  had 
charge  of  the  defenses  of  Washington.  He 
for  a  time  also  was  in  command  of  the  artil- 
lery school  at  Fortress  Monroe.  He  was  one 
of  the  authors  of  the  Engineer  and  Artillery 
Operations  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac 
and  of  A  System  of  Tactics  for  the  Field 
Artillery  of  the  United  States. 

Barth  (barf),  Heinrich,  a  distinguished 
German  traveler,  was  born  at  Hamburg  in 
1821.  After  visiting  Italy  and  Sicily,  he 
crossed  the  Mediterranean  in  1845  *°  Tan- 
gier in  Africa,  and  made  short  trips  into  the 
interior,  to  Tunis,  Tripoli  and  Benghazi  and 
then  d«wn  the  Nile.  Soon  after  he  extended 
his  travels  into  Egypt,  Palestine,  Asia  Minor 
and  Greece.  He  published  an  account  of 
his  travels,  called  Wanderings  Along  the 
Shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  1849,  with 
Dr.  Overweg,  he  proceeded  on  an  exploring 


journey  through  Central  Africa.  He  was 
gone  nearly  six  years,  traveling  about  ia,ooo 
miles.  He  published  his  Travels  and  Dis- 
coveries in  Central  Africa  and  a  work  on 
the  Vocabularies  of  Central  Africa.  After 
other  journeys  in  Greece,  Turkey  and  Asia 
Minor,  he  died  at  Berlin,  Nov.  25,  1865. 

Bartholdi  (bar'tol'de'),  Frederic  Au=» 
guste,  a  sculptor,  was  born  in  Alsace  in  1834. 
He  has  made  a  number  of  famous  statues. 
Among  them  are  the  Lafayette  statue  in 
New  York;  V ercingetorix ,  the  leader  of  the 
Gauls,  which  is  now  in  the  galleries  of  the 
French  government;  The  Lion  of  Belfort 
and  Grief.  It  occurred  to  him  in  1874  that 
it  would  be  a  fitting  thing  for  France  to 
present  to  America  a  statue  in  honor  of 
American  independence.  The  result  of  this 
idea  is  the  gigantic  bronze  statue  of  Liberty 
Enlightening  the  World,  which  was  finished 
in  1884,  and,  after  two  years  spent  in  getting 
it  into  position,  was  unveiled  on  Bedloe's 
Island  in  New  York  harbor.  Bartholdi 
received  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
in  1887.  He  died  Oct.  4,  1904. 

Bartholomew  Fair,  held  at  West  Smith- 
field,  London  from  1133  to  1855,  its  charter 
having  been  granted  by  Henry  I  to  a  monk. 
It  was  held  yearly  at  the  Festival  of  Bartho- 
lomew. In  the  beginning  it  was  one  of  the 
great  yearly  markets  of  the  nation,  more 
cloth  being  sold  there  than  anywhere  else  in 
the  kingdom.  All  sorts  of  amusements 
were  used  to  attract  people  to  it;  all  kinds 
of  shows,  acrobats,  stilt-walkers,  mummers 
and .  merry-andrews  were  to  be  found  there 
in  great  numbers.  After  1685  the  famous 
fair  began  to  lose  its  trade,  and  came  to  an 
end  in  1855. 

Bartholomew,  Massacre  of  St.,  the 
name  given  to  the  massacre  of  the  Huguenots 
in  Paris  on  the  night  of  St.  Bartholomew's 
Day,  Aug.  24,  1572.  During  the  youth  of 
Charles  IX  his  mother,  Catherine  de  Medici, 
acted  as  regent  and  showed  an  extraordinary 
cruelty.  Pretending  friendship  to  the  Hu- 
guenots, she  married  her  daughter  Margaret 
to  Prince  Henry  of  Navarre,  afterward 
Henry  IV,  the  head  of  the  Huguenot  party, 
and  appointed  Admiral  Coligni,  another 
leader  of  the  Huguenots,  to  a  high  office  in 
the  kingdom.  Having  induced  all  the  chief 
members  of  the  party  to  come  to  Paris,  she 
secretly  appointed  St.  Bartholomew's  Day 
as  the  day  for  their  massacre.  Admiral 
Coligni  was  murdered  in  the  palace,  and  the 
bell  of  the  palace  was  rung  as  a  signal  to  the 
citizens  to  begin  the  slaughter.  Notices 
were  sent  through  all  the  French  provinces 
to  kill  all  the  Huguenots,  and  for  days  the 
bloody  work  went  on;  30,000  people  are 
said  to  have  been  killed.  The  massacre, 
however,  did  not  accomplish  its  object,  for 
the  king  was  obliged  soon  to  grant  liberty 
of  conscience  to  his  Huguenot  subjects. 

Bartolini  (bdr'to-le'ne),  Lorenzo,  a  cele- 
brated Italian  sculptor,  was  born  in  Tuscany 


BARTON 


177 


BASEBALL 


in  1777,  and  came  to  Paris  while  still  a  young 
man.  His  chief  patron  was  Napoleon,  who 
sent  him,  in  1808,  to  Carrara  to  establish  a 
school  of  sculpture.  After  the  battle  of 
Waterloo,  he  went  to  Florence,  where  he 
died  in  1850.  Besides  a  great  number  of 
busts,  he  produced  several  groups,  of  which 
Charity  and  Hercules  and  Lycus  are  the 
most  celebrated. 

Barton,  Clara,  philanthropist,  and  presi- 
dent of  the  American  National  Red  Cross 
society  (1881—1904)  was  born  at  Oxford, 
Mass.,  in  1830.  In  1854  she  entered  the 
United  States  Patent  office  at  Washington 
as  a  clerk ;  but  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  she  devoted  herself  to  the  humane  care 
of  the  soldiers  on  the  battlefield,  and,  in 
1864,  had  charge  of  the  army  hospitals  on 
the  James  River.  Congress  voted  her 
$15,000  for  her  relief  work  on  the  field, 
for  organizing  the  search  for  wounded  and 
missing  men,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  dead  in 
Andersonville  cemetery,  Georgia,  for  mark- 
ing the  graves  of  the  Union  soldiers.  During 
the  Franco- 
German  War, 
she  assisted  the 
Duchess  of  Ba- 
den in  estab- 
lishing and  or- 
ganizing hospi- 
tal relief,  a  hu- 
mane  work 
which  won  her 
the  honor  of 
decoration  with 
the  iron  cross 
of  Germany.  In 
1 88 1  she  be- 
came president 
of  the  Ameri- 


CLARA    BARTON 


can  Red  Cross  society,  and  represented  the 
United  States  at  the  Geneva  conference. 
In-  connection  with  Red  Cross  operations, 
she  did  relief  work  during  the  famine  in 
Russia  in  1892;  during  the  Armenian 
massacres,  in  1896;  and  during  the  Spanish- 
American  War.  in  Cuba,  where  she  also  did 
personal  work  in  the  field.  Miss  Barton  was 
author  of  a  History  of  the  Red  Cross,  which  was 
issued  by  the  United  States  government;  and  of 
The  Red  Cross  in  Peace  and  War.  She  died  in 
Washington,  April  12,  1912. 

Barton,  Rt.  Hon.  Edmund,  P.  C.,  first 
premier  of  the  commonwealth  of  Australia, 
was  born  at  Sydney,  New  South  Wales,  Jan. 
1 8,  1849,  and  educated  at  the  University  of 
Sydney.  In  1879  he  was  elected  to  the  leg- 
islative assembly  of  the  colony,  becoming 
attorney-general  and  member  of  the  legisla- 
tive council  and  taking  a  foremost  part  in 
the  movement  for  Australian  federation. 
In  the  new  federal  ministry  he  was  made 
prime  minister,  with  the  portfolio  of  external 
affairs. 

Bar'ye,  the  unit  of  pressure  used  by  scien- 
tific men.  The  numerical  value  of  the  barye 


is  that  of  a  pressure  which  exerts  a  force  of 
one  dyne  upon  an  area  of  one  square  centi- 
meter. This  unit  was  adopted  by  the  Inter- 
national Congress  of  Physicists  at  Paris  in 
1900.  The  mega-barye  is  a  pressure  of  one 
million  dynes  per  square  centimeter.  This 
is  very  exactly  equivalent  to  the  pressure 
exerted  by  a  column  of  mercury  75  cm. 
high  under  standard  conditions  of  gravity 
and  temperature. 

Barye'  (fyz're'),  Antoine  Louis,  a  French 
sculptor,  distinguished  mainly  for  his  bronze 
statues  of  animals  and  animal  groups,  was 
born  at  Paris  in  1795.  He  was  at  first 
an  engraver  and  metal-worker.  His  famous 
bronze  of  a  lion  struggling  with  a  snake, 
secured  for  him  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1875. 

Basalt,  a  dark,  greyish-black  stone  of 
volcanic  origin,  a  variety  of  up-rock,  and 
often  occurring  in  the  form  of  columns,  as 
in  the  columnar  structures  seen  at  Fingal's 
Cave,  Staffa,  in  the  Scottish  Hebrides,  and 
at  the  Giant's  Causeway,  Antrim,  Ireland. 
From  a  number  of  still  active  volcanoes, 
such  as  those  in  Iceland  and  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  and  in  the  case  also  of  Etna  and 
Vesuvius,  basalt  is  ejected  in  lava-flows  in 
a  molten  state,  the  chief  constituent  of  the 
outflow  being  augite  (pyroxene),  horn-, 
blende  and  felspar,  the  latter  consisting 
chiefly  of  silicate  of  alumina,  generally  hard 
and  brittle  and  sometimes  glassy. 

Bascom,  John,  American  educator,  and 
for  many  years  president  of  the  University  of 
Wisconsin,  was  born  at  Genoa,  N.  Y.,  May  i, 
1827.  Graduating  in  1849  from  Williams 
College  and  six  years  later  from  Andover 
Theological  Seminary,  he  was  for  twenty 
years  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Williams,  and 
for  thirteen  years  president  of  Wisconsin 
University.  He  is  now  professor  of  political 
science  at  his  alma  mater,  and  is  the  author 
of  the  following  works:  Political  Economy 
(1859);  ALsthetics  (1862);  Philosophy  of 
Rhetoric  (1865);  Principles  of _  Psychology 
(1869);  Philosophy  of  Religion  (1876); 
Comparative  Psychology  (1878);  an  Histor- 
ical Interpretation  of  Philosophy  (1893), 
together  with  works  on  ethics,  sociology, 
etc.  His  later  works  embrace  The  Growth  of 
Nationality  in  the  United  States  (1899) 
and  God  and  His  Goodness  (1901). 

Baseball,  the  national  game  of  America, 
is  a  development  from  the  old  English  game 
of  rounders.  The  first  club  in  America 
was  the  Knickerbocker,  founded  in  New 
York  in  1845.  The  game  gradually  grew  in 
favor  until  in  1871  it  had  become  so  popular 
that  a  professional  organization  was  formed 
consisting  of  clubs  in  many  of  the  large 
cities.  The  success  of  this  first  organization 
has  resulted  in  the  formation  of  leagues 
including  clubs  in  almost  every  city  of  the 
United  States.  Some  of  the  larger  cities 
have  clubs  1h  more  than  one  league.  Stock 
companies  are  organized  to  maintain  these 


BASEL 


BASIDIOMYCETES 


clubs  and  large  amounts  of  capital  in  vested. 
Professional  players  are  paid  salaries,  which 
in  the  cases  of  those  who  are  more  expert 
are  very  large.  During  the  season,  which 
begins  in  April  or  May  and  runs  about  six 
months,  some  thousands  of  men  are  em- 
ployed in  playing  professional  base  ball. 
Hundreds  of  amateur  clubs  play  every  year 
also.  Every  school  or  college  has  its  team, 
and  many  professional  ball  players  receive 
their  training  while  playing  in  $hese  clubs. 
Every  professional  league  plays  a  champion- 
ship series  in  which  each  club  meets  the  other 
clubs  of  the  league  an  equal  number  of  times. 
Great  interest  is  shown  in  the  result  of  these 
games.  The  scores  are  telegraphed  over  the 
country  by  innings  and  the  progress  of  the 
games  in  other  cities  announced. 

A  piece  of  ground  in  the  form  of  a  diamond 
ninety  feet  square  is  marked  out  on  a  level 
field  of  three  or  four  acres.  Bases  are  placed 
at  each  corner  of  the  diamond,  called  home, 
first,  second  and  third  base.  Each  team 
has  nine  players,  and  in  turn  are  fielders  and 
batters.  The  fielders  are:  the  pitcher,  near 
the  center  of  the  diamond ;  the  catcher,  be- 
hind home  base;  the  three  basemen  and 
shortstop,  sometimes  called  infielders,  the 
first  and  second  basemen  being  between 
those  bases  and  the  shortstop  and  third 
baseman  between  second  and  third  base; 
outfielders  at  right,  center  and  left  fields. 
When  the  fielders  take  their  places,  the 
pitcher  delivers  the  ball,  a  fair  ball  being 
one  that  passes  over  the  home  plate,  not 
lower  than  the  striker's  knee  nor  higher 
than  his  shoulder.  Such  a  ball  counts  a 
strike,  whether  struck  at  or  not,  and  after 
three  strikes  the  batsman  must  run  or  be 
put  out;  but  four  unfair  balls  entitle  the 
striker  to  a  base.  The  batsman  tries  to 
knock  the  ball  out  of  the  reach  of  the  fielders, 
so  as  to  reach  at  least  first  base  before 
the  ball  reaches  the  baseman,  and  as  many 
more  bases  as  he  can  make.  Each  base 
is  a  resting  place,  but,  if  he  is  touched  by 
the  ball  between  bases,  he  is  put  out.  If 
he  succeeds  in  reaching  home  plate,  he  scores 
one  run.  A  batsman  can  only  run  on  a 
fair  hit,  which  is  a  ball  batted  within  the 
lines  running  from  home  to  first  base,  and 
home  to  third,  and  beyond;  all  other  hits, 
even  a  mere  tick  are  fouls,  and  a  foul  fly, 
if  it  is  caught,  puts  out  the  batter.  The 
batters  bat  in  turn  until  three  are  put  out, 
when  the  teams  change  places.  When  both 
sides  have  been  batters  once,  an  inning 
is  ended,  and  nine  innings  make  a  game. 
The  side  scoring  the  most  runs  wins.  The 
ball  is  thrown  by  the  pitcher  with  great 
swiftness,  and  this  high  speed  enables  him  to 
curve  the  ball  in  any  direction,  and  so  fool 
the  batter  into  thinking  an  unfair  ball  is 
good  or  a  fair  ball  bad.  This  is  brought 
about  by  the  pitcher's  giving  the  ball  a 
twist,  the  resisting  air  forcing  the  twisting 
sphere  to  curve  from  a  straight  line.  The 


ball  curves  up  or  down,  out  or  in,  according 
to  the  kind  of  twist  given  by  the  pitcher. 
The  game  is  easily  understood;  yet  to  be  a 
good  player  requires  not  only  agility,  endu- 
rance and  strength,  together  with  good  throw- 
ing and  running  powers,  plenty  of  courage, 
pluck  and  nerve,  but  quick  thinking,  con- 
trol of  temper  and  presence  of  mind  to  act 
promptly  at  critical  points  of  the  game. 

Basel  (bd'zel),  Bale  (bal)  or  Basle, 
the  capital  of  the  canton  of  the  same  name, 
is,  with  the  exception  of  Zurich,  the  largest 
city  in  Switzerland.  It  lies  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  Rhine,  43  miles  north  of  Berne. 
The  river  is  crossed  by  a  bridge  80  feet  long, 
which  was  first  built  in  1 2  2  9 .  The  cathedral, 
begun  in  1010  and  finished  some  centuries 
later,  is  still  standing.  The  city  first  appears 
in  the  4th  century  as  a  Roman  military  post. 
In  the  middle  of  the  roth  century  it  became 
a  free  city  of  the  empire.  In  1356  nearly  all 
its  buildings  were  overthrown  by  an  earth- 
quake, and  in  the  next  century  its  popula- 
tion was  greatly  decreased  by  the  plague. 
It  joined  the  Swiss  confederacy  in  1501,  and 
was  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the  Reformation. 
There  was  a  long  contest  between  the  city  of 
Basel  and  the  rest  of  the  canton.  The  city 
claimed  all  the  offices  and  rights,  shutting 
out  the  country  people.  Peace  was  brought 
about  in  1833  by  separating  the  city  entirely 
from  the  country  district.  The  city  was 
much  more  important  in  the  middle  ages  than 
now,  though  it  is  to-day  the  wealthiest  city 
in  Switzerland.  It  has  a  university  founded 
in  1460,  with  a  teaching  staff  of  129  professors 
and  806  students.  Its  population  is  131,914. 
Basidiomycetes  (bd-std't-o-mi-se'tez) .  A 
great  group  of  low  plants  (Fung-i),  includ- 
ing such  well-known  forms  as  mushrooms, 

toadstools  and 
puffballs.  For 
the  most  part 
they  are  not 
destructive  par- 
asites, but  are 
harmless  and 
often  useful 
saprophytes. 
The  popular 
distinction  be- 
tween toad- 
stools and 
mushrooms  has 
no  botanical 
foundation. 
The  common 
cultivated 
mushroom, 
Agaricus  cam- 
pestris,  may 
be  taken  as 
a  type.  The 
mycelium  o  c  - 
curs  in  decay- 
STAGES  IN  THE  DEVELOP-  ing  leaves, 

MBNT  OF  A  MUSHROOM  wood,      etc.     in 


BASIDIOSPORE 


179 


BASTIAT* 


the  form  of  fine  white  threads,  spoken  of  as 
the  spawn.  Upon  this,  little  knob-like 
protuberances  arise  and  grow  larger  and 
larger  until  they  have  developed  into  the 
so-called  mushrooms.  The  mushroom  has  a 
stalk-like  portion,  the  stipe,  and  an  ex- 
panded top  called  the  pileus.  From  the 
under  surface  of  the  pileus  hang  the  radiating 
plates  or  gills.  The  surface  of  the  gills  is 
composed  of  a  layer  of  peculiar  cells  whose 
broad  ends  are  directed  outward.  Each  one 
of  these  cells  is  called  a  basidium,  and 
the  whole  layer  of  basidia  is  spoken  of  as 
the  hymenium.  From  their  blunt  free 
ends  the  basidia  put  out  minute  branches, 
each  one  of  which  bears  a  spore.  These 
spores  are  known  as  basidiospores  and 
are  formed  in  great  abundance.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  mushrooms  and  toadstools  with 
gills,  there  are  others  with  numerous  spores 
Hned  with  the  hymenial  layer,  very  common 
among  which  are  the  bracket  fungi.  The 
puffballs  differ  from  the  other  forms  in 
maturing  their  spores  before  exposing  them. 
When  mature,  the  spores  are  liberated  by 
the  drying  and  bursting  of  the  puffball. 
The  name  of  the  group  comes  from  the 
characteristic  basidia  which  form  the  hy- 
menial layer.  See  FUNGI. 

Basidiospore  (ba-s'id'i-d-spor)  (in  plants). 
The  asexual  spore  of  the  Basidiomycetes. 

Basidium  (ba-std'i-um)  (in  plants).  A 
peculiar  cell  of  the  Basidiomycetes  which 
produces  branches  upon  which  the  asexual 
spores  are  borne.  See  BASIDIOMYCETES. 

Basket-Ball,  a  modern  game,  dating 
from  the  year  1892  and  modelled  somewhat 
after  football,  though  the  ball  (a  leather- 
covered  rubber  bladder,  from  30  to  32 
inches  in  circumference  and  weighing  from 
1 8  to  20  ounces),  instead  of  being  kicked, 
is  thrown  or  batted  with  one  or  both  hands 
(though  it  may  not  be  run  with)  into  the 
basket  or  hammock-net  receptacle,  sus- 
pended on  each  short  side  of  the  enclosed 
court  or  oblong-shaped  field,  which  usually 
covers  an  area  free  from  obstruction,  of 
from  3,000  to  3,500  square  feet.  The 
players,  five  in  number  on  each  side,  are 
assigned  as  center  and  right  and  left  guards, 
and  right  and  left  forwards,  the  guards 
being  opposed  to  forwards  and  the  centers 
opposed  to  centers.  The  time-contest  con- 
sists of  two  halves  of  twenty  minutes  each, 
with  a  rest  of  ten  minutes  between.  The 
officials,  four  in  number,  are  scorer,  time- 
keeper, referee  and  umpire.  The  playing 
area  is  usually  50  by  70  feet.  The  game, 
which  was  first  played  by  members  of  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  has 
since  become  very  popular,  not  only  in 
athletic  clubs,  but  in  schools  and  colleges 
of  both  sexes.  For  directions  as  to  playing 
and  for  rules,  etc.,  see  Spalding's  Basket 
Ball  Guide  (an  annual). 

Basketry,  the  art  of  making  baskets,  is 
an  ancient  and  simple  yet  useful  and  beauti- 


ful form  of  industry.  It  was  known  to  the 
ancient  Britons  and  to  the  Chinese;  and 
the  basket  work  of  many  of  the  Indian  tribes 
of  America  shows  a  nigh  degree  of  skill. 
Ozier  or  willow  twigs  are  most  suited  to 
basketry;  and  are  cultivated  for  the  pur- 
pose chiefly  in  France,  England,  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands.  Ash  and  oak  may 
also  be  employed;  and  bamboo  is  used  in 
China  and  Japan.  The  Japanese  very 
cleverly  enclose  porcelain  in  basket  work. 

Basketry  is  one  of  the  most  useful  of  the 
arts  for  the  purposes  of  the  modern  school. 
In  the  schools  for  Indians  it  already  receives 
great  attention;  and  it  may  be  employed 
in  the  grades  in  such  a  way  as  to  connect  the 
actions  of  the  children  with  an  interest  in 
American  history  and  industry  and  in  Indian 
and  primitive  life.  It  is  fortunate  for  this 
purpose  that  few  tools  are  required  for  the 
making  of  baskets,  which  is  done  for  the 
most  part  by  hand. 

Basques  (basks) ,  a  curious  race  living  on 
both  sides  of  the  Pyrenees.  Their  home 
forms  what  are  called  the  Basque  provinces 
of  Spain,  with  a  very  small  district  in  France. 
They  are  a  farming  people,  though  very 
much  behind  the  times,  using  the  same 
clumsy  two-pronged  wooden  fork  for  a  plow 
which  was  used  by  the  Romans.  The 
Basque  language  is  unlike  any  other;  and 
scholars  cannot  agree  as  to  where  those 
speaking  the  tongue  come  from  or  to  what 
race  they  belong.  Their  bravery  in  the 
reconquest  of  Spain  from  the  Moors  won  for 
them  many  political  privileges,  which  they 
have  kept  up  until  very  recent  times.  Their 
total  number  in  Spain  and  France  is  about 
610,000. 

Bas=Relief.     See  SCULPTURE. 

Bass,  common  fishes  related  to  the  perch, 
but  now  placed  in  a  different  family  group, 
which  also  includes  the  sun-fishes  or  pump- 
kin-seeds. There  are  several  kinds  of  bass. 
The  black  bass  is  entirely  an  American  fish, 
and  is  among  the  finest  game  fishes  of  the 
world.  Like  other  members  of  the  group 
they  prepare  nests  and  take  great  care  of  the 
eggs  and  young.  Other  common  kinds,  all 
valuable  as  food,  are  the  rock  bass,  white 
bass,  striped  bass,  brass  bass,  etc.  The  last 
three  are  grouped  by  naturalists  into  a 
separate  family.  Formerly,  they  were  all 
united  with  the  perches  into  the  perch  family. 

Bast  (in  plants) ,  a  name  applied  originally 
to  the  inner  fibrous  layers  of  the  bark 
Strictly,  the  term  is  applied  to  the  phloem 
elements,  such  as  are  added  year  after  year 
by  the  cambium  of  trees.  This  cambium  is 
said  to  add  new  wood  on  the  inner  side  and 
new  bark  on  the  outside.  This  so-called 
bark,  which  is  thus  added,  is  the  bast,  which, 
therefore,  consists  of  fibrous  elements  which 
lie  just  outside  of  the  newest  wood  and 
within  the  layers  of  cork. 

Bastiat  (bds'tya'),  Frederick,  a  well- 
known  French  political  economist.,  was  born 


BASTILLE 


1 80 


BAT 


at  Bayonne  in  1801.  In  1825  he  began  the 
study  of  political  economy  and  wrote 
largely  on  the  subject.  He  was  a  strong  be- 
liever in  the  doctrine  of  free  trade,  and  pub- 
lished several  articles  against  the  system  of 
protection  to  home  manufacturers.  After 
the  revolution  of  1848  in  France  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  French  parliament. 
He  died  at  Rome  in  1850. 

Bastille  (bas-tel'),  a  famous  fortress  of 
Paris,  built  between  1370  and  1383  as  a  de- 
fense against  the  English.  It  was  always 
used  as  a  state  prison.  It  would  hold  70  or 
80  prisoners,  and  during  the  reigns  of  Louis 
XIV  and  XV  it  was  often  full.  The  prison- 
ers were  rarely  criminals,  but  men  who  had 
in  some  way  offended  the  king  and  his  court- 
iers. Authors,  priests  and  scholars,  besides 
political  offenders,  were  often  shut  up  there, 
and  many  remained  so  long  that  no  one 
knew  who  they  were  or  for  what  they  had 
been  imprisoned.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
French  Revolution  it  was  attacked  by  the 
mob  as  a  stronghold  of  tyranny,  and  after  a 
fight  the  governor  opened  the  gates  and  the 
people  rushed  in.  The  next  day  the  prison 
was  destroyed  amid  the  rejoicings  of  the 
people.  The  fall  of  the  Bastille  was  felt 
to  be  important  because  it  seemed  to  mart 
the  downfall  of  the  old  French  monarchy. 

Basutoland  (bd-soo'to-land) ,  is  a  British 
crown-colony  in  South  Africa,  governed  by 
a  resident  commissioner  under  the  direction 
of  the  High  Commissioner.  It  is  an  elevated 
fertile  region  northeast  of  Cape  Colony,  in- 
habited by  Basutos  who  rear  immense 
herds  of  cattle.  The  population  in  1911  is 
estimated  at  404, 1 90  natives  and  r  ,400  whites, 
European  settlement  being  forbidden.  The 
schools,  numbering  259  and  chiefly  con- 
ducted by  missionaries,  have  nearly  15,760 
pupils.  The  territory  embraces  11,716 
square  miles,  about  the  area  of  Belgium. 
The  productions  are  wool,  wheat,  mealies 
and  Kafir  corn.  Imports,  consisting  chiefly 
of  blankets,  plows,  clothing,  iron  and  tin- 
ware, amounted  in  1910-11  to  $958,500, 
while  the  exports  of  stock,  grain  and  wool 
were  $862,500.  Trade  is  almost  exclusively 
with  Cape  Colony  and  Orange  River  Colony. 
The  governmental  revenue  is  derived  from 
a  hut  tax  of  one  pound  a  year,  licenses  and 
customs  rebates.  For  1910-11  the  receipts 
were  $727,500;  the  expenditure  $674,440. 
There  is  no  public  debt. 

Bat,  a  flying  mammal.  The  fact  that  bats 
have  wings  caused  the  naturalists  of  the 
middle  ages  to  group  them  with  the  birds. 
But  they  are  far  removed  from  birds;  they 
are  mammals  and  bring  forth  their  young 
alive. 

They  have  remarkable  power  of  flight,  in 
which  ease  and  grace  are  shown.  Walking 
is  made  difficult  by  the  fact  that  the  knee 
bends  backward.  They  are  distributed  all 
over  |he  world,  save  in  the  very  coldest 
region's.  As  a  rule  they  are  small,  but  the 


GREAT    HORSE-SHOE    BAT 


largest,  the  flying  foxes  of  the  Malay  region, 
have  a  spread  of  wings  measuring  30  inches. 
These  and  other  large  ones  found  in  the 
East  Indies  and  tropical  Africa  are  fruit- 
eaters,  doing  much  damage  to  crops;  but 
most  bats  are  insectivorous.  In  this  coun- 
try in  the  southeast  we  have  one  of  the  leaf- 
nosed  or  vampire  bats,  also  one  in  California 

and  Texas. 
Bats  fly  at 
night,  and 
are  reputed 
most  active 
at  dusk  and 
just  before 
dawn.  Their 
voice  is 
most  unmu- 
sical, high- 
pitched  and 
s  q  u  eaking. 
During  the 
day  they  hang  head  downward  in  sheltered 
places:  caves,  hollow  trees,  barns,  church 
towers,  deserted  buildings,  etc;  they  hiber- 
nate in  the  winter  except  in  warm  climates. 
The  vampire  bats  are  known  to  settle  on  the 
backs  of  horses  and  cattle  and  suck  blood. 
They  have  been  known  to  attack  man,  but  it 
is  a  strange  circumstance  that  the  particular 
kind  named  vampire  is  not  the  culprit,  but 
another  related  form — Desmodus.  There 
are  about  300  varieties  of  bats,  but  only  a 
few  kinds  in  the  United  States. 

While  not  the  spirit  of  evil  that  supersti- 
tion paints  it,  the  bat  is  certainly  a  curious 
and  mysterious  little  creature,  and  its  looks 
are  calculated  to  inspire  dread.  In  American 
Animals,  by  Stone  and  Cram,  the  animal 
is  thus  described:  "The  wing,  as  a  whole, 
corresponds  exactly  with  the  accepted  idea 
of  a  devil's  or  goblin's  wing;  and  the  short 
head  with  its  big  shapeless  ears,  wide  mouth 
and  little  blinking  eyes  is  of  just  as  impish 
and  devilish  an  aspect."  But  its  looks  are 
misleading;  the  author  goes  on  to  say: 
"  Bats  are  the  most  gentle  and  friendly  of 
living  things."  Unfortunately,  they  have 
long  had  a  bad  name,  and  about  these  crea- 
tures of  the  night  hang  many  a  dark  story 
and  queer  tradition.  Children  almost  uni- 
versally desire  the  instant  death  of  any  bat 
that  presents  itself.  They  should,  on  the 
contrary,  look  upon  him  as  a  sort  of  "  night 
policeman."  C.  F.  Hodge  in  Nature  Study 
and  Life  so  regards  him,  and  tells  of  the 
work  he  does  by  night :  "So  few  of  our 
birds  are  nocturnal,  and  so  many  of  our 
worst  insect  pests — the  codling  moth,  tent- 
caterpillar  moths,  the  white-marked  tussock 
moth,  owlet  moths,  parents  of  the  cut-worms, 
June  beetles,  mosquitoes  and  a  host  of  others 
— have  taken  refuge  in  the  darkness,  that 
we  need  the  bat  as  the  night  police  of  our 
gardens.  They  should  be  accorded  the 
same  protection  as  our  most  valuable  in- 
sectivorous birds.  .  .  A  family  of  bats 


BATANGAS 


i8z 


BATH 


is  a  valuable  acquisition  to  a  farm  or  garden." 
The  same  author  asserts  that  the  bat  may 
be  easily  tamed,  gives  interesting  personal 
experiences  with  this  creature  of  evil  repute 
but  warns  one  intending  to  tame  it,  to  be 
careful  at  first  of  its  sharp  teeth  and  un- 
friendly attitude. 

Bats  drowse  about  twenty  hours  out  of 
the  twenty-four.  They  make  no  nests,  but 
look  out  well  for  the  newly  born,  carrying 
the  young  ones  with  them  on  their  backs 
when  flying  through  the  air.  "  Blind  as  a 
bat"  is  but  another  superstition,  for  there 
is  sufficient  evidence  that  the  creature's 
little  eyes  serve  it  well.  Flitting  mouse 
is  one  of  the  names  given  it  in  England  and 
in  Germany.  See  Cram  and  Stone:  Ameri- 
can Animals;  pages  in  Nature  Study  and 
Life,  by  Hodge;  Allen:  Bats  of  North 
America,  Bulletin  No.  43,  U.  S.  National 
Museum. 

Batangas  (bd-tdn'gds),  a  seaport  town 
and  district  in  the  southern  part  of  Luzon 
Island  of  the  Philippines  group,  lying  south 
of  Manila  and  north  of  the  island  of  Mindoro, 
in  the  south  of  the  China  Sea.  The  town  is 
situated  in  a  bay  of  the  same  name  and  pos- 
sesses a  fine  harbor,  into  which  the  Calum- 
pang  River  empties.  Population  of  the  town, 
33,131,  and  of  the  district  or  province  over 
210,000.  In  the  vicinity  are  lofty  moun- 
tains, with  the  volcanic  Mount  Taal  rising 
from  them;  while  near  by  is  Lake  Taal  or 
Bingabon.  The  city,  which  is  well  built, 
has  a  number  of  notable  buildings,  including 
a  royal  palace  and  convent.  The  province 
exports  sugar  and  cocoanut  oil,  and  has 
manufactures  of  cotton  fabrics,  dye  stuffs, 
silk,  etc.  There  are  several  railways  with 
their  branches  on  the  island,  together  with 
banks,  consulates,  industrial  and  trade 
schools  and  a  teacher's  training  institute. 
There  also  are  much  fine  timber  and  con- 
siderable mineral  deposits. 

Bata'vla,  the  capital  and  chief  seaport  of 
the  Dutch  East  Indian  possessions,  is  situated 
on  the  coast  of  the  island  of  Java.  It  is  very 
unhealthy.  It  has  been  improved,  however, 
by  drainage,  and  most  of  the  European  in- 
habitants live  on  the  higher  ground  of  the 
healthy  suburbs.  The  Dutch  government 
has  built  a  large  harbor,  a  short  distance 
away,  connected  with  the  city  by  railroad 
and  canal.  Batavia  is  one  of  the  trading 
centers  of  the  far  east.  The  chief  exports 
are  coffee,  rice,  indigo,  hides,  oil,  tea. 
Among  the  imports  are  cottons,  woolens, 
silks,  machinery  and  American  ice.  About 
half  of  its  trade  is  with  Holland.  A  tele- 
graphic cable  connects  it  with  the  city  of 
Singapore.  Population,  116,000,  of  whom 
9,000  are  Europeans. 

The  province  of  Batavia  is  low,  but  rises 
gently  toward  the  south.  The  religion  is 
chiefly  Mohammedan.  Population,  nearly 
1,000,000  of  whom  8,000  are  Europeans, 
70,000  Chinese  and  the  remainder  natives. 


Batavia,  a  city  in  New  York,  is  the  seat 
of  Genesee  County  on  Tonawanda  Creek, 
and  on  the  New  York  Central,  Erie  and 
Lehigh  Valley  railroads,  34  miles  northeast 
of  Buffalo  and  32  southwest  of  Rochester. 
Founded  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, it  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in 
1823.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  state  institution 
for  the  blind,  the  Holland  Purchase  Land 
Office,  a  public  library,  and  a  monument  to 
Wm.  Morgan,  erected  by  anti-Masons,  in 
memory  of  one  of  their  number  who,  it  was 
charged,  was  abducted  and,  it  was  thought, 
killed  in  1826  for  threatening  to  reveal  the 
secret  of  Masonry.  Batavia  has  a  number 
of  flourishing  industries,  including  manu- 
facturers of  agricultural  implements,  fire- 
arms, wooden  ware,  shoes,  plows,  blinds, 
sashes  and  carriage  wheels.  It  also  has 
a  Roman  Catholic  convent.  Population, 
13,830. 

Bateman,  Newton,  American  educator, 
and  for  many  years  president  of  Knox  Col- 
lege, Galesburg,  111.,  was  born  at  Fairfield, 
N.  J.,  July  22,  1822,  and  died  at  Galesburg, 
Oct.  22,  1897.  Graduating  in  1843  a^  Illi- 
nois College,  Jacksonville,  he  traveled  exten- 
sively in  the  United  States,  and  for  a  time 
was  principal  of  a  school  in  St.  Louis;  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  St.  Charles  College 
Missouri;  and  then  superintendent  of  city 
schools  in  Jacksonville,  111.  Later  on,  he 
became  principal  of  the  Jacksonville  Female 
Academy  and,  finally,  state  superintendent 
of  public  instruction.  In  1875,  Dr.  Bateman 
became  president  of  Knox  College,  at  Gales- 
burg, 111.  While  state  superintendent  of 
Illinois  schools,  he  published  a  number  of 
valuable  educational  reports,  a  codification 
of  the  school  laws  of  Illinois  and  a  digest  of 
the  school  laws  and  common  school  decisions 
of  the  state. 

Bates,  Arlo  (1850),  American  journal- 
ist and  novelist,  born  at  East  Machias, 
Maine,  and  in  1876  graduated  from  Bowdoin 
College.  From  1880  to  1803  he  edited  the 
Boston  Sunday  Courier,  while  later  he  be- 
came a  professor  of  English  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology.  He  has 
published  criticisms  on  the  writing  of  Eng- 
lish and  on  the  study  of  literature,  in  addi- 
tion to  a  number  of  works  and  several  col- 
lections of  poems.  His  best  known  works 
of  fiction  include  Tlie  Pagans  (1884),  A 
Wheel  of  Fire  (1885),  The  Philistines  (1888), 
The  Puritans  (1889)  and  Love  in  a  Cloud 
(1900).  His  collected  verse  embraces  Ber- 
ries of  the  Brier  (1886),  Sonnets  in  Shadow 
(1887),  A  Poet  and  His  Self  (1891),  Told  in 
the  Gate  (1802),  The  Torchbearers  (1894) 
and  Under  the  Beech  Tree  (1899). 

Bath,  the  chief  city  of  Somersetshire, 
England,  about  twelve  miles  from  Bristol, 
on  the  River  Avon.  Its  houses  are  built 
entirely  of  white  stone,  and  the  city  has 
probably  the  finest  situation  and  appearance 
in  England.  It  has  long  been  a  fashionable 


BATH 


182 


BATTLE  CREEK 


health  resort  on  account  of  its  hot  mineral 
springs.  They  were  known  to  the  Romans, 
who  built  large  baths  there  in  the  first  cen- 
tury of  our  era,  the  remains  of  which  have 
been  discovered.  There  are  several  fine  old 
churches,  extensive  buildings  and  beauti- 
ful parks.  Richard  I  granted  the  city  its 
charter,  which  was  extended  by  George  III. 
Population,  50,729. 

Bath,  Me.,  the  capital  of  Sagadahoc 
County,  southern  Maine,  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Kennebec  River,  twelve  miles  from  the 
Atlantic,  and  about  equidistant  from  Port- 
land to  the  southeastward  and  from 
Augusta  to  the  north  of  the  city.  It  has  a 
large  commerce,  chiefly  in  lumber,  in  ma- 
chines, boilers  and  iron  and  brass  work, 
as  well  as  a  large  industry  hi  ship-building, 
including  battle-ships  and  steel  steamers. 
It  has  steamboat  communication  with  Bos- 
ton. It  possesses  some  excellent  schools. 
Population,  9,396. 

Bath'sheba,  the  daughter  of  Eliam  and 
the  wife  of  Uriah  the  Hittite.  After  the 
death  of  her  husband  at  King  David's 
Instigation,  Bathsheba  became  the  wife  of 
the  latter.  She  was  the  mother  of  King 
Solomon.  See  II  Samuel  xi  and  I  Kings  i. 

Baton  Rouge  (btit-un'roozh) ,  the  capital 
of  the  statz  of  Louisiana,  is  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Mississippi  River.  It  was 
one  of  the  earliest  French  settlements.  The 
state  house,  state  university  and  many  other 
public  buildings  are  there.  The  city  was 
occupied  by  Federal  troops  during  the  Civil 
War,  after  the  capture  of  New  Orleans,  and 
defended  by  General  Williams  against  a  Con- 
federate force  led  by  General  Breckenridge. 
General  Williams  was  killed  during  the  con- 
gest. Population,  14,897. 

Battenberg,  House  of,  members  of  a 
grand -ducal  family  reigning  in  Hesse, 
Germany,  many  of  whom  havfe  by  mar- 
riage and  otherwise  been  connected  with 
royalty  on  the  European  Continent  and  in 
Great  Britain.  The  mother  of  the  present 
reigning  Grand-Duke  of  Hesse  was  Princess 
Alice  of  Great  Britain,  third  daughter  of 
the  late  Queen  Victoria;  this  Grand-Duke 
(Ernest  Ludwig)  in  1894  married  Princess 
Victoria,  daughter  of  Duke  Alfred  of  Saxe- 
Cpburg  and  Gotha,  a  marriage  which  was 
dissolved  in  1901.  The  Battenberg  title  was 
first  conferred  in  1857  on  Countess  Hanke, 
morganatic  wife  of  Prince  Alexander  of 
Hesse,  three  of  whose  four  children  attained 
high  honor  as  Princes  of  Battenberg.  One, 
Louis  Alexander  ^D.  in  1854)  is  a  British 
naval  officer;  another,  Alexander  Joseph, 
was  from  1879  to  l886  Prince  of  Bulgaria; 
while  the  third,  Prince  Henry  Maurice,  in 
1885  married  Princess  Beatrice,  youngest 
child  of  the  late  Queen  Victoria  of  Great 
Britain.  Prince  Henry,  who  was  created  a 
royal  highness  by  his  august  mother-in- 
law  and  made  governor  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  died  on  his  way  home  from  Kumasi 


in  1896,  having  seen  service  in  the  Ashanti 
campaign.  His  widow,  the  Princess  of 
Battenberg,  still  survives,  and  one  of  their 
children,  Victoria  Eugenie  (b  1887), married 
in  1906  Alfonso  XIII,  King  of  Spain. 

Bat'tering  Ram,  an  instrument  of  war 
used  in  ancient  times.  It  was  a  beam  of 
wood,  with  a  head  of  iron  or  bronze,  like  a 
rani's  head.  It  was  used  to  batter  down 
walls  and  doors,  and  was  either  carried  by 
the  soldiers  or  fastened  in  a  frame  and  made 
to  swing.  Another  kind  moved  on  rollers. 
To  protect  those  who  were  operating  it,  a 
wooden  roof  was  built  over  it  and  the  whole 
mounted  on  wheels.  The  ram  varied  in 
length  from  60  to  120  feet,  the  head  some- 
times weighing  over  a  ton,  and  as  many  as 
a  hundred  men  were  needed  to  manage  it. 
The  Romans  borrowed  it  from  the  Greeks, 
but  who  invented  it  is  not  known. 

Battersea,  a  suburb  of  London,  on  the 
Surrey  side  of  the  Thames,  with  a  fine  park, 
185  acres  in  extent.  Chelsea  Hospital  has 
its  seat  here. 

Bat'tery.  See  ARTILLERY. 

Bat'tery  (electric),  any  combination  of 
voltaic  cells,  whether  used  for  the  purpose  of 
furnishing  an  electric  current  or  merely  to 
produce  electrical  pressure.  For  most  pur- 
poses, the  cells  of  a  battery  are  joined  up  in 


SIMPLE    GALVANIC    BATTERY 

series,  that  is,  the  positive  pole  of  one  cell  \s 
connected  with  the  negative  pole  of  the  next 
cell,  and  so  on  (as  shown  in  above  cut).  But 
if  the  object  be  to  make  a  battery  of  the  least 
possible  resistance,  the  cells  are  joinsd  in 
parallel,  that  is,  all  the  positive  poles  are 
connected  together  and  all  the  negative  poles 
connected  together,  thus  forming  one  large 
cell.  If  the  object  be  to  obtain  the  largest 
possible  current,  then  the  cells  are  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  make  the  internal  and  external 
resistances  of  the  circuit  equal. 

Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  a  city  in  Calhoun 
County,  on  the  Kalamazoo  River,  south- 
western Michigan,  120  miles  west  of  Detroit 
and  44  miles  southwest  of  Lansing,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  state.  It  is  located  on  the  main 
lines  of  the  Michigan  Central  and  the  Grand 
Trunk  railroads.  It  has  large  manufac- 
tories, chiefly  of  farm  implements,  in- 
cluding tkrwehing-machines,  and  of  flour  and 
knitting  mills,  a  boiler  works,  pipe-organ 


BATTLEFORD 


183 


BAVARIA 


factory,  etc.     It  is  the  seat  of  Battle  Creek 

College,  controlled  by  the  Seventh-day  Ad- 
yentists,  and  possesses  an  extensive  san- 
itarium and  manufactories  of  health- 
foods.  Its  two  streams  supply  its  factories 
with  good  water-power.  The  city  has  an 
admirable  system  of  public  and  parish 
schools,  and  has  three  business  colleges. 
The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building  and  the  public 
library  are  the  gifts  of  the  late  Chas.  Willard. 
The  late  John  Nichols  presented  the  city  a 
fine  hospital.  Population,  28,122. 

Battleford,  Saskatchewan,  is  a  small 
town  near  the  confluence  of  the  Battle  and 
North  Saskatchewan  Rivers,  ninety  miles  by 
stage  from  Saskatoon  on  the  northwesterly 

Eur  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  from 
;gina  to  Prince  Albert.  It  is  distant 
2,328  miles  from  Ottawa,  and  on  the 
direct  line  of  the  projected  Grand  Trunk 
Pacific. 

Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic,  written 
by  Mrs.  Julia  Ward  Howe  to  the  tune 
"Glory  Hallelujah,"  familiarly  known  as 
"John  Brown."  The  tune  itself  is  of  south- 
ern origin,  being  ascribed  to  William  Steffe, 
a  composer  of  Sunday-school  music.  It  was 
first  heard  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina; 
then  in  various  camp-meetings  and  among 
colored  congregations  until,  in  time,  it  made 
its  way  to  the  north.  The  original  words 
were  a  hymn,  beginning  "  Say,  brothers, 
will  you  meet  us?"  "John  Brown's  Body" 
was  an  improvisation  originating  in  the 
Twelfth  Massachusetts  Regiment,  at  the 
time  it  was  at  Fort  Warren,  in  Boston  Har- 
bor. The  singing  of  the  song  by  the  regi- 
ment as  it  crossed  Boston  Common  and 
marched  through  the  streets  of  New  York 
caused  it  to  become  national  property. 
Mrs.  Howe's  poem,  "Mine  Eyes  have  Seen 
the  Glory  of  the  Coming  of  the  Lord,"  was 
the  inspired  result  of  an  endeavor  to  set 
more  fitting  words  to  the  music  than  those 
ordinarily  sung  at  the  camp-fires  of  the 
soldiers.  The  song  has  been  more  popular 
than  any  other  of  its  kind  and  time,  and  is 
well  known  in  the  military  circles  of  foreign 
nations.  For  the  full  story  see  The  History 
of  American  Music,  by  Louis  C.  Elson. 
(Macmillan  pub.) 

Bauer  (bou'er),  Bruno,  a  German  phil- 
osophical and  historical  writer  and  biblical 
expositor  of  the  Hegelian  (rationalistic) 
school,  was  born  at  Eisenberg,  Germany, 
Sept.  6,  1809,  and  died  near  Berlin,  April  13, 
1882.  His  writings  embrace  a  number  of 
critiques  on  the  Gospels  and  Pauline  Epis- 
tles; one  on  Strauss 's  Life  of  Jesus;  an 
Exposition  of  the  Religion  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament; besides  a  History  of  the  French 
Revolution  to  the  Establishment  of  the  Repub- 
lic and  a  History  of  Germany  during  the 
French  Revolution  and  the  Rule  of  Napoleon. 
He  also  published  Philo,  Strauss,  Renan 
and  Primitive  Christianity  and  a  work 
entitled  Disraeli's  Romantic  and  Bismarck's 


Socialistic  Imperialism.  On  theological  sub- 
jects, Bauer  was  a  daring  and  destructive 
critic  (the  Voltaire  of  Germany  he  has  been 
called) ;  he  denied  the  historical  truth  of 
the  Gospels,  and  regarded  the  Christian 
religion  "as  overlaid  and  obscured  by 
accretions  foreign  to  it." 

Baur  (bour),  Ferdinand  Christian,  an 
eminent  German  biblical  critic  and  Protes- 
tant theologian,  was  born  in  1792,  and  died 
at  Tubingen,  Dec.  2,  1860.  A  profound 
scholar  and  influential  writer  on  biblical 
exegesis  and  Christian  doctrine,  Baur,  in 
1826,  became  professor  in  the  evangelical 
faculty  of  Tubingen  University,  and  labored 
there  until  his  death.  His  writings,  which 
deal  chiefly  with  Christian  dogma,  embrace 
The  Christian  Gnos-is;  The  Doctrine  of  the 
Atonement;  The  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
and  the  Incarnation,  Critical  Inquiries  Con- 
cerning the  Canonic  Gospels,  a  History  of 
Christian  Doctrine  to  the  End  of  the  i8th 
Century;  Paul  the  Apostle  of  Jesus  Christ, 
etc.,  etc.^ 

Bauxite  (boks'if),  a  mineral  ore,  of  a 
white,  yellow,  brown  and  red  color,  used 
with  cryolite  in  the  manufacture  of  alum, 
also  for  fire-brick,  etc.  It  is  found  at  Baux, 
France  (whence  its  name)  also  in  Austria, 
in  the  north  of  Ireland  (chiefly  in  Antrim) 
and  in  North  America,  principally  in  Georgia, 
Alabama  and  Arkansas.  In  1911  the  pro- 
duction in  the  United  States  was  155,618 
tons,  the  market  value  of  which  was  $750,- 
649. 

Bavaria,  one  of  the  states  of  the  German 
empire  and  the  second  in  size.  It  is  divided 
into  two  parts,  which  are  separated  by  Baden 
and  Hesse- Darmstadt,  the  eastern  division 
being  fully  eleven-twelfths  of  the  whole.  It 
covers  29,292  square  miles,  divided  into  eight 
districts,  with  a  population  of  6,876,497. 
The  capital  is  Munich  (population,  595,053). 
The  southeast,  northeast  and  northwest 
are  walled  in  by  high  mountains,  and  the 
interior  is  cut  up  by  small  ranges  and  is 
well  wooded.  It  is  touched  by  the  Rhine 
and  Danube,  and  a  canal  connecting  the 
two  rivers  passes  through  Bavaria,  thus 
joining  the  Black  Sea  and  the  German 
Ocean.  It  is  a  farming  country  and  the 
soil  is  very  fertile.  Large  quantities  of 
grain  are  grown,  and  the  grape  and  hop  for 
wine  and  beer  are  cultivated  on  a  large 
scale,  as  more  beer  is  manufactured  here 
than  in  any  other  country  in  Europe.  The 
Roman  Catholics  outnumber  the  Protes- 
tants about  five  to  two.  It  has  a  fine 
system  of  education,  under  the  direction 
of  a  minister  of  public  instruction,  with 
primary  schools,  high  schools  and  three 
universities.  The  library  at  Munich  is  one 
of  the  largest  in  Germany. 

The  kingdom  of  Bavaria  is  a  constitutional 
monarchy.  When,  in  1870,  it  became  a  part 
of  the  German  empire,  it  retained  many  of 
its  old  privileges,  such  as  the  control  of 


BAXTER 


BAYEUX  CATHEDRAL 


home  affairs.  The  army  is  modeled  after 
the  Prussian  system,  and  is  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  king  of  Bavaria  in  time  of 
peace,  but  under  the  German  emperor  during 
war.  The  peace  strength  of  the  Bavarian 
army  is  67,000  men.  The  Bavarians  are 
the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Boii,  who 
were  under  the  power  of  the  Romans,  and 
afterward  formed  a  part  of  the  empire  of 
Charlemagne.  The  country  was  given  to 
the  Count  of  Wittelsbach  in  1180,  and  has 
been  under  that  house  ever  since.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  in 
1870,  Bavaria  joined  Prussia  against 
France,  and  soon  after  became  part  of 
the  new  German  empire.  Prince  Ludwig 
became  king,  as  Ludwig  III  Nov.  5,  1913 
following  the  deposition  of  the  mad  King  Otto 
for  whom  he  had  ruled  as  regent  for  a  number 
of  years. 

Baxter,  Richard,  a  distinguished  English 
preacher,  was  born  in  1615.  He  had  great 
influence  as  a  chaplain  in  the  Puritan  army 
in  the  Civil  War,  which  began  in  1642, 
using  all  his  eloquence  to  soften  the  stern 
political  and  religious  views  of  the  soldiers. 
His  best  known  work  is  The  Saint's  Ever- 
lasting Rest.  Other  works  are  Now  or 
Nevert  Call  to  the  Unconverted  and  The 
Reformed  Pastor.  He  died  at  London  in 
1691. 

Bayard  (bi'Vrd),  James  Asheton,  Amer- 
ican statesman,  was  born  at  Philadelphia  in 
1767,  and  died  at  Wilmington,  Del.,  in  1815. 
In  1796  he  was  elected  to  congress  as  a 
Federalist,  and  became  noted  as  an  orator, 
constitutional  lawyer  and  leader  of  the 
house.  In  1801  he  was  offered,  but  de- 
clined, the  ministership  to  France.  In  1804 
he  was  elected  senator  from  Delaware,  and 
sat  in  the  chamber  until  1813,  when  he  was 
chosen  by  President  Madison,  along  with 
Albert  Gallatin,  to  conclude  peace  with 
Great  Britain,  by  the  Treaty  of  Ghent. 
His  son,  of  the  same  name,  and  father  of 
Thomas  Francis  Bayard,  born  at  Wilmington 
in  1799  and  dying  there  June  13,  1880,  was 
Democratic  senator  from  Delaware  during 
the  years  1851-64  and  1867-69. 

Bay'ard  (ba'e'rd)  Pierre  Du  Terrail, 
Chevalier  De,  a  famous  French  knight, 
was  born  near  Grenoble  in  1476.  He  served 
under  Charles  VIII  in  an  expedition  against 
Naples,  and  in  the  wars  against  the  English 
and  Spaniards  he  distinguished  himself  by 
his  bravery  and  nobleness  of  character.  In 
the  reign  of  Francis  I  he  gained  a  great 
victory  for  the  king  at  Marignano,  and  de- 
fended the  city  of  Mezieres  against  Charles 
V,  for  which  he  was  called  the  Savior 
of  his  Country.  He  was  killed  in  a  battle 
at  the  river  Sesia,  Italy,  in  1524.  He  was 
so  highly  thought  of  for  his  virtues  that 
his  death  was  mourned  by  his  enemies  as 
well  as  by  his  friends.  He  is  known  as 
"the  knight  without  fear  and  without  re- 
proach." 


THOMAS  FRANCIS  BAYARD 


Bayard,  Thomas  Francis,  American 
statesman  and  secretary  of  state  (1885-89^ 
was  born  at 
Wilmi  n  g  t  o  n, 
Del.,  Oct.  29 
1828,  and  died 
Sept.  28,  1898. 
His  early  man- 
hood was  spent 
in  the  practice 
of  the  law.  In 
1869  he  suc- 
ceeded his 
father  as  sena- 
tor from  Dela- 
ware, when  he 
served  contin- 

uously     until  >^^**Ti*    air/ 

1885;  then  he 
entered  M  r . 
Cleveland's  cabinet  as  secretary  of  state. 
In  1880  and  1884  he  was  unsuccessful  in 
obtaining  the  nomination,  on  the  Democratic 
ticket,  for  the  presidency.  In  1893  he 
was  appointed  ambassador  to  England,  the 
first  to  hold  that  rank  as  a  representa- 
tive of  the  United  States. 

Bay  City,  county  seat  of  Bay  County, 
Mich.,  noted  for  its  beautiful  streets  and 
fine  public  buildings,  is  situated  on  Saginaw 
River,  three  miles  from  Saginaw  Bay.  The 
population,  including  West  Bay  City  and 
Essexville  (an  important  suburb),  is  now 
54,000.  It  was  first  platted  as  the  village  of 
Portsmouth  in  1836  and  twenty  years  later 
as  Lower  Saginaw.  Lumber  and  salt  were 
formerly  its  main  productions.  Planing 
mills  and  lumber-yards  are  still  in  evidence, 
with  wooden-ware  works  and  box-factories 
coming  to  the  front,  while  beet-sugar  fac- 
tories and  coal  mines  now  add  to  its  pros- 
perity. Lake  transportation  companies  cen- 
ter here,  and  its  shipyards  should  not  fail 
to  be  mentioned.  Large  chemical  works, 
industrial  works  for  building  heavy  railroad 
wrecking  cranes,  bicycle  works,  foundries, 
etc.,  furnish  employment  to  many.  Bay 
City  is  a  railroad  center  and  a  distributing 
point  for  a  large  section  of  country.  It  has 
19  public  schools,  287  teachers  and  an  en- 
rollment of  8,000;  also  a  business  college, 
a  private  kindergarten  and  seven  parochial 
schools  with  an  enrollment  of  3,500. 

Bay  -  de -Verde,  an  electoral  district  of 
Newfoundland.  Population  about  10,000; 
chiefly  Methodists  and  Roman  Catholics; 
occupations,  fishermen  and  those  engaged  in 
the  catching  and  curing  of  fish;  chief  towns; 
Bay-de-Verde,  Cower,  Island  Cove,  Grate's 
Cove,  Old  Perlican  and  Freshwater. 

Bayeux  (bd'ye)  Cathedral,  in  the  city  of 
Bayeux,  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  cathedral  in 
Normandy.  It  was  rebuilt  by  William  the 
Conqueror,  after  a  fire  in  1077,  but  most 
of  the  present  building  dates  from  1106  to 
the  1 3th  century.  On  the  west  front  are 
two  steeples  built  in  the  i2th  century  and 


BAYEUX  TAPESTRY 


185 


BEAR 


three  beautiful  sculptured  porches.  Here 
was  kept  for  a  long  time  the  famous  Bayeux 
tapestry. 

Bayeux  Tapestry,  a  roll  of  linen  cloth 
about  230  feet  long  and  20  inches  wide,  on 
which  is  embroidered  a  panorama-Ike  pic- 
ture of  the  conquest  of  England  by  William 
the  Conqueror.  It  is  now  preserved  in  the 
public  library  of  Bayeux,  Normandy, 
France.  It  is  divided  into  seventy-two 
scenes,  most  of  which  have  Latin  inscrip- 
tions. The  panorama  begins  with  a  picture 
of  Harold  taking  leave  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor before  setting  out  for  Normandy,  and 
ends  with  the  battle  of  Hastings,  the  death 
of  Harold  and  the  flight  of  the  English. 
It  has  usually  been  supposed  that  the  tap- 
estry was  embroidered  by  Matilda,  wife  of 
William  the  Conqueror;  but  others  believe 
it  to  have  been  worked  for  the  Bayeux 
cathedral  under  the  direction  of  Otho, 
bishop  of  Bayeux  and  a  half-brother  of 
William  the  Conqueror.  It  was  discovered 
in  the  Bayeux  cathedral  in  1728,  Lancelot 
having  described  an  illuminated  drawing  of 
part  of  it  in  1724.  It  is  very  valuable  as 
a  record  of  the  customs  and  costumes  of 
the  period,  and  nearly  fifty  books  have 
been  written  about  it. 

Bayonne  (bd'yon") ,  N.  J.,  a  thriving  town 
in  Hudson  County,  adjoining  Jersey  City, 
on  the  long  tongue  of  land  that  separates 
New  York  and  Newark  Bays.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Central  Railroad  of  New  Jersey,  and 
is  separated  from  Jersey  City  by  the  Morris 
Canal  and  from  Staten  Island  by  the  Kill- 
von-Kull.  It  has,  moreover,  excellent  rail- 
road communication  with  New  York  City. 
It  possesses  many  important  industries,  the 
chief  of  which  are  oil  refineries,  boiler  and 
electrical  works  and  chemical  works.  At  its 
docks  there  is  usually  great  activity  in  oil  and 
coal-shipping.  Population,  64,500. 

Bayreuth.     See  BAIREUTH. 

Bay  Tree,  a  name  given  to  a  number  of 
trees  and  shrubs  resembling  the  laurel.  The 
large-leaved  evergreen,  common  in  shrub- 
beries, called  the  common  or  cherry  laurel,, 
is  sometimes  called  bay  laurel.  The  true 
bay  leaves  are  used  for  flavoring.  Bay 
rum,  used  by  perfumers,  is  a  liquid  got  by 
distilling  rum  in  which  bay  leaves  have  been 
boiled.  The  leaves  were  also  used  to  deco- 
rate houses  at  Christmas  and  at  weddings. 

Bazaine  (bd'zdn'),  Francois  Achille,  a 
French  general,  born  in  1811.  He  enlisted 
as  a  private  and  served  in  Algiers  and 
Morocco,  in  the  Crimea  and  in  Italy.  In 
the  French  invasion  of  Mexico,  he  became 
Commander-in-chief  of  the  French  forces. 
In  the  Franco-Prussian  War  he  was  com- 
mander of  the  main  French  army,  and 
after  the  bloody  battles  of  Mars-le-Tours 
and  Gravelotte  he  was  shut  up  in  the  city 
of  Metz,  where  he  surrendered  on  October 
ay,  1870.  He  was  tried  by  courtmartial 


and  sentenced  to  death,  which  was  after- 
ward  mitigated  to  twenty  years'  imprison- 
ment. He  escaped  and  fled  to  Madrid, 
where  he  died  in  1888. 

Beaconsfield,  Lord.  See  DISRAELI, 
BENJAMIN. 

Bear,  a  large  animal,  omnivorous  as  to 
food,  found  in  both  warm  and  cold  climates. 
The  stout  body,  with  thick  legs  and  very 
short  tail,  is  covered  with  long,  shaggy  fur; 
the  whole  sole  of  the  foot  rests  upon  the 
ground,  and  the  claws  are  adapted  for  dig- 
ging and  climbing.  Bears  are  found  in 
Europe,  Asia  and  America;  those  in  cold 
climates  being  more  fierce  and  less  content 
with  vegetable  food  than  those  in  warmer 
regions.  Bears  generally  are  very  fond  of 
fruit,  honey,  nuts  and  roots,  and  when 
berries  and  green  food  are  plentiful  will 
often  pass  animal  food  untouched.  The 
latter  includes  mice  as  well  as  elk  and  bison 
steak,  and  of  ants  they  are  very  fond. 
Bears  swim  with  ease,  and  some  climb. 
In  cold  countries,  at  the  beginning  of  winter, 
they  hunt  caves  or  hollows  and  sleep  there 
until  spring.  The  young  bears  are  born 
during  the  winter,  usually  two  in  a  litter, 
very  small  and  helpless  at  first  and  almost 
hairless.  Bears  are  very  playful  animals, 
have  a  great  sense  of  humor,  and  generally 
are  good-tempered  and  cheerful.  Brown 
bears  are  plentiful  in  Europe  and  Asia. 
Comparatively  recently  new  American  bears 
have  been  described;  one,  the  glacier  bear 
living  about  Mt.  St.  Elias,  and  an  enormous 
brown  bear  of  Alaska  which  perhaps  is 
the  largest  of  living  bears.  Other  varieties 


BROWN    BEAR 

of  bears  live  in  Syria,  the  Himalayas,  Russia, 
the  Malayan  region  and  the  Andes.  Bears  01 
North  America  are  the  polar  bear  of  the 
far  north;  the  big  brown  bears  of  Alaska; 
the  grizzly  bears,  ranging  from  Mexico  to 
Alaska;  and  the  black  bears,  found  gener- 
ally in  our  forest  regions. 

The  white  or  polar  bears  of  the  Arctic 
regions  are  very  large,  often  measuring  nine 
feet  in  length,  and  are  very  strong.  They 


3EAR,  GREATER  AND  LESSER 


186 


BEATRICE 


swim  rapidly,  and  live  largely  on  fish.  They 
are  more  apt  to  attack  man  than  any  other 
variety.  The  males  do  not  hibernate  in  the 
winter,  but  the  females  remain  in  sheltered 
places  through  the  winter  and  bear  their 
young.  They  are  pure  white  all  the  year 
round.  They  swim  rapidly,  are  the  best 
swimmers  of  the  bear  family,  can  swim  for 
hours  in  icy  water,  and  are  excellent  divers. 


POLAR    BEAR 

The  Kadiak  bear  or  the  great  brown 
bear  sometimes  grows  as  large  as  an  ox. 
It  belongs  to  Alaska  and  adjacent  islands. 
In  the  spring  it  wears  a  coat  of  beautiful 
golden  yellow,  which  later  turns  to  brown. 
This  enormous  bear  has  markedly  high 
shoulders  and  a  massive  head.  The  glacier 
bear  belongs  to  the  glacier  region  of  Mt. 
St.  Elias.  Little  is  known  of  it.  It  is  reputed 
shy  and  fierce,  its  general  color  bluish-gray. 

The  grizzly  is  the  most  ferocious  of  bears, 
a  great,  lumbering,  fierce  fellow.  Before 
the  day  of  the  long-range  rifle  he  was  very 
hard  to  kill,  a  great  fighter,  but  now  his 
numbers  are  much  decreased.  He  is  pecu- 
liar to  North  America,  and  is  found  mainly 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  fur  is  dull 
brown,  around  the  head  somewhat  gray. 
The  claws  are  long  and  curved.  Its  strength 
is  equal  to  dragging  a  bison,  and  in  the  days 
when  "buffalo"  was  plentiful  on  the  plains 
it  was  a  persistent  hunter  of  this  animal. 
It  now  preys  on  horses  and  cattle,  but  want- 
ing these  must  manage  with  such  minute 
game  as  mice.  It  greedily  eats  berries,  wild 
plums,  green  fodder,  almost  everything  it 
can  chew.  The  adult  grizzly  cannot  climb 
trees,  but  when  he  has  found  a  good  hunting 
range  he  will  reach  up  as  high  as  he  can  on 
the  trunk  of  a  pine  and  there  make  a  mark 
that  means  "  Keep  Off" — a  challenge  well 
understood  by  animals  passing  that  way. 

The  American  black  bear  is  thought  by 
many  to  be  a  variety  of  the  brown  bear. 
In  our  forest  regions  both  east  and  west, 
north  and  south,  it  is  found,  still  quite  com- 
mon in  lonely  mountains  and  in  timbered 
land.  It  is  all  inky  black  save  for  a  brown- 
ish tinge  or  dirty  white  on  the  face,  and  some, 
called  cinnamon  bears,  are  dark  chestnut 
in  color.  It  is  naturally  timid  and  inoffen- 
sive, and  stands  in  terror  of  man,  but  will  fight 


savagely  if  attacked  or  called  on  to  defend 
its  cubs.  Except  in  the  spring  it  lives 
chiefly  on  vegetable  food.  It  is  excessively 
fond  of  blueberries,  also  of  honey,  and  will 
endure  many  stings  from  the  bees  to  get 
possession  of  the  sweet  it  craves.  After 
the  long  winter's  fast  it  eats  snakes,  bugs, 
fish,  anything  it  can  get;  when  eager  for 
animal  food,  it  will  kill  cows,  sheep,  and  steal 
from  the  pig-pen;  in  the  fall,  nuts,  acorns, 
wild  grapes  and  mushrooms  vary  its  fare. 
The  black  bear  usually  carries  its  head 
low,  and  is  highest  in  the  middle  of  its  back. 
It  climbs  with  ease  and  runs  swiftly.  The 
young  cubs  are  very  playful  and  good  tem- 
pered, but  grow  to  be  much  too  rough  for 
close  association.  See  Hornaday:  American 
Natural  History;  Stone  and  Cram:  Ameri- 
can Animals. 

Bear,  Greater  and  Lesser,  two  groups 
of  stars  or  constellations  in  the  northern 
sky.  In  the  Great  Bear  are  seven  very 
bright  stars,  forming  the  "dipper."  The 
body  of  the  "  dipper  "  is  made  by  four  stars 
forming  a  quadrangle,  the  other  three, 
which  make  the  handle,  being  nearly  in  a 
straight  line.  The  straight  line  which  passes 
through  the  two  stars  on  the  side  opposite 
the  handle,  passes  also  very  nearly  through 
the  pole  star;  distant  about  five  times 
the  length  between  the  two  stars.  These 
two  stars  are  therefore  called  the  point- 
ers. In  the  Lesser  Bear  a  group  of 
stars  also  forms  a  dipper,  but  the  stars 
are  not  nearly  so  bright. 

The  end  of  the  Little  Bear's  tail  is  the 
Pole  Star,  which  lies  almost  exactly  over 
the  north  pole.  The  Great  Dipper  is  easily 
recognized  by  the  star-gazer,  and  remem- 
bering the  pointers,  then  locate  the  Pole 
Star,  and  the  Little  Dipper  may  readily  be 
found.  In  most  star-maps  these  constella- 
tions are  called  by  their  Latin  names, 
Ursa  Major  and  Ursa  Minor.  See  Ball: 
Starland,  also  The  Story  of  the  Heavens; 
Moulton:  Introduction  to  Astronomy. 

Beard,  William  Holbrook,  an  American 
portrait  and  animal  painter,  was  born  at 
Painesville,  Ohio,  April  13,  1825,  and  died 
February  20,  1900.  After  studying  art  in 
Europe,  he  settled  in  New  York,  where  he 
was  very  successful  in  painting  pictures 
of  animals.  He  had  quite  a  gift  for  depicting 
with  humor  animal  life,  and  for  giving 
human  expression  to  the  faces  of  his  animal 
subjects.  Some  of  his  best  known  pictures 
are  Kittens  and  Guinea  Pig,  Bears  on  a 
Bender,  Voices  of  the  Night,  Who's  Afraid, 
Raining  Cats  and  Dogs,  etc.  A  collection 
of  his  sketches  appeared  in  1885,  with  the 
title:  Humor  in  Animals. 

Be'atrice,  Neb.,  a  city,  the  chief  town  of 
Gage  County,  in  Nebraska  on  Big  Blue 
River,  40  miles  south  of  Lincoln  and  90 
miles  southwest  of  Omaha.  It  is  reached 
by  the  Union  Pacific,  Rock  Island,  Burlington 
and  Missouri  River  and  other  railroads, 


BEAUHARNAIS 


187 


BEAUREGARD 


which  give  facilities  to  its  growing  trade 
in  flour,  lumber,  agricultural  implements 
and  cement  and  stone  from  important 
quarries  in  the  vicinity.  The  city  is  well 
laid  out  and  possesses  many  fine  buildings, 
including  court  house,  municipal  buildings, 
banks,  churches,  schools  and  public  library, 
besides  a  state  Institute  for  the  Feeble- 
Minded.  The  city  owns  and  operates  its 
own  water-works,  while  it  derives  from 
the  river  good  water-power  for  its  indus- 
tries. Settled  in  1859,  Beatrice  became  a 
city  in  1873.  Population,  9,356. 

Beauharnais  (bo'dr'nd'),  Eugene  de,  a 
French  soldier  and  statesman,  was  born  at 
Paris  in  1781.  His  mother  (Josephine)  be- 
came the  wife  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  He 
held  many  positions  in  the  French  army,  and 
in  1805  was  appointed  viceroy  of  Italy,  filling 
the  position  with  ability.  He  showed  cour- 
age and  military  capacity  in  the  campaigns 
against  Austria  and  Russia.  He  conducted 
the  retreat  from  Russia  in  a  masterly  man- 
ner. After  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon,  he 
lived  at  Munich,  the  title  of  Duke  of  Leuch- 
tenberg  being  granted  him  by  the  king  of 
Bavaria,  whose  daughter  he  had  married. 
He  died  there  in  1824. 

Beaumarchais  (bd'mar-sha1) ,  Pierre  Au- 
gustin  Caron  de,  a  celebrated  French 
dramatist,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1732.  He 
became  so  skilled  as  a  musician  that  he 
was  appointed  to  teach  the  daughters  of 
King  Louis  XV  to  play  on  the  harp.  He 
wrote,  as  a  defense  of  himself  against  a 
charge  of  fraud  and  forgery,  his  well-known 
Memoirs,  which  is  a  masterpiece  of  French 
writing  and  gave  him  quite  a  reputation. 
During  the  American  Revolution,  he  sup- 
plied the  American  army  with  a  large  quan- 
tity of  arms  and  ammunition,  for  which 
he  received  the  warm  thanks  of  Congress, 
but  not  the  money  payment  which  was 
promised.  One  fourth  of  the  debt  was 
paid  thirty-six  years  after  Beaumarchais 
was  dead.  He  was  a  supporter  of  the  French 
Revolution,  and  was  obliged  to  leave  France 
for  a  time.  His  greatest  drama  is  Tfte  Mar- 
riage of  Figaro.  Tlie  Barber  of  Seville  was  also 
very  successful.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1799. 

Beaumont,  Texas,  a  city,  the  seat  of 
Jefferson  County,  situated  at  the  head  of 
tidewater  navigation  on  the  Neches  River 
on  which  it  does  a  large  trade  in  the  ship- 
ment of  yellow  pine  and  cypress  lumber 
and  shingles  via  Sabine  Pass.  It  is  reached 
by  a  number  of  railroads,  including  the 
Santa  Fe,  Southern  Pacific,  Frisco  &  Kansas 
City  Southern,  operating  eleven  lines  in  all. 
It  lies  83  miles  northeast  of  Houston.  Its 
industries  connected  with  the  lumber,  oil, 
foundry  and  machine  shop  trades  are  ex- 
panding rapidly  and  this  of  recent  years  has 
given  an  impetus  to  the  developing  of  the 
city.  Population,  31,000. 

Beaumont  (bo'mont),  Francis,  an  English 
dramatist,  was  born  in  1586.  He  was  edu- 


cated at  Oxford  University,  and  afterward 
studied  law,  but  neglected  it  for  literary 
work.  He  became  a  great  friend  of  the 
dramatist,  John  Fletcher,  and  nearly  every- 
thing he  wrote  was  in  partnership  with  him. 
He  was  also  acquainted  with  Ben  Jonson 
and  other  writers  of  the  time.  The  finest 
of  the  dramas  which  the  two  friends,  Beau- 
mont and  Fletcher,  wrote  together  are  The 
Maid's  Tragedy  and  Philaster.  The  Cox- 
comb and  Cupid's  Revenge  are  also  well 
known.  Beaumont  was  one  of  the  most 
gifted  writers  of  the  age  of  Elizabeth.  He 
died  in  1616. 

Beaumont,  William,  an  American  sur- 
geon (1785-1853).  While  he  was  in  the 
United  States  army  he  had  to  care  for  a  man 
who  had  been  shot  in  the  left  side.  The 
patient  got  well,  but  the  wound  in  the  side 
healed  without  closing  up,  leaving  a  large 
hole  through  which  Dr.  Beaumont  was  able 
to  watch  the  process  of  digestion  in  the 
stomach.  He  thus  found  out  and  described 
the  action  of  gastric  juice  in  digestion,  the 
process  not  being  definitely  known  before. 
His  observations  and  experiments  were  of 
great  importance. 

Beauregard  (bo  fre-gdrdf) ,  Pierre  Qus- 
tave  Toutant,  an  American  general,  born 
in  1818  near  New  Orleans.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1838,  and  won  considerable 
distinction  in  the  Mexican  War.  He  was  sta- 
tioned until  1860  at  New  Orleans,  in  charge 
of  engineering  works  on  the  Mississippi  and 
the  Gulf,  and  also  had  the  oversight  of  the 
building  of  the  mint.  He  resigned  his  posi- 
tion as  superintendent  of  the  Military  Acad- 
emy at  West  Point  to  become  a  brigadier- 
general  in  the  Confederate  army  in  1861.  He 
directed  the  attack  on  Fort  Sumter,  and  de- 
feated General  McDowell  at  Bull  Run.  In 
the  spring  of  1862  he  was  second  in  com- 
mand of  the  Department  of  Tennessee.  At 
the  battle  of  Shiloh,  after  the  death  of  Gen- 
eral Johnston,  Beauregard  became  com- 
mander, and  in  the  first  day's  fight  partially 
defeated  General  Grant;  but  General  Buell 
having  reinforced  Grant  during  the  night, 
Beauregard  was  defeated.  He  fell  back  on 

Corinth,  which 
he  fortified  and 
held  until  May 
30,  when  ha 
made  a  ma&- 
terly  retreat  to 
Tupelo.  Owing 
to  failing, 
health,  he  was 
for  a  time  re- 
lieved from  ac- 
tive service,but 
later  took  com- 
m  a  n  d  of  the 
defense  of  the 
southern  coast. 

GENERAL    BEAUREGARD         While          S  t  a  - 

tioned  at  Charleston,  he  defeated  the  attacks 


BEAVER 


188 


BEAVER 


of  General  Gillmore  and  Admiral  Dahlgren  in 
1863.  In  1864  he  successfully  resisted  General 
Butler,  and  held  Petersburg  against  Grant's 
attack  until  the  arrival  of  General  Lee. 
He  later  had  the  task  of  resisting  General 
Sherman's  march  to  the  sea.  After  the 
war  he  became  president  of  the  New  Orleans 
and  Mississippi  Railroad,  and  in  1878  was 
made  general  manager  of  the  Louisiana 
Lottery  Company.  He  died  near  New 
Orleans,  February  20,  1893. 

Beaver,  a  gnawing  animal  of  very  inter- 
esting habits,  related  to  squirrels,  but  living 
in  the  water.  Beavers  live  in  Europe,  Asia 
and  North  America,  although  there  is  be- 
lieved to  be  only  one  kind.  They  are  about 
two  feet  long,  one  foot  high,  and  weigh  from 
forty-five  to  sixty  pounds.  The  beaver  is, 
therefore,  one  of  the  largest  and  heaviest  of 
the  gnaw- 
ers. It  has 
a  very  un- 
usual tail, 
oval,  flat 
and  scaly, 
about  ten 
inches  long 
and  three 
inches  wide. 
The  rest  of 

the  body  is  BEAVER 

covered  by  fur  of  two  kinds:  a  soft,  thick, 
gray  under-fur,  overlaid  with  polished  and 
glistening  chestnut-brown  hairs.  The  fur  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  furs  of  commerce. 

Formerly,  this  animal  was  distributed 
through  the  wooded  part  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  but  it  has  been  hunted  till  it  is 
almost  exterminated  in  settled  portions.  In 
the  United  States  it  is  scarcely  found  east  of 
the  Mississippi;  occasional  colonies  are 
known,  however,  in  Maine,  Virginia,  and  a 
few  other  places.  Though  numbers  exist 
in  Siberia,  the  beaver  is  now  rare  in  the 
Old  World. 

The  beaver  feeds  mainly  on  bark  of  trees 
(willow, poplar,  birch,  etc.),  roots,  buds  and 
leaves.  It  gnaws  down  trees  not  only 
for  constructing  dams  and  houses,  but 
to  get  the  finer  branches  and  twigs  for  food. 
The  front  teeth  are  remarkably  large,  and  of 
deep  orange  color  on  the  outside.  They  are 
like  the  front  teeth  of  the  fsquirrels,  rabbits 
and  other  gnawing  animals,  hard  in  front 
and  softer  behind,  so  that  by  use  they  get 
worn  to  chisel  edges.  With  these  teeth 
they  gnaw  through  trees  as  large  as  nine 
feet  in  circumference.  Their  hind  feet  are 
webbed  and  the  flattened  tail  serves  as  a 
sculling  oar  and  rudder,  which  makes  them 
splendid  swimmers  and  divers.  They  can 
remain  two  minutes  under  water.  They 
are  social  animals;  a  family  of  several 
members  usually  live  in  one  house;  and 
sometimes  a  large  number  of  families  collect 
together  in  a  community.  Usually  there 
are  four  young  ones  at  a  birth.  The  young 


beavers  leave  home  in  their  tkird  summer 
and  set  up  new  households,  and  when  com- 
munities become  too  large  for  comfortable 
living,  an  emigration  takes  place.  Once 
in  a  while  a  solitary  old  bachelor  is  found, 
a  recluse  living  alone  in  his  burrow. 

Their  habits  are  remarkable ;  they  usually 
work  at  night,  and  so  diligently,  that  "  work- 
ing  like  a  beaver"  has  become  a  common 
saying.  They  build  houses,  lodges  and 
dams  in  forest  brook,  well-concealed  from 
haunts  of  man.  The  simplest  form  of  house 
is  merely  a  burrow  opening  under  water. 
The  lodges  are  more  elaborate  and  are  of 
three  kinds:  the  island-lodge,  built  on  a 
small  island  in  a  pond;  the  lodge  built  on 
the  banks  of  streams  and  ponds;  and  the 
lake-lodge  on  the  sloping  shores  of  lakes, 
with  a  considerable  portion  of  the  hut  out 
of  water.  A  description  of  one  of  the 
island-lodges  will  be  sufficient:  It  is  an 
oven-shaped  house  of  sticks,  grass  and 
moss  woven  together  and  plastered  with 
mud,  so  strong  as  to  protect  the  inhabi- 
tants from  beasts  of  prey.  The  room  inside 
may  measure  eight  feet  in  diameter  and 
two  or  three  feet  in  height,  and  the  floor 
is  carpeted  with  bark,  grass  and  wood 
chips.  There  are  two  entrances,  both  un- 
derneath; one  is  straight,  through  which 
the  wood  for  winter  food  is  passed;  the 
other,  called  the  beaver  entrance,  is 
often  winding  in  its  course.  Both  these 
entrances  open  into  a  moat  around  the 
house,  too  deep  to  freeze  easily,  so  that 
the  beavers  are  not  likely  to  be  shut  in.  When 
the  trees  near  the  water  are  used  up  and 
the  land  is  too  uneven  for  rolling,  log-slides 
or  canals  are  cut  in  the  bank  to  carry  down 
the  timbers.  These  may  be  hundreds  of 
feet  long  and  about  a  yard  in  width  and 
depth. 

So  they  may  easily  pass  back  and  forth 
under  the  winters  ice,  and  that  they  may 
have  room  to  store  food,  dams  are  built 
to  increase  the  water  about  the  lodges. 
They  are  often  of  great  size — one  is  reported 
as  being  1,530  feet  long.  The  first  step  in 
dam-building  is  selection  of  a  suitable 
site,  a  narrow  place  with  firm  bottom. 
Then  work  is  begun  on  felling  trees.  They 
commence  by  gnawing  deep  parallel  grooves 
about  the  trunk,  in  chips  pull  out  the  wood 
between  the  grooves;  repeating  this  until 
nothing  is  left  but  a  few  last  fibres,  the 
trunk  is  ready  to  fall.  Some  say  they  always 
plan  for  the  tree  to  fall  toward  the  water, 
others  declare  they  work  haphazard.  After 
the  tree  is  down  the  beavers  set  to  work 
lopping  off  branches  and  cutting  it  in  lengths 
they  can  drag  into  the  water.  The  short 
logs,  dragged  or  floated  to  the  desired 
spot,  are  sunk  lengthwise  across  the  cur- 
rent and  kept  down  by  means  of  stones, 
sod  and  mud  loaded  on  by  the  beavers. 
To  provide  for  winter  needs,  they  collect 
a  goodly  supply  of  birch,  willow  and  poplar. 


BEAVER  FALLS 


189 


BECKET 


which  they  stack  near  their  homes,  sinking 
the  ends  well  in  the  mud  so  the  gathered 
store  cannot  float  away. 

During  the  i7th  and  i8th  centuries 
beaver  skins  held  first  place  in  the  world's 
fur  trade.  For  many  years  the  beaver 
was  called  upon  to  furnish  hats  for  men 
of  fashion.  So  great  was  the  demand  for 
the  fur  that  in  the  western  part  of  Canada 
and  the  United  States  beaver-skins  passed 
as  currency.  Where  once  they  were  almost 
unbelievably  plentiful,  their  numbers  now 
are  fast  decreasing.  Rigid  protection  in 
eastern  Canada  is  reported,  and  a  plea 
has  been  presented  for  a  game  and  fur 

6-eserve  in  the  Canadian  northwest.  See 
organ:  The  American  Beaver  and  His 
Work;  McClure's  Magazine,  April,  1901; 
Scientific  American,  Supplement,  August 
13,  1904;  Plea  for  Establishment  of  Game 
and  Fur  Preserve,  Report  of  8th  Inter- 
national Geographical  Congress. 

Beaver  Falls,  Pa.,  a  city  of  Beaver 
County,  thirty  miles  northwest  of  Pittsburg, 
located  on  the  Beaver  River  near  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Ohio.  It  has  excellent  water 
power  and  in  addition  there  is  an  abundant 
supply  of  coal  and  natural  gas;  hence  it 
is  an  important  manufacturing  point,  the 
principal  products  being  fence  wire,  nails, 
shovels,  files,  saws  and  other  articles 
manufactured  from  the  finer  grades  of 
steel.  Pottery  is  produced  to  some  extent 
and  also  glassware.  Here  is  located  Geneva 
College,  an  institution  affiliated  with  the 
Reformed  Presbyterian  denomination,  having 
in  attendance  a  large  body  of  students. 
Population,  14.000. 

Bebel  (ba'bel),  Ferdinand  August,  an 
able  and  influential  leader  of  the  German 
Socialists  in  the  Reichstag,  of  which  he 
served  as  member  for  over  thirty  years.  Born 
at  Cologne  in  1840,  he  early  in  life  became  a 
turner  by  trade,  and  as  early  identified  himself 
with  workingmen's  labor  organizations,  out 
of  which  he  built  up  a  progressive  social- 
democratic  party  having  a  compact  vote  of 
three  millions.  Few  Germans  of  his  time  en- 
gaged in  public  affairs  made  a  more  notable 
name  than  he,  as  his  influence  in  labor-con- 
gresses bore  witness,  not  to  speak  of  the  sym- 
pathy felt  for  him  by  large  masses  of  followers, 
owing  to  his  repeated  imprisonments  on  a 
charge  of  high  treason  and  of  lese-majest& 
against  the  German  Emperor.  Herr  Bebel  was 
a  powerful  and  convincing  speaker,  an  exten- 
sive contributor  to  socialistic  journals  and  a 
writer  of  books,  among  them  a  life  of  the 
French  socialist  Fourier,  and  Die  Frau  und 
Der  Socialismus.  He  died  in  1913. 

Bechuanaland  (bechob-a'na  or  bek'u- 
a'na-land),  is  a  native  territory  in  South 
Africa  annexed  to  Cape  Colony  in  1895. 
It  contains  51,524  square  miles  and  a  popu- 
lation (estimated  for  1908)  of  94,608,  of 
whom  9,608  were  whites.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Cape-to-Cairo  Railroad. 


Bechuanaland    Protectorate,    The,     has 

an  area  of  about  275,000  square  miles, 
about  that  of  British  Columbia,  and  a 
population  (1905)  of  137,832,  only  1,000 
being  whites.  It  is  bounded  west  and 
north  by  German  Southwest  Africa,  north 
by  Zambezi  River  and  British  Central  Africa, 
east  by  Matabeleland  and  Transvaal  and 
south  by  British  Bechuanaland  and 
Molopo  River.  The  chief  tribes  are 
the  Bamangwato,  Bakwena  and  Bang- 
waketse.  These  and  the  others  are  governed 
by  a  resident  British  agent  responsible 
to  the  High  Commissioner  of  South  Africa, 
but  Khama  and  two  other  chiefs  rule  their 
peoples  in  subordination  to  the  resident. 
No  licenses  for  the  sale  of  spirits  are  granted. 
Herding  and  farming  are  the  chief  industries. 
Much  of  the  land  is  held  by  native  chiefs, 
who  also  collect  the  hut-tax,  but  the  people 
are  peaceful  and  contented.  The  Cape-to- 
Cairo  Railway  passes  through  the  protect- 
orate, and  the  telegraph  connects  it  with 
Cape  Town,  Portuguese  East  Africa,  Rho- 
desia, Ujiji  and  the  whole  world.  In  1905-6 
the  income  was  almost  $143,265;  the 
expenditure  about  $373,915;  and  the  grant- 
in-aid  for  1906-7,  $220,000. 

Beck'et,  Thomas  a,  an  English  arch- 
bishop, born  in  London  about  1118;  mur- 
dered in  Canterbury  cathedral,  Dec.  29, 
1170.  His  father,  a  London  merchant, 
was  a  friend  of  Theobald,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  who  thus  became  acquainted 
with  the  young  man,  helped  him  in  his 
education,  and  induced  him  to  enter  the 
church,  also  bringing  him  to  the  notice  of 
King  Henry  II,  who  soon  after  appointed 
him  lord  chancellor  of  England.  Becket 
showed  great  ability,  and  also  distinguished 
himself  in  Henry's  war  against  France. 
He  lived  in  great  magnificence  and  was 
constantly  in  the  company  of  the  king. 
In  1162,  on  the  death  of  Archbishop  Theo- 
bald, the  king  had  Becket  appointed  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  Immediately  Beck- 
et's  conduct  changed.  Instead  of  the 
brilliant  courtier  and  statesman,  he  became 
grave  and  austere,  and  began  to  oppose 
the  king,  making  himself  the  champion  of 
the  rights  of  the  church  against  the  king's 
demands.  In  1164,  at  Clarendon,  the  king 
had  resolutions  drawn  up  which  declared 
what  the  king's  rights  and  what  those  of 
the  church  were  on  certain  disputed  points. 
These  Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  as  they 
were  called,  Becket  at  first  refused  to  agree 
to,  but  finally  signed  them.  As  soon  as 
he  left  the  place,  he  repented  having  signed 
them  and  declared  that  they  ought  not 
to  be  observed.  He  was  then  obliged  to 
flee  to  France.  In  1170  he  was  allowed 
to  come  back;  but  he  at  once  began  his 
old  opposition  to  the  king,  who  was  then 
in  Normandy.  The  king  is  said  to  have 
angrily  cried  out:  "Will  no  one  rid  me  of 
this  pestilent  priest?"  At  once  four  knights 


BECQUEREL  RAYS 


IQO 


BEE 


left  the  king,  and,  going  to  Canterbury, 
murdered  Becket  at  the  altar  of  the  church. 
He  was  declared  a  saint  by  the  pope,  and 
his  tomb  at  Canterbury  became  a  shrine 
visited  by  pilgrims  from  all  over  the  world. 
But  the  beautiful  shrine  was  destroyed 
by  Henry  VIII,  and  the  cathedral  was 
partly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1872. 

Becquerel  (bek'rel')  Rays.  About  one 
year  after  Rontgen  made  his  beautiful  dis- 
covery that  X-rays  could  be  produced  by  the 
use  of  an  induction  coil  and  a  vacuum  tube, 
a  French  physicist,  M.  Henri  Becquerel, 
found  that  the  metal  uranium  and  its 
compounds  are  continually  emitting  rays 
which  possess  almost  exactly  the  same  prop- 
erties as  X-rays.  This  new  radiation 
which  is  emitted  spontaneously  by  uranium 
has  received  the  name  Becquerel  rays. 
Experiments  have  shown  that  these  rays 
possess  the  following  properties: 

1.  They  are  propagated  in  straight  lines, 
as  is  ordinary  light. 

2.  They  affect  the  photographic  plate, 
as  does  ordinary  light,  though  in  a  much  less 
degree. 

3.  They  traverse  thin  plates  of  opaque 
bodies,  unlike  ordinary  light. 

4.  They  are    not  reflected,  refracted  or 
polarized,  as  is  ordinary  light. 

5.  They  render  the  air  through  which 
they   pass   a   conductor   of  electricity,   or, 
as  the  chemist  says,  they  ionize  air. 

A  full  account  of  this  discovery  is  to  be 
found  in  Becquerel's  papers,  which  are  pub- 
lished in  the  Comptes  Rendus  for  the  first 
few  months  of  1896. 

Bede  or  Beda,  surnamed  The  Vener- 
able, an  English  monk,  scholar  and  church 
historian,  was  born  in  673,  in  what  now  is 
the  county  of  Durham,  and  died  at  Jarrow, 
at  the  monastery  of  St.  Paul,  in  735.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  most  learned 
Englishman  of  his  day,  and  in  the  seclusion 
of  his  cell  he  wrote,  besides  his  important 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  England,  which 
was  translated  from  the  Latin  by  King 
Alfred  into  Anglo-Saxon,  a  number  of  com- 
mentaries, homilies,  hymns  and  lives  of 
the  saints. 

Bedford,  Indiana,  is  the  county  seat 
of  Lawrence  County,  on  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Southwestern  Chicago,  Indi- 
anapolis &  Louisville  and  Terre  Haute  & 
Southeastern  railways,  75  miles  northwest  of 
Louisville.  It  has  valuable  quarries  near 
by,  chiefly  of  a  fine,  durable  oolitic  limestone, 
much  in  request  for  building  purposes.  Its 
other  industries  include  veneering  mills  and 
lumber  factories,  besides  railway  shops,  etc. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Bedford  Business  University 
and  public  schools  that  employ  sixty  teachers. 
Population  11,000. 

Bed'ford,  Admiral  Sir  Frederick 
George  Denham,  G.C.B.,  K.C.B.,  C.B.,  has 
been  governor  of  Western  Australia  since 
1903.  He  was  born  in  1838,  the  son  of 


Vice- Admiral  Bedford,  and  entered  the 
royal  navy  in  1852.  His  service  has  been 
interesting  and  extensive.  He  was  present 
at  the  bombardments  of  Odessa,  Sevasto- 
pool  and  Sveaburg,  commanded  the  Shah 
in  its  engagement  with  the  Huascar,  organ- 
ized the  Nile  flotilla  in  1884,  commanded 
the  expeditions  against  Fodi  Silah  in  Gam- 
bia in  1894,  against  Nana  of  Brokenin  on 
the  Benin  the  same  year  and  against  King 
Koko  of  Nimbi  on  the  Niger  the  year  fol- 
lowing. He  was  one  of  the  lords  of  the 
admiralty  from  1889  to  1892  and  from 
1895  to  1899,  taking  command  of  the  North 
American  and  West  Indies  station  in  the 
last  named  year  and  retaining  it  until  he 
received  his  present  appointment. 

Bedford,  Duke  of.    See  JOAN  OF  ARC. 

Bedloe's  Island,  in  New  York  harbor. 
In  1800  it  was  ceded  to  the  United  States 
government,  and  in  1841  Fort  Wood  was 
built  on  it.  Within  the  fort  now  stands 
Bartholdi's  great  statue  of  Liberty  Enlighten- 
ing the  World,  presented  by  France  to  the 
United  States. 

Bedouins  (b%dfdt>-tnz) ,  meaning  "  dwellers 
in  the  desert,"  are  Arabs  who  lead  a  wan- 
dering life.  While  the  desert  of  Arabia  is 
their  central  place  of  abode,  they  have 
spread  themselves  over  many  countries, 
and  are  now  to  be  found  from  the  western 
boundary  of  Persia  to  the  Atlantic  and  from 
the  mountains  of  Kurdistan  to  the  negro 
countries  of  Sudan.  In  a  few  regions  they 
have  mixed  with  other  nations;  but  as  a 
rule  they  have  kept  their  separate  character 
and  independence.  They  now  form  a  sev- 
enth of  the  population  of  Arabia.  They 
have  seldom  acted  as  a  united  people  in 
the  world's  politics.  They  are  herdsmen 
and  generally  robbers,  and  recognize  little 
law  except  tribal  custom.  One  or  more 
families  form  the  core  of  a  tribe,  a  kind  of 
aristocracy,  and  from  their  number  a  supe- 
rior sheikh  is  chosen  to  lead  them  and  to 
judge  between  those  engaged  in  disputes, 
if  they  choose  to  come  to  him.  They  manu- 
facture their  own  woolen  clothes,  and  their 
food  is  mainly  obtained  from  their  herds, 
though  they  also  eat  rice,  honey,  locusts 
and  even  lizards.  Certain  tribes,  however, 
live  in  houses  and  practice  agriculture. 

Bee,  an  insect  related  to  wasps  and  ants. 
Bees  abound  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  num- 
bering about  5,000  species.  All  when  adult 
feed  on  sweet  juices.  There  are  the  solitary 
bees,  each  female  providing  a  nest  for  her 
young,  as  the  carpenter  bee  and  others;  the 
social  bees,  so  called  because  many  work 
together  to  build  a  common  home;  guest 
bees,  that  lay  eggs  in  the  nests  of  others. 
The  carpenter  bees  bore  tunnels  in  dead 
tree  trunks,  fence  posts,  even  in  the  joists 
of  buildings.  The  burrow  runs  across  the 
grain  at  first,  then  at  right  angles  to  this 
a  deep  burrow  is  made,  and  other  galleries 
may  be  added.  These  bees  are  indefati- 


BEE 


BEE 


QUEEN    BEE 


gable  workers  and  very  hard  to  discourage. 
Carpenter  bee,  digger  bee,  potter  bee,  cuckoo 
bee,  honey  bee,  bumblebee — all  are  of  much 
interest  and  well-worth  close  study. 

The  social  bees,  including  the  bumblebee 
and  honey  bee,  are  the  best  known.  The 
latter  was  originally  introduced  from  Europe 
into  America,  more  than  three  centuries  ago, 
and  escaping  swarms  stocked  the  forests  with 
what  are  now  called 
wild  bees.  There  are 
three  kinds  of  individ- 
uals: the  queens,  the 
workers  or  undevel- 
oped females  and  the 
drones  or  males.  The  queens  and  workers 
have  stings  connected  with  poison  sacs,  but 
the  drones  have  no  stings.  Each  kind  is 
produced  in  a  particular  kind  of  cell.  That 
in  which  the  queen  is  reared  is  especially 
large.  The  undeveloped 
queens  are  provided  with 
a  kind  of  food  called 
royal  jelly.  The  cell  of 
the  drone  is  larger  than 
that  in  which  the  worker 
is  reared.  It  is  possible,  however,  for  the 
active  workers  to  enlarge  a  cell  that  would 
ordinarily  produce  a  worker,  and  by  chang- 
ing the  food  to  royal  jelly  cause  the  young 
grub  to  develop  into 
a  queen.  When  sev- 
eral queens  mature 
at  the  same  time 
there  is  a  royal  battle 
DRONE  among  the  rivals  and 

the  one'who  succeeds  in  stinging  the  other  to 
death  is  left  as  reigning  sovereign.  The 
queens  lay  eggs  in  large  numbers,  placing 
in  different  cells  those  that  are  intended 
for  workers,  drones  and  new  queens. 

The  drones  are  males  and  are  destroyed  by 
the  workers  soon  after  the  honey  season. 
The  workers  do  all  the  work  of  the  hive. 
They  gather  the  honey,  bee-glue  and  pollen, 
which  is  made  into  bee-bread  with  which 
the  young  are  fed.  They  clean  the  hive, 
form  the  wax,  build  the  comb  and  care  for 
the  young.  The  formation  of  wax  is  very 
interesting.  Some  of  the  workers  gorge 
themselves  with  honey  and  remain  quiet 
for  about  twenty-four  hours,  after  which 
the  wax  comes  out  as  little  plates  from  the 
wax  pockets  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
body.  About  twenty-one  pounds  of  honey 
are  consumed  to  manufacture  one  pound  of 
wax,  but  this  amount  will  make  about  35,000 
honey-comb  cells.  The  cells  are  six-sided; 
in  building  the  same  the  workers  begin  at 
the  top  and  build  downwards,  leaving  some 
spaces  for  passage  ways.  Some  of  the  cells 
are  for  honey,  others  for  eggs. 

The  migration  or  swarming  of  the  bees 
usually  happens  when  the  hive  becomes  too 
crowded.  The  first  swarm,  led  by  the  old 
queen,  usually  starts  out  in  June,  leaving 
the  new  queen  in  possession  of  the  hive. 


A  second  and  third  swarming  sometimes 
take  place.  The  swarm  comes  out,  num- 
bering thousands,  and  soon  lights,  usually 
on  the  limb  of  a  tree,  hanging  like  a  bag, 
from  which  it  may  be  taken  and  put  into 
a  hive. 

"A  swarm  of  bees  in  May 

Is  worth  a  load  of  hay. 

A  swarm  of  bees  in  June 

Is  worth  a  silver  spoon. 

But  a  swarm  in  July 

Is  not  worth  a  fly." 
Before  swarming  takes  place  there  is  no 
little  commotion  in  the  hive.  The  queen 
(or,  better,  mother)  of  a  hive  is  an  indispen- 
sable member,  and  beautifully  cared  for  by 
the  others.  But  between  queen  and  queen 
there  is  little  friendliness,  and  when  a  new 
queen  comes  forth  from  her  cell  the  old 
queen  knows  her  day  is  over,  she  must 
leave  and  go  off  to  establish  a  new  home. 
Warning  of  the  flitting  is  given  by  both 
new  queen  and  old.  At  the  sound  of  the  pip- 
ing of  the  former  a  thrill  passes  through  the 
hive,  the  queen  giving  special  sign  of  agi- 
tation. Swarming  takes  place  on  a  fine  day, 
and  may  be  considerably  retarded  by  cloudy 
weather.  Some  of  the  new  hives  may  be 
opened,  an  observer  having  opportunity 
to  study  the  condition  of  the  swarm  and 
the  progress  of  the  work.  Keepers  often 
use  little  machines  that  puff  smoke  into  the 
hives,  this  making  the  bees  quiet  without 
hurting  them,  and  allowing  the  keeper  to 
handle  them.  Bees  become  quite  tame 
when  handled  often. 

The  sting  is  at  the  extreme  end  of  the 
abdomen.  The  poison,  pumped  from  the 
poison-sac  with  great  rapidity,  exudes  from 
the  many  infinitesimal  barbs  of  the  dagger- 
like  sting.  The  angry  bee,  leaving  her 
sting  behind  in  her  victim,  falls  a  victim, 
too,  and  shortly  dies.  A  person  stung 
should  immediately  remove  the  sting,  which 
retains  poison.  The  bee's  tongue  is  a 
delicate  and  complicated  instrument,  which, 
when  not  in  use,  is  folded  back  beneath  its 
head;  when  active,  working  with  lightning 
flash.  For  especially  deep,  tubular  flowers 
there  is  an  extra  length  of  tongue  that  can  be 
shot  out  from  within.  The  tongue  is  hairy 
and  there  is  a  little,  spoon-like  termination. 
Some  of  the  nectar  taken  up  is  eaten  and 
digested;  some  stored  in  the  honey- sac, 
situated  in  the  big.  end  of  the  abdomen. 
This  and  the  pollen  are  taken  home  for  the 
good  of  the  community.  Pollen  accumu- 
lates in  dust  on  the  feathery  hairs  of  legs 
and  body,  later  to  be  collected  in  the  two 
pollen  baskets,  one  on  the  fourth  joint  of 
each  hind  leg.  The  worker  gathers  the 
pollen  together  with  her  legs,  then  scrapes 
it  with  one  hind  leg  into  the  basket  of  the 
other  leg.  It  is  most  interesting  to  watch 
her  gathering  pollen.  "  Sometimes  she 
looks  as  if  she  were  running  about  over  a 
head  of  flowers  to  find  something  she  had 


BEE 


19* 


BEECH 


lost — now  this  way  and  now  that  she  goes 
in  a  great  hurry,  then  turns  around  and 
around.  But  she  has  not  lost  anything, 
and  she  has  not  gone  crazy;  she  is  merely 
collecting  pollen  as  fast  as  she  can,  and  if 
you  have  sharp  eyes  you  will  see  her  rub, 
rub,  rubbing  it  with  her  legs  back  into  her 
baskets.  It  is  astonishing  how  much  she 
can  carry.  When  her  baskets  are  full,  she 
goes  about  with  a  basket  of  pollen  attached 
to  each  of  her  hind  legs."  (Morley). 

The  "busy  bees"  not  only  are  carriers 
and  honey-makers,  but  they  sometimes 
stop  to  feed  from  their  store  a  hungry  rela- 
tive. First  the  two  cross  antennae  by  way 
of  greeting,  then  the  hungry  one  puts  out 
its  long  tongue  and  proceeds  to  draw  honey 
from  the  mouth  of  the  other. 

The  senses  of  bees  are  very  highly  devel- 
oped. The  sense  of  vision  is  remarkable. 
The  bee  in  proportion  to  its  size  has  more 
eye-space  than  the  owl,  two  great  compound 
eyes  and  on  top  of  its  head  three  small  eyes. 
No  wonder  it  can  make  a  bee-line  for 
a  desired  goal.  The  antennae  or  feelers  are 
of  the  greatest  importance;  without  them 
the  bee  is  lost.  They  serve  as  nose  and 
ears  as  well  as  feelers,  Bees  take  the  best  of 
care  of  these  sensitive  things,  cleaning  them 
carefully  and  frequently. 

The  bee  is  very  clean,  as  neat  as  can  be ;  is 
always  cleaning  itself,  making  use  of  its 
legs,  which  answer  well  as  comb  and  brush. 
The  hive  likewise  is  kept  scrupulously  clean. 
Fresh  air  is  let  into  the  crowded  hive  by 
an  ingenious  method;  some  bees  standing 
outside  fanning  air  into  the  holes  in  the 
bottom  of  the  hive,  others  just  inside  doing 
their  share  of  fanning,  and  good  circulation 
is  thus  provided. 

The  bee  has  various  enemies,  and  keeps 
sentinels  on  the  lookout  for  intruders. 
There  are  robber  bees  to  be  combated; 
the  bee  moth  to  keep  from  gaining  entrance 
and  laying  eggs  that  produce  larvae  de- 
structive to  both  comb  and  honey.  Then 
there  are  birds  that  eat  bees,  and  bears, 
notorious  honey  thieves,  will  eat  both 
honey  and  honey-bee. 

Bees  are  torpid  during  cold  weather. 
The  queen  bee  may  deposit  as  many  as 
3,000  eggs  a  day.  She  sometimes  lives  four, 
sometimes  five,  years.  The  workers  live 
but  a  few  months  at  the  most,  sometimes 
only  a  few  weeks.  A  hive  has  been  known 
to  yield  1,000  pounds  of  honey  in  a  single 
season.  As  a  rule,  bees  do  most  of  their 
collecting  w'thin  two  miles  of  the  hive.  The 
common  black  or  brown  honey  makers  are 
German  bees.  The  Italian  bees,  large  bees 
with  yellow  markings  on  the  abdomen,  are 
in  much  favor  in  this  country.  The  Carnio- 
lans,  from  Austria,  have  a  good  standing. 
The  Syrians  have  the  highest  honey  record. 
As  is  well  known,  white  clover  makes  de- 
licious honey;  the  flowers  of  the  basswood 
are  favored  of  bees;  in  the  south,  orange- 


blossoms  are  used  and  yield  a  clear,  delicate 
strain.  Buckwheat  flowers  give  very  dark 
honey.  Bees  sometimes  gather  flowers  from 
poisonous  plants,  but  that  happens  very 
seldom  in  this  country.  The  wild  bees 
store  honey  that  both  man  and  beast  search 
for,  the  store  being  usually  found  in  trees. 

Before  the  world  had  sugar,  honey  was 
of  great  importance  as  an  article  of  food. 
While  not  so  highly  valued  to-day  it  is 
nevertheless  much  relished.  Bees  are  of 
utmost  importance  in  the  cross-fertilization 
of  plants;  it  is  their  habit  to  visit  bloom 
after  bloom  of  the  same  kind.  Howard  says: 
"  Without  their  aid  the  health  of  the  plant 
world  would  suffer  and  its  infinite  variety 
would  hardly  have  been  achieved. "  Attempts 
to  raise  fruit  on  a  large  scale  with  no  bees  in 
the  locality  have  proved  failures;  abundant 
crops  following  the  introduction  of  bees. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  bumblebees. 
They  are  large  and  furry.  A  familiar  one 
wears  a  splendid  coat  of  black  and  yellow. 
They  are  of  much  value  in  the  fertilization 
of  flowers,  especially  red  clover.  They 
generally  nest  in  a  hollow  in  the  ground, 
under  a  tuft  of  grass,  close  to  the  surface. 
In  the  winter  the  queen  lives  quite  alone, 
sleeping  through  the  cold.  When  the 
flowers  bloom  again,  she  works  very  busily, 
gathering  pollen  to  place  in  her  nest  and 
lay  her  eggs  therein,  where  the  young  larva 
may  help  itself.  After  a  time  the  larva 
spins  a  cocoon  about  itself,  from  which 
it  comes  forth  a  bee  and,  if  a  worker,  ready 
to  help  carry  pollen.  As  with  the  honey 
bee  there  are  the  three  classes,  workers, 
drones  and  queen;  when  cold  weather 
comes,  the  workers  and  drones  die. 

See  The  Honey  Bee,  Frank  Benton,  Bulle- 
tin No.  1,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture;  Hodge:  Nature  Study  and 
Life;  Morley :  The  Bee  People;  Howard :  The 
Insect  Book. 

Beech,  a  genus  of  trees  technically  known 
as  Fagus,  represented  by  about  five  species 
in  the  cooler  regions  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere. The  species  of  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere formerly  included  under  Fagus  are 
now  regarded  as  forming  another  genus. 
The  beech  is  prized  for  its  beauty,  largely 
cultivated  as  a  shade  and  ornamental  tree, 
and  valued  for  its  timber  and  nuts.  Both 
in  Europe  and  the  eastern  United  States 
the  beech  forms  extensive  forests,  and  it 
is  the  common  hardwood  tree  of  central 
Europe.  It  is  a  familiar  and  well-beloved 
tree  of  Europe;  the  beeches  of  England  are 
famous  and  whole  forests  of  beech  are  com- 
mon in  Denmark  and  Germany.  In  the  olden 
days  great  herds  of  swine  were  fed  on  the 
beech-forests  of  England.  The  ancients 
highly  prized  beech-nuts  for  food,  used  the 
oil  therefrom  for  lamps,  kept  their  records 
on  beechen  boards — the  word  book  being 
derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  word  for 
this  tree,  bece. 


HOW  HONEY  COMB  CELLS  ARE  MADE 


j 


Courtesy  Technical  World 

This  picture  of  the  little  girl  blowing  soap  bubbles  illustrates  the  latest  answer  of  science  to  one  of  Nature's 
oldest  conundrums: 

"Why  are  the  cells  of  the  honey  comb  six  sided?"  Look  at  the  bubbles  and  see  if  you  can't  find  this 
answer  before  I  tell  you. 

Ever  since  King  Mykennos  of  Egypt  made  his  royal  sign  in  sealing  wax  with  the  image  of  the  bee  in 
his  ring — and  long,  long  before  that — men  have  kept  and  studied  bees  and  spoken  of  their  wonderful  instinct 
in  making  their  cells  six-sided.  Round  cells  waste  space;  six-sided  cells  make  use  of  all  the  space  and  make 
the  comb  stronger  because  the  cells  support  each  other  better. 

Now  it  is  pointed  out  that  the  bees  make  the  cells  round  in  the  first  place;  as  you  can  see  in  the  next 
picture  they  grow  six-sided  as  the  frames  fill.  So  it  is  the  pressure  of  the  cells  against  each  other  that  makes 
them  six-sided,  just  as  the  pressure  of  the  soap  bubbles  is  changing  them  from  round  to  six-sided  figures. 
The  soap  bubbles  do  not  take  an  equal  sided  shape  because  they  are  not  strong  enough  and  last  too  short 

A  comb  of  4000  cells  is  made  in  twenty-four  hours.     (How  many  cells  an  hour?) 

After  the  breeding  season  the  cells  are  built  out  longer  and  turned  up  at  the  end  to  keep  the  honey  from 
spilling  out  until  the  cells  are  filled. 


This  picture  shows  the  frames  which  are  used  in 
artificial  hives.  The  bees  begin  to  build  the  comb 
from  the  top  of  each  section.  When  filled  with  honey, 
the  bees  seal  the  cells  with  wax.  The  frames  are  easily 
lifted  from  the  hive  at  the  convenience  oi  the  bee- 
keeper. 


This  picture  shows  how  these  cells  will  look  under 
the  microscope;  and  it  shows  something  else.  Notice 
that  the  point  of  meeting  of  the  three  sides  of  three 
cells  is  just  opposite  the  center  of  the  cell  in  the  other 
side.  Any  carpenter,  architect,  mechanical  engineer 
or  your  big  brother  in  High  School  will  tell  you  that 
this  greatly  increases  the  strength  of  the  comb.  You 
can  see  this  back  to  back  arrangement  of  a  comb  if 
you  will  hold  one  up  to  the  light. 


The  queen  bee  reigns  in  the  hive,  and  is 
treated  with  reverent  courtesy  and  attention. 
When  she  moves  about  she  is  attended  by  a 
body  guard,  as  seen  in  the  picture.  They  form 
a  circle  about  her  with  all  their  heads  towards 
her.  They  walk  backwards  before  her,  and  when 
they  retire  they  move  backwards,  still  facing 
their  queen.  They  feed  her  with  honey  and 
bee-bread. 


This  picture  shows  that  combs  are  not  made  only 
to  hold  honey,  but  to  brace  the  little  bee  city — 
for  that  is  just  what  a  honeycomb  is — so  that  it 
can't  fall  or  be  shaken  down;  as  cities  built  by 
men  sometimes  are  when  they  are  shaken  by 
earthquakes  or  struck  by  whirling  winds. 

If  you  ever  find  a  beehive  in  the  hollow  of  a 
tree,  you  will  find  these  braces  protecting  it  against 
the  swaying  of  the  trees  in  the  wind.  You  will 
not  find  them  in  artificial  hives. 


When  the  workers  go  out  into  the  fields  for 
pollen  to  feed  the  babies,  they  carry  along  '  'market 
baskets."  These  baskets,  as  you  see  in  this  picture, 
are  on  the  outside  of  each  pair  of  hind  legs.  Both 
body  and  legs  are  covered  with  hairs  which  collect 
the  pollen.  The  bees  scrape  the  pollen  off  one  leg 
with  the  other  and  put  it  into  the  basket.  You 
have  noticed  the  flies  have  the  same  habit.  Bees 
do  most  of  their  collecting  within  two  miles  of  the 
hive.  The  pollen  is  first  rolled  into  a  ball  before 
it  is  dropped  into  the  basket.  The  baskets  are 
arched  over  with  hairs  to  protect  these  little  balls 
from  falling  out.  Sometimes  the  bees  roll  in  the 
flower  so  as  to  get  themselves  all  covered  with 
pollen — just  as  you  have  seen  horses  roll,  or  a  bird 
nutter  dust  over  himself. 


Larva 

Bees'  eggs  are  long  shaped,  about  one-twelfth  of 
an  inch  in  lenpth,  are  bluish  white,  and  hatch  in 
three  days.  The  eggs  hatch  into  little  worm-like 
creatures,  called  larvae.  They  lie  curled  up  in  their 
cells  as  you  curl  up  in  bed  on  a  cold  night.  They 
are  fed  by  the  workers  for  five  days  and  then  they 
refuse  to  eat  and  the  workers  seal  up  the  cell — very 
much  as  you  pull  the  bed  clothes  over  your  head 
and  go  to  sleep.  Then  the  bee  that  is  to  be  spins 
himself  a  silk  cocoon  and  is  changed  into  a  pupa — 
such  as  you  see  in  this  picture.  About  the  first  day 
after  he  becomes  a  pupa,  he  breaks  from  his  cell 
a  perfect  little  bee.  All  his  aunts  caress  him  and 
feed  him  just  as  other  people  do  their  babies.  The 
next  day,  he  tries  his  wings. 


We  see  here  the  umler  side  of  the  worker  bee. 
This  is  magnified  three  times  so  as  to  show  clearly 
the  wax  scales  or  pockets.  When  a  swarm  of  bees 
begin  to  keep  house  in  a  new  hive  their  first  task 
is  to  manufacture  wax  out  of  which  to  make  the 
comb.  It  is  interesting  to  note  what  bees  do  and 
how  they  conduct  themselves  in  making  the  wax. 
They  eat  all  the  honey  they  possibly  can  and  then 
they  remain  quiet  for  about  twenty-four  hours.  We 
do  not  know  how  the  honey  is  changed  into  wax, 
but  at  the  end  of  that  time  the  wax  appears  in 
these  wax  pockets  that  you  see  in  the  picture.  In 
the  new  hive  the  bees  have  suspended  themselves 
from  the  top  or  roof  of  the  hive  and  hang  down  like 
a  curtain.  When  the  scales  have  become  filled  with 
wax,  they  are  ready  for  work  and  some  of  them 
run  up  to  the  top  of  the  hive  and  lay  the  foundation 
of  the  comb.  The  making  of  the  comb  then  pro- 
ceeds rapidly.  It  takes  about  twenty-one  pounds 
of  honey  to  make  one  pound  of  wax,  but  this 
amount  will  make  about  35,000  honeycomb  cells. 
When  first  made  the  wax  is  of  a  white  color;  it 
turns  brown  with  age. 


This  picture  gives  an  end  view  of  a  comb  and 
•hows  how  the  honey  is  kept  from  spilling  out  before 
the  cell  is  filled  and  sealed  up;  just  as  Mother  seals 
her  jelly  glasses  when  they  are  ready  for  the  winter 
storehouse.  See  how  the  bottoms  of  the  cells  are 
curved. 


SWARMING 

When  so  many  bees  are  born  that 
the  hive  becomes  crowded,  the  in- 
mates seem  to  come  to  an  agreement 
to  divide  themselves  up  into  two 
parties,  one  remaining  in  the  old 
hive  and  the  other  starting  out  to 
secure  a  new  home.  This  is  called 
swarming.  The  new  swarm  must 
take  the  old  queen  with  them.  The 
queen  is  usually  among  the  last  to 
leave  the  hive.  Sometimes  she  does 
not  go  at  all  and  then  the  swarm 
returns  to  the  hive  after  a  time  and 
try  it  again  the  next  day  The  first 
swarms  usually  come  out  in  June  and 
sometimes  a  second,  or  even  a  third, 
swarm  issues  during  the  season. 
Usually  after  going  a  short  distance 
the  swarm  alights  on  a  bush  or  the 
limb  of  a  tree,  and  here  the  bee 
keeper  follows  and  the  swarm  is  skill- 
fully transferred  to  a  hive.  In  the 
picture  we  see  a  large  swarm  which 
settled  on  a  slender  tree,  bending  it 
over  by  its  weight. 


A  SMOKER.  This  picture  shows  the  tool  which 
is  used  by  men  in  getting  the  honey  from  the  hive. 
We  cannot  drive  bees  from  the  hive,  as  we  can 
drive  cattle  and  horses  with  a  whip.  If  you  were 
to  try  it  you  would  soon  be  driven  off  yourself  by 
the  angry  bees,  with  their  terrible  sting.  It  is  here 
that  the  power  of  smoke  comes  in.  Blow  a  few 
puffs  of  smoke  into  a  hive  and  it  is  astonishing  to 
see  the  bees  turn  about  and  retreat  in  perfect  dis- 
may and  fright.  The  above  cut  shows  a  picture  of 
a  device  which  is  used  for  this  purpose.  In  the 
can  there  is  a  little  fire  made  with  rotten  wood  or 
other  material.  The  bellows  forces  the  smoke 
through  the  mouth  of  the  smoker  into  the  hive. 
The  bees  soon  become  quiet  and  stupid  and  the 
comb  can  be  handled  without  trouble. 


A  HONEY  EXTRACTOR.  The  above  is  the 
picture  of  a  honey  extractor  The  original  honey 
extractor  was  invented  by  a  major  in  the  German 
army  who  saw  his  little  boy  swinging  an  unsealed 
comb  in  a  basket  on  the  end  of  a  string.  He 
swung  it  around  his  head  and  his  father  noticed 
that  the  honey  oozed  out.  Then  he  made  a  machine 
such  as  you  see  in  the  picture  which,  when  whirled 
very  fast,  forced  the  honey  out  of  the  comb,  just 
as  the  cream  separator  separates  the  milk  from  the 
cream.  After  it  is  forced  from  the  comb  the  honey 
drops  to  the  bottom  of  the  machine. 


BEECHER 


193 


BEER 


America  has  but  one  native  beech,  a 
tree  of  which  we  are  justly  proud.  It  is 
a  round-topped  tree;  grows  from  50  to  120 
feet  high;  has  abundant,  thin,  soft  leaves, 
whose  perfection  is  seldom  lessened  by 
insect  attacks.  The  leaves  are  alternate, 
oblong-ovate,  strongly  veined.  In  autumn 
they  turn  yellow,  remaining  on  the  tree 
very  late.  The  bark  is  of  unique  beauty, 
smooth,  shining,  bhiish-gray,  the  limbs 
darker.  The  flower  is  inconspicuous.  The 
fruit  is  a  small,  sweet,  three-angled  nut, 
the  well  known  delicious  little  beech-nut. 
In  Europe  an  oil  made  from  the  nut  and 
called  beech-oil,  is  extensively  used  for 
food;  the  nuts  themselves  are  fed  to  swine, 
poultry,  etc.  The  tree  is  widely  distributed, 
its  range  being  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Florida 
and  westward.  It  grows  best  in  sandy  loam 
and  limestone  soil.  Both  Indians  and  early 
American  settlers  believed  that  a  beech 
was  never  struck  by  lightning — a  tradition 
that  has  its  believers  today.  See  Bailey: 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture;  Rogers  : 
The  Tree  Book;  Lounsberry:  A  Guide  to 
the  Trees. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  a  great  Ameri- 
can preacher  and  author,  son  of  Dr.  Lyman 
Beecher,  was  born  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  June 
24,  1813.  He  studied  at  Boston  Latin 
School  and  Amherst  College,  taking  his 
theological  studies  at  Lane  Seminary,  Cin- 
cinnati, of  which  his  father  was  then  presi- 
dent. He  began  preaching  at  Lawrenceburg, 
Ind.,  then  removed  to  Indianapolis.  In 
1847  he  was  called  to  Plymouth  Congre- 
gational Church  in  Brooklyn,  which  was  just 
formed.  Here  he  remained,  attracting  an 
immense  congregation,  until  his  death,  March 
8,  1887.  As  a  preacher  Mr.  Beecher  had 
great  power.  A  rich 
voice,  great  vigor  of 
action,  a  fine  intel- 
lect, a  warm  sym- 
pathy for  men  of  all 
classes  and  strong 
faith  in  God  made 
him  one  of  the  great- 
est of  pulpit  orators. 
As  writer,  lecturer 
and  orator  he  was 
hardly  less  gifted, 
his  speeches  and 

HENRY  WARD  BEECHER  ^wspaper  articles 
during  the  war  pro- 
ducing a  great  effect  both  in  his  own 
country  and  in  England.  He  wrote  for 
many  years  for  the  New  York  Indepen- 
dent, and  some  of  his  articles  were  col- 
lected and  published  as  Star  Papers. 
He  also  founded  the  Christian  Union. 
Among  his  published  writings  are  Lectures 
to  Young  Men,  Life  Thoughts,  Norwood,  a 
novel,  and  a  Life  of  Christ. 

Beecher,  Lyman,  a  great  American 
preacher  and  theologian,  was  born  at  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  Oci.  12,  1775.  He  studied  at 


LYMAN    BEECHER 


New  Haven,  graduated  at  Yale  College, 
studied  theology  for  a  year,  and  began 
preaching  at  East  Hampton,  Long  Island, 
where  he  remained  until  1810.  He  then 
went  to  Litchfield,  Conn.,  where  were  born 
his  two  most  famous  children.  Henry 
Ward  and 
Harriet  ( Mrs. 
Stowe) ,  though 
nearly  all  of  his 
twelve  children 
are  well  known. 
Here  he  soon 
made  his  mark 
as  one  of  the 
first  pulpit  ora- 
tors of  the  time, 
and  preached 
his  famous  Six 
Sermons  on  In- 
temperance, at  a 
time  when  the 
cause  of  tem- 
perance was 
very  unpopu- 
lar. After  sixteen  years  he  was  called  to 
Hanover  Street  Church,  Boston,  and  during 
six  years  of  hard  work  here  he  engaged 
in  a  theological  discussion  with  Dr.  Chan- 
ning.  _Lane  Theological  Seminary  at  Cin- 
cinnati next  called  him  to  be  its  president. 
While  here  he  was  charged  with  heresy, 
tried  and  acquitted.  He  spent  twenty 
years  in  the  seminary,  resigning  when  his 
health  failed  and  spending  the  last  ten  years 
of  his  life  in  Brooklyn.  He  died  Jan.  10, 
1863,  at  the  age  of  88.  He  had  many 
oddities.  When  excited  by  preaching,  he 
used  to  divert  himself  by  playing  Auld 
Lang  Syne  on  the  fiddle,  or  dancing  the 
double  shuffle  in  his  parlor.  He  also 
kept  a  pile  of  sand  in  his  cellar,  which  he 
shoveled  back  and  forth  for  exercise.  His 
Sermons  and  his  Autobiography  have  been 
edited  by  his  son  Charles. 

Beer,  a  fermented  or  worked  liquor  made 
from  malted  grain,  usually  barley,  though 
wheat  and,  in  India,  rice  are  also  used. 
There  are  various  names  to  distinguish  the 
different  kinds  of  beer.  Table  beer,  pale  ale, 
mild  ale  and  porter  are  names  to  mark  slight 
differences  in  the  process  of  fermentation  or 
in  the  proportions  of  materials  used.  This 
drink  has  been  known  from  the  earliest  times, 
the  Egyptians  using  it  3,000  years  before  the 
Christian  era.  It  is  now  the  general  drink  of 
many  nations.  In  making  or  brewing  beer 
the  first  step  is  to  soak  or  steep  the  barley  in 
iron  cisterns  for  a  period  from  seventy-two 
to  ninety-six  hours,  when  the  water  is 
drained  off  and  the  barley  thrown  on  to  the 
malting  floor,  where  it  sprouts  as  it  does 
when  planted.  This  is  called  germination, 
and  when  it  has  gone  far  enough  to  produce 
the  largest  amount  of  sugar  in  the  barley, 
the  malt,  as  it  is  now  called,  is  taken  to  the 
drying  kiln.  After  drying,  it  is  crushed, 


BEERSHEBA 


194 


BEET-SUGAR 


and  the  crushed  malt  or  grist  is  mixed  with 
hot  water  in  the  mash-tub.  Here  an  im- 
portant change  occurs,  by  which  the  starch 
in  the  barley  is  turned  into  grape-sugar. 
After  a  few  hours  the  liquid,  now  called 
wort,  is  drained  off  and  boiled  with  hops, 
which  give  beer  its  bitter  taste,  and  help 
to  keep  it.  It  is  strained,  cooled  and  put 
into  a  large  vessel,  called  a  fermenting  tun; 
yeast  is  added,  and  the  fermentation  goes 
on  for  several  hours,  when  the  beer  is  drawn 
off  into  casks  and  stoied  in  cellars  for  use. 
This  process  is  varied  in  different  manufac- 
tories and  for  different  kinds  of  beer,  but  the 
general  method  Is  the  same.  Among  na- 
tions the  Belgians  use  the  most  beer,  con- 
suming about  thirty-six  gallons  for  each 
person  every  year,  though  some  single  states 
in  Germany  use  more — as  Wurttemberg, 
where  the  average  is  forty  or  fifty  gallons 
to  a  person.  _  In  the  United  States  the 
amount  used  is  about  fourteen  gallons  to 
a  person,  and  nearly  50,000,000  barrels  are 
produced  yearly,  besides  that  which  is 
imported.  In  the  British  Isles  the  con- 
sumption of  beer  annually  is  in  the  vicinity 
of  34,000,000  barrels,  at  a  cost  of  $15  per 
barrel — an  average  expenditure  per  head  of 
about  $20,  reckoning  the  present  day 
population  at  a  little  over  43  millions.  In 
Germany  the  consumption  of  malt  liquor, 
exceeds  that  of  Great  Britain  and  that  of 
the  United  States  by  about  30,000,000 
gallons  annually.  In  Austria-Hungary  the 
yearly  consumption  is  about  550,000,000 
gallons;  while  Belgium  consumes  close 
upon  400,000,000  gallons. 

Beersheba  (be-Sr'shg-bd),  now  called  Bir- 
es-Se-ba,  a  place  on  the  southern  border  of 
Palestine,  about  fifty-two  miles  southwest  of 
Jerusalem.  The  name  means  the  "well  of 
the  oath,"  and  it  was  so  called  because  here 
Abraham  made  a  covenant  with  Abimelech, 
the  Philistine  king,  and  sealed  it  with  an  oath 
and  a  gift  of  lambs.  In  the  4th  century  A. 
D.  it  was  a  large  village,  with  a  Roman 
garrison.  In  the  i4th  century  some 
churches  were  still  standing  there.  Little 
is  now  left  but  a  heap  of  ruins  and  two  of 
its  wells,  which  afford  an  abundant  supply 
of  pure  water. 

Beethoven  (ba'td-ven),  Ludwig  Van,  a 
famous  musician,  was  born  at  Bonn  in  1770. 
A  member  of  a  musical  family,  he  early 
showed  evidences  of  his  genius  and  at  the 
age  of  four  was  taught  to  play  the  harpsi- 
chord, as  the  piano  was  then  called.  By  the 
age  ot  fourteen,  when  he  became  assistant 
court-organist  he  had  already  composed 
music  and  gained  a  reputation.  He  studied 
now  under  Mozart  at  Vienna  and  later 
under  Haydn.  He  composed  piece  after 
piece  with' a  wonderful  rapidity  and  power. 
He  was  admired  by  many,  and  his  career 
seemed  to  be  one  ot  great  promise.  But 
he  became  totally  deaf,  and  from  that  time 
gave  up  society  and  shut  himself  up  with 


his  music  and  his  books.  His  work  went 
on,  and  kept  growing  in  power  and  beauty. 
His  compositions  numbered  138,  of  which 
his  symphonies  and  grand  sonatas  are 
alone  said  to  be  sufficient  to  make  his  name 
immortal.  The  ninth  or  Choral  Symphony 
is  held  by  many  to  be  the  most  wonderful 
of  all  his  compositions.  Though  from  the 
standpoint  of  musical  science  his  music 
is  perfect,  yet  it  is  so  human  and  full  of 
feeling  that  it  has  ever  had  a  strong  hold 
upon  all  classes.  He  died  at  Vienna,  March 
26,  1827. 

Beetle,  the  name  of  the  largest  order  of 
insects.  They  have  usually  four  wings,  but 
the  front  pair  forms  hard  and  bony  covers 
for  those  behind,  which  alone  are  used  in 
flying.  They  have  long  legs  and  two  strong 
jaws  for  gnawing.  Their  food  varies  from 
hard  wood  to  soft  fruits  and  the  carcasses 
of  animals.  They  live  in  the  water  and  on 
land,  under  bark  and  stones  and  on  plants, 
digging  in  the  ground  or  drilling  holes  in 
wood.  There  are  three  changes  which  they 
undergo.  They  are  first  larvae  or  grubs 
with  wormlike  bodies,  horny  heads  and 
three  pairs  of  legs.  Then  they  enter  the 
second  or  pupa  state,  sometimes  lying  foi 
years  in  their  cocoons  or  cases  before  be 
coming  full  beetles.  There  are  about 
100,000  different  kinds,  varying  in  form, 
color,  size  or  habit.  Of  these  more  than 
8,000  kinds  are  found  in  the  United  States. 
The  tiger  beetle  is  named  from  its  striped 
body  and  fierce  habits.  It  preys  on  cater- 
pillars, flies  and  other  beetles.  The  bom- 
bardier beetle  shoots  a  strong  liquid  at  its 
enemies;  scavenger  beetles  live  on  filth, 
cleaning  away  a  great  deal.  Of  these,  some 
are  called  carrion  beetles,  because  they  live 
on  the  dead  bodies  of  animals,  and  others 
sexton  beetles,  as  they  bury  the  dead  bodies 
of  animals,  and  lay  their  eggs  there,  and  the 
larvae,  when  hatched,  feed  on  them.  The 
ordinary  potato  beetle  and  tumble  bugs 
belong  to  this  class.  The  latter  roll  balls  of 
manure  and  push  them  along  or  carry  them 
on  their  flat  heads,  and  put  them  in  deep 
holes  after  laying  their  eggs  in  them  A 
related  species  was  held  sacred  among  the 
Egyptians.  There  are  many  blind  beetles, 
these  living  in  caves  and  under  stones. 
Familiar  beetles  are  the  fire-fly,  glow-worm 
and  lady-bird  and  oil  beetle.  While  cer- 
tain species  are  highly  useful,  on  the  whole, 
beetles  are  pests,  and  the  larval  state  lasts 
a  number  of  years.  They  work  destruction 
in  crops,  wood,  lumber,  fur,  wool,  hides, 
books,  etc.  The  larvae  are  generally  called 
grubs.  Of  beetles'  usefulness  it  may  be 
said  that  many  fertilize  flowers;  some  de- 
stroy plant-eating  insects,  and  of  this  species 
the  lady-bird  is  an  excellent  illustration. 
Enemies  of  the  beetle  are  birds,  rodents, 
frogs,  reptiles,  flies,  wasps,  etc.  See  IN 

SECTS. 

Beet-Sugar.     See  SUGAR. 


A  beetle  grub  traveled   1^4  miles  on  these  paper  rolls.     He  was  kept  "inked"  like  a 
pen  and  so  wrote  his  own  record. 


A  PIGMY  FRIEND  "WROTE"  THIS 

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Such  beetles  are  imported  by  our  government  because  they  live  on  destructive  cater- 
pillars, and  the  above  record  was  made  to  learn  how  far  they  could  travel  in  search 
of  food.  They  were  brought  from  Europe  in  these  match  boxes.  On  the  right  is  a 
beetle  breeding  house. 


The  picture  on  the  left  shows  glass  jars  of  earth  containing  eggs  of  these  beetles 
hatching  in  the  sun ;  on  the  right,,  how  beetles  are  carried  into  the  field  for  planting 
colonies.  Every  hole  is  the  house  of  a  beetle. 


(x)  "O 

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BEGONIA 


195 


BELGIUM 


Bego'nia,  a  genus  of  tropical  shrubs  and 
herbs,  perennial,  succulent  and  often  bear- 
ing handsome  flowers,  abounds  in  South 
America,  Mexico  and  Central  America. 
Some  varieties  of  begonia  are  highly  popular 
for  the  house  and  garden  The  roots  are 
often  bulbous,  but  sometimes  fibrous.  It 
is  to  be  noted  that  the  fibrous  rooted  be- 
gonia flowers  in  winter;  the  tuberous  in 
summer.  The  begonia  needs  protection 
against  excessive  sun  or  drought;  but  is 
easily  grown  in  the  house  or  conservatory. 
An  Asiatic  variety,  the  Rex  Begonia,  is  re- 
markable for  its  handsome  foliage. 

Begums  or  Princesses  of  Oude,  The. 
The  wife  and  mother  of  Sujah  Dowlah, 
Nabob  of  Oude,  who  figured  in  the  impeach- 
ment of  Warren  Hastings,  England's  great 
proconsul  in  India,  and  in  Macaulay's 
great  essay  on  him  and  his  rule.  In  1775 
when  the  nabob  died,  the  two  princesses 
claimed  that  his  hoarded  treasure,  amount- 
ing to  two  or  three  million  pounds  sterling, 
had  been  made  over  to  them  as  their  pri- 
vate property  and  could  not  be  used  as 
revenues  of  the  state  foi;  the  payment  of 
tribute  to  the  East  India  Company  or  for 
any  other  purpose.  The  new  ruler,  Asaph- 
ul-Dowlah,  by  dint  of  coaxing,  had  got  his 
mother  and  grandmother  to  dole  out  some  of 
the  treasure.  It  was  the  remainder  of  it 
that  Warren  Hastings  set  his  eyes  upon, 
and,  with  the  nabob's  connivance,  endeav- 
ored to  wring  from  the  princesses,  with  what 
success  is  seen  in  the  impeachment  and 
famous  trial  of  Hastings. 

Bel'fast,  the  second  city  in  Ireland, 
capital  of  Ulster  and  headquarters  of  Presby- 
terianism  in  Ireland,  is  situated  in  the  county 
of  Antrim,  in  the  northeast  part  of  the 
island,  on  the  Belfast  Lough  or  Bay,  twelve 
miles  from  the  Irish  Sea.  Its  population 
is  385,492.  Several  bridges  cross  the  River 
Lagan,  and  a  number  of  pleasant  villas 
lie  on  either  side  of  the  bay.  Pictur- 
esque hills  to  the  north  give  the  city  a 
pleasant  appearance,  and  much  is  constantly 
being  done  to  improve  it.  Besides  public 
buildings  and  churches,  there  are  several 
colleges  and  schools,  such  as  Queen's  College, 
Belfast  Academy  and  the  national  schools. 
The  linen  and  shipbuilding  trades  are  chief 
among  those  that  give  Belfast  its  prosperity, 
about -five  per  cent,  of  the  population  being 
employed  in  the  linen  trade. 

Belgium  (bel'fi-um),  one  of  the  smaller 
European  states,  lying  between  France  and 
the  Netherlands,  the  North  Sea  and  Rhenish 
Prussia.  It  is  divided  into  nine  provinces, 
and  comprises  11,373  square  miles,  less  than 
one  third  the  size  of  Indiana.  It  has  a 
population  of  7,160,547,  or  629  persons  to  the 
square  mile,  so  that  Belgium  is  the  most 
densely  populated  country  in  Europe. 
Dutch,  Germans,  French,  Flemings  and 
Walloons  are  found  among  its  population. 
There  are  twenty-six  towns  with  over  20,000 


inhabitants,  of  which  the  capital,  Brussels 
(population,  612,401),  Antwerp  (297,311). 
Ghent  (163,059)  and  Liege  (12^,207)  are 
the  largest.  Most  of  the  country  is  low, 
and  part  of  it  is  protected  from  the  sea  by 
dykes.  The  Scheldt  and  the  Meuse,  with 
their  branches,  and  a  system  of  canals 
afford  abundant  water  supply.  The  farm- 
ing is  like  gardening  on  a  large  scale,  so 
carefully  is  every  inch  of  soil  cultivated. 
All  kinds  of  grain  are  raised.  The  land  is 
rich  in  minerals,  including  coal,  iron,  lead, 
copper,  zinc  and  marble.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  linen,  woolen,  cotton  and  silk 
goods,  lace,  leather  and  metals,  besides 
sugar-refineries  and  distilleries,  steel  works, 
blast  and  puddling  furnaces. 

For  many  years  Belgium  led  Europe  in 
commerce,  and  her  foreign  trade  is  still 
very  large.  The  people  are  mainly  Roman 
Catholic.  Culture  has  been  hindered  some- 
what by  the  many  different  dialects  in  use; 
but  there  are  many  scientific  and  literary 
societies  and  museums,  public  libraries, 
music  and  art  schools  and  universities  at 
Ghent,  Louvain,  Liege  and  Brussels.  At- 
tached to  the  universities  are  schools  of 
engineering,  arts,  manufactures,  mining,  etc., 
with  a  combined  attendance  in  1909-10  of 
2,407  students.  There  are  also  85  schools 
of  design,  with  nearly  15,000  students, 
several  royal  conservatories  and  other 
schools  of  music  with  20,192  students,  be- 
side the  Royal  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at 
Antwerp,  with  850  students  in  1909. 
Belgium  numbers  Rubens,  Teniers  and 
Van  Dyck  among  its  great  artists. 

The  standing  army  is  fixed  at  42,800  in 
time  of  peace,  with  180,000  on  a  war-footing. 
Belgium  has  no  navy.  The  government  is 
a  constitutional  monarchy,  in  which  the 
succession  is  hereditary.  There  are  two 
houses,  much  like  those  in  the  United  States 
— a  senate  (having  no  members),  elected 
for  eight  years,  and  a  chamber  of  represen- 
tatives (present  number  being  166),  elected 
for  four  years. 

The  history  of  Belgium  as  a  separate  king- 
dom dates  from  the  year  1831,  when  it 
parted  from  Holland.  Its  provinces,  how- 
ever, have  figured  in  history  from  the  days 
of  the  Caesars.  They  often  served  as  the 
battle-ground  of  Europe,  and  the  battle 
of  Waterloo  was  fought  on  the  soil  of  Bra- 
bant, a  province  of  this  kingdom.  When 
Belgium  became  independent,  Prince  Leo- 
pold of  Saxe-Coburg  was  elected  king,  and 
in  1865  his  son,  the  present  monarch, 
succeeded  as  Leopold  II.  War  with  Hol- 
land has  several  times  threatened,  and 
riots  of  workingmen  and  socialists  have 
caused  disturbance;  but  the  country  is 
steadily  growing  in  prosperity.  The  reve- 
nue estimated  for  1911  amounted  to  658,- 
724,000  francs,  while  the  expenditure,'  as 
per  budget,  was  a  fraction  over  658,000,000 
francs.  The  imports  for  1910  showed  a 


BELGRADE 


196 


BELL 


total  of  over  6,50*000,000  francs.  The 
exports  from  the  United  States  to  Belgium, 
consisting  of  wheat,  cotton,  oil-cake,  mineral 
oil,  lard  and  tobacco,  were  valued  in  1911 
at  $45,016,622,  while  the  imports  from 
Belgium  into  the  United  States,  consisting 
of  glass-work,  rubber  goods,  iron  and  steel 
work  and  jewelry,  had  a  gross  value  of 
$37,084,743.  ^  The  railways  of  Belgium  in 
1911,  including  the  lines  operated  by  the 
state  and  those  operated  by  private  com- 
panies, were  2,915  miles  in  length. 

Belgrade  (bel'grad),  meaning  "white 
town,"  is  the  capital  of  Servia  and  lies  at  the 
junction  of  the  Save  and  the  Danube,  with  a 
population  of  90,890.  From  a  Turkish 
city  it  is  year  by  year  becoming  a  modern 
and  European  one.  The  royal  palace  and 
the  national  theater  are  the  chief  buildings. 
Opposite  the  theater  is  a  bronze  statue  of 
the  murdered  Prince  Michael  III.  It  is 
important  from  the  trade  of  Turkey  and 
Austria  which  passes  through  it.  Belgrade 
has  been  the  scene  of  many  hard  fights, 
and  has  been  successively  in  the  hands  of 
Romans,  Greeks,  Hungarians,  Bulgarians, 
Servians,  Turks,  Austrians  and  French.  It 
was  made  the  capital  of  Servia  in  1862,  but 
the  citadel  was  not  given  up  by  the  Turks 
until  1867.  Elementary  education  in  the 
city  and  state  is  compulsory,  and  in  all 
the  schools  under  the  ministry  of  education, 
including  the  university,  education  is  free. 
Hence  there  is  little  pauperism,  in  the  king- 
dom. Belgrade  also  forms  a  department 
of  Servia,  area  782  square  miles;  population, 
155,815- 

Belisarius,  a  Byzantine  general,  was 
born  about  505  and  died  in  565,  the  same 
year  as  his  emperor,  Justinian  the  Great. 
From  the  emperor's  body-guard  he  rose 
to  the  chief  command  in  the  army.  The 
wisdom  of  Justinian's  appointment  was 
apparent,  for  Belisarius  with  Narses  helped 
to  restore  to  the  Roman  Empire  part  of 
its  lost  possessions.  In  530  he  defeated  the 
Persians,  and  in  532,  when  civil  disturbances 
threatened  to  disrupt  the  empire  and  dis- 
place the  emperor,  Belisarius  was  recalled 
and  with  a  body  of  followers  restored  order. 
After  this  he  conquered  the  Vandals,  in- 
vaded Italy  in  548,  conquered  the  Bulgarians 
in  559  and  upon  his  return  to  Constanti- 
nople was  accused  of  conspiracy.  Justinian 
believed  him  innocent,  however,  and  re- 
stored his  rights  and  property  of  which  he 
had  been  deprived.  Many  narratives  are 
related  of  Belisarius,  as  that  the  emperor 
had  his  eyes  plucked  out  and  he  became  a 
street  beggar,  others  of  his  imprisonment 
in  a  tower,  etc.  These  legends  are  not 
credited,  since  no  contemporary  writer 
relates  any  of  them. 

Belize  (be-lezr)  or  British  Honduras,  a 
British  colony  on  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  in 
the  Caribbean  Sea.  It  forms  the  southeast 


part  ef  the  Peninsula  of  Yucatan,  and 
covers  7,562  square  miles.  The  population 
is  40,458,  only  500  being  whites.  The 
Cockscomb  Mountains  (4,000  feet)  are  the 
highest  elevations,  the  land  along  the  coast 
being  swampy.  The  chief  exports  are 
mahogany,  log-wood,  sugar,  coffee,  cotton, 
cocoanuts,  bananas,  and  india-rubber. 
Since  1862  it  has  been  a  British  colony,  and 
in  1903  the  Bank  of  British  Honduras  was 
established  at  Belize,  population  10,478. 

Belknap,  George  Eugene,  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Newport,  N  H., 
January  22,  1832.  He  received  appoint- 
ment as  midshipman  in  the  navy  in  1852, 
and  was  successively  lieutenant-commander, 
commander,  captain,  commodore  and  rear 
admiral.  He  was  present  in  China  in  1856 
at  the  taking  of  the  Barrier  Forts,  and  in 
the  Civil  War  took  part  in  the  bombard- 
ment of  Charleston  Harbor.  He  achieved 
distinction  while  engaged  in  deep-sea  sound- 
ing in  1873.  While  thus  engaged  in  the 
north  Pacific  Ocean,  he  made  discoveries 
relating  to  the  topography  of  the  ocean 
bed,  which  attracted  the  scientific  world. 
He  published,  among  other  works,  Deep 
Sea  Soundings,  and  in  1885  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  the  United  States  Naval 
Observatory.  He  was  retired  in  1894,  and 
died  April  7,  1903,  at  Key  West,  Florida. 

Bell.  From  the  earliest  times  bells  of 
some  sort  have  been  in  use.  For  their 
manufacture,  the  material  most  approved 
in  all  ages  has  been  a  mixture  of  copper 
and  tin  called  bronze;  but  the  proportions 
of  the  two  metals  vary.  For  a  long  time 
in  Europe,  two  parts  of  copper  to  one  of  tin 
were  considered  the  best  ratio,  but  at  pres- 
ent much  more  copper  is  used,  the  ratio  being 
about  thirteen  parts  to  four.  Steel,  silver 
and  glass  have  also  been  used  for  bells^ 
but  are  not  as  good  as  bronze.  With  any 
metal  the  pitch  of  the  bell  depends  upon 
the  ratio  between  the  thickness  of  the 
striking-place  and  the  diameter.  Bells  were 
used  among  many  early  nations  in  religious 
ceremonies,  and  so  came  naturally  into  use 
in  Christian  churches.  From  Italy  their 
use  spread  over  Europe  between  the  6th 
and  1 2th  centuries.  Most  of  these  bells 
were  hand-Dells,  made  of  thin  plates  of 
hammered  iron,  bent  into  a  four-sided 
shape,  fastened  with  rivets  and  bronzed. 
One  of  these  early  bells,  called  The  Bell 
of  Patnck's  Will,  is  still  preserved  at 
Belfast.  When  bells  came  to  be  hung  in 
steeples  or  belfries,  they  were  at  first  small; 
but  were  gradually  made  larger;  the  largest 
bell  in  the  world  was  cast  in  1734.  It  is 
called  the  Great  Bell  or  Monarch  of  Moscow. 
It  is  over  21  feet  in  height  and  diameter, 
and  weighs  193  tons.  It  fell  down  during 
a  fire  in  1737,  was  injured,  and  remained 
unrestored  until  1837,  when  it  was  raised, 
and  now  forms  the  dome  of  a  chapel  made 


BELL 


IQ7 


BELL 


by  digging  out  the  space  beneath  it.  Other 
large  bells  are  the  Great  Bell  of  Pekin  (53  K 
tons),  and  the  Kaiserglocke  of  Cologne 
cathedral  (26  tons),  made  out  of  22  French 
cannon.  The  largest  bell  in  the  New  World 
is  in  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  at  Mon- 
treal (29,400  Ibs.)-  Many  early  super- 
stitions have  gathered  around  bells;  they 
were  believed  to  drive  away  storms  and 
pestilence  and  to  put  out  fire.  From  re- 
ligious customs  connected  with  them  bells 
have  acquired  a  sacred  character.  At  one 
time  they  were  tolled  when  any  great  per- 
sonage was  passing  out  of  the  world,  and  they 
are  now  often  tolled  after  deaths  and  before 
funerals.  The  ave  bell,  sanctus  bell  and  ves- 
per bell  are  among  those  used  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church.  The  curfew  bell  was  rung 
to  warn  people  to  put  out  their  fires  and 
lights  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening,  and 
this  eight  o'clock  bell  is  still  rung  in  many 
parts  of  England  and  Scotland  Many 
churches  now  have  peals  or  chimes,  on 
which  tunes  are  played.  Tune-playing  bells 
are  sometimes  sounded  by  means  of  a  cylin- 
der, just  as  a  barrel  organ;  others  are  played 
with  keys  by  a  musician.  The  best  chimes 
consist  of  from  eight  to  twelve  bells.  The 
muffled  peal,  which  gives  one  of  the  finest 
effects,  is  rung  with  a  leather  cap  over  half 
the  clapper,  making  the  chimes  first  clear 
and  then  dull.  In  casting  bells,  the  core 
or  part  which  fills  the  inside  of  the  bell 
is  first  made  of  brickwork  covered  with 
soft  clay;  then  the  outer  mold  or  cope 
is  fashioned  in  the  form  of  the  outer  surface 
of  the  bell  and  fitted  over  the  core,  leaving 
a  hole  in  the  top  for  the  escape  of  the  air. 
The  melted  metal  is  then  poured  in.  Electric 
bells  have  of  recent  years  been  extensively 
used  in  offices  and  houses  See  ELECTRICITY. 
Bell,  Alexander  Graham,  one  of  the 
inventors  of  the  telephone,  was  born  at 
Edinburgh  in  1847,  was  educated  at  the 
High  School  and  in  Germany,  and  in  1872 
introduced  into  the  United  States  the 
system  of  deaf-mute  instruction  which  his 

father  had  in- 
vented. Having 
for  some  time 
experimented 
on  the  trans- 
mission  of 
sound  by  elec- 
tricity, he  ex- 
hibited his  tele- 
phone at  Phil- 
adelphia  in 
1876,  and  its 
success  from 
that  time  on 
was  assured. 
He  has  also  in- 
vented the  ra- 
diophone. Since 
1881  he  has 

ALEXANDER   GRAHAM    BELL      lived  in    Wash- 


myten.  Considered  as  th«  inventor  of  the 
telephone,  Bell's  great  merit  lies  in  the 
fact  that  he,  at  the  same  time  with  Elisha 
Gray,  recognized  that  human  speech  cannot 
be  transmitted  by  means  of  an  intermittent 
current,  but  requires  an  undulating  current. 

Bell  saw  that  an  intermittent  current 
might  reproduce  the  pitch  and  amplitude 
of  a  sound,  but  without  a  continuous  cur- 
rent one  could  not  reproduce  the  quality 
of  the  sound. 

Bell,  Henry  (1767-1830),  a  Scottish 
engineer,  born  in  Linlithgowshire,  who 
served  his  apprenticeship  to  his  uncle,  a 
millwright,  but  later  became  interested  in 
ship-modelling  under  John  Rennie  of  Lon- 
don, the  notable  civil  engineer.  Returning 
to  Helensburgh,  on  the  Clyde,  in  1808,  he 
pursued  his  experiment  with  the  steam  en- 
gine and  achieved  fame  by  constructing 
and  sailing  on  the  Clyde  the  steamship 
Comet,  the  herald  of  steam  navigation  in 
the  Old  World.  Fulton,  it  is  asserted, 
gained  his  ideas  of  steam  navigation  on 
water  highways  from  Bell. 

Bell,  Henry  Haywood  (1808-68),  Ameri- 
can rear-admiral,  was  born  in  North  Carolina 
and  in  1823  entered  the  United  States  Navy 
as  midshipman.  He  early  saw  service  in 
China  and  in  1856  was  in  command  at  the 
attack  on  the  Barrier  Forts,  at  Canton. 
In  1862,  during  the  War  of  the  Rebellion, 
he  acted  as  fleet  captain  of  the  West  Gulf 
Squadron  and  led  a  division  of  gunboats 
in  the  attack  upon  Forts  St.  Philip  and 
Jackson,  part  of  the  defences  of  New 
Orleans.  In  the  following  year,  he  took 
command  of  the  blockading  squadron  dur- 
ing the  temporary  absence  of  Admiral 
Farragut.  In  1865  he  was  in  command 
of  an  United  States  Squadron  operating 
in  the  East  Indies,  and  two  years  later  met 
his  death  by  drowning  in  an  attempt  to 
pass  in  his  barge  over  the  bar  at  the  mouth 
of  Osaka  River,  Japan. 

Bell,  John,  a  notable  Tennessee  publicist, 
speaker  of  Congress  and  founder  of  the 
Whig  party,  was  born  near  Nashville,  Tenn., 
in  1797,  and  died  at  Cumberland  Iron  Works, 
Tenn.,  September  10,  1869.  Graduating 
in  1814  from  the  University  of  Nashville, 
he  studied  law,  and  in  1817  became  a  senator 
for  his  state.  From  1827  to  1841  he  served 
in  Congress,  and  for  a  year  was  speaker  of 
the  house.  In  1841  he  became  secretary  of 
war  in  President  Harrison's  cabinet,  but 
resigned  the  office  when  President  Tyler 
abandoned  the  Whig  party.  After  some 
years  of  retirement,  he  from  1847  to  1859 
was  United  States  senator,  and  in  1860 
became  candidate  of  the  Constitutional 
Union  party  for  president.  He  took  no 
part  in  the  Civil  War,  as  he  condemned 
secession,  though  he  abjured  coercion 

Bell,  Robert,  I.S.O.,  D.Sc.,  M.D  ,  C.M  , 
F.G.S.,  F.R.S.C.,  F.R.S.,  was  born  in  To- 
ronto, June  3,  1841,  and  educated  at  McGill 


BELLAIRE 


198 


BELOIt 


University,  where  he  was  graduated  in 
«ti«nce,  medicine  and  surgery,  later  study- 
ing chemistry  in  Montreal  and  under  Lord 
Playfair  at  Edinburgh.  He  joined  the  geo- 
logical survey  of  Canada  in  1857,  and  has 
ever  since  been  engaged  in  extensive  topo- 
graphical and  geological  surveys  through- 
out the  Dominion,  Bell  River  being  officially 
named  after  him.  He  has  been  royal  com- 
missioner on  the  mineral  resources  of  On- 
tario, 1888-9,  a  member  of  the  American 
Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  member 
of  the  government  geographical  board,  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  and  natural  science  in 
Queen's  University,  Kingston,  from  1863  to 
1867,  and  is  honorary  chief  of  the  Algonkin 
Indians  of  Grand  Lake.  His  published 
writings  aggregate  two  hundred  titles,  in- 
cluding geology,  geography,  biology  and 
folk-lore. 

Bellaire  (b^l-lar^,  a  city  in  Belmont 
County,  Ohio,  on  the  Ohio  River,  five 
miles  south  of  Wheeling,  West  Virginia. 
The  region  around  Bellaire  abounds  in  coal, 
iron,  limestone,  cement  and  brick  clay.  The 
city  has  manufactories  of  stoves,  carriages, 
glass,  foundry  and  machine-shop  products. 
Bellaire  has  all  the  improvements  of  a 
progressive  city.  Population,  13,896. 

Bell'amy,  Edward,  American  economist, 
journalist  and  story  writer,  was  born  in 
Massachusetts,  Mar.  26,  1850,  and  died  there 
May  22,  1898.  Entering  journalism  as  a 
profession,  he  was  for  a  time  on  the  staff  of 
the  New  York  Evening  Post  and  later  was 
editorial  writer  and  critic  for  the  Spring- 
field Union.  Owing  to  poor  health,  he  made 
a  voyage  in  1876  to  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
and  after  this  began  to  write  short  stories 
for  the  magazines.  His  chief  success,  how- 
ever, was  his  socialistic  novel,  Looking  Back- 
ward, which,  issued  in  1888,  had  a  sale  of 
over  300,000  copies  in  this  country.  In- 
spired by  the  book,  "  Bellamy "  commu- 
nities became  for  a  time  the  vogue.  His 
later  works  embrace  Equality,  The  Blind 
Man's  World  and  other  stories. 

Bellefon'taine,  Ohio,  a  city,  the  county 
seat  of  Logan  County  on  the  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  and  the 
Toledo  and  Ohio  Central  railroad,  30  miles 
north  of  Springfield  and  45  northwest  of 
Columbus.  Besides  a  large  railway  plant 
and  carshops,  the  city,  which  dates  from 
1818,  has  a  number  of  manufactures  of  iron 
bridges,  carriage  bodies,  tools,  harness,  etc., 
besides  the  city's  gas,  electric-plant  and 
water-works.  It  has  also  a  flour-mill.  It 
has  a  number  of  churches  and  several  good 
schools.  Population,  8,238. 

Belleville,  111.,  county-seat  of  St. 
Clair  County,  southwestern  Illinois,  14  miles 
southeast  of  St.  Louis,  is  beautifully  sit- 
uated in  the  midst  of  rolling  and  somewhat 
broken  country.  It  has  good  railroad  con- 
nections and  has  nearby  shipping  facilities 
furnished  by  the  Mississippi.  It  has  fifteen 


large  foundries,  extensive  brick  works,  fac- 
tories for  the  manufacture  of  farm  imple- 
ments, breweries,  hosiery  mills  and  two 
shoe  factories.  It  possesses  some  fine  civic 
buildings,  good  public  schools,  many 
churches,  a  large  convent  and  handsome 
residences.  It  has  25  miles  of  paved  streets. 
Population,  25,000. 

Belleville  is  a  manufacturing  city  of 
9,117  souls,  admirably  placed  on  the  north 
shore  of  the  Bay  of  Quint£  and  on  the  Grand 
Trunk  Railway.  It  is  the  county  seat  of 
Hastings  County,  Ontario,  the  southern 
terminal  of  the  Midland  Railway,  and  is 
touched  by  a  line  of  lake  steamers  on  Lake 
Ontario. 

Bellevue,  Ky.,  a  city,  in  Campbell 
County,  on  the  Ohio  River,  opposite  Cincin- 
nati, and  on  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  Rail- 
road. Settled  in  1871,  it  was  incorporated 
in  1871.  An  attractive  residential  suburb 
of  Cincinnati,  it  is  connected  with  the  latter 
by  electric  railway.  Population  is  now 
6,683. 

Bellicent.  In  the  Arthurian  legends 
Bellicent  is  represented  as  the  daughter  of 
Gorlois  and  Ygerne  and  the  half-sister  of 
King  Arthur.  She  was  the  wife  of  Lot, 
King  of  Orkney.  When  King  Lodogran 
hesitated  to  give  his  daughter  Guinevere 
to  King  Arthur  in  marriage  because  of  the 
doubts  about  Arthur's  parentage,  Bellicent 
won  his  consent  to  the  marriage.  See 
Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King. 

Bell'ingham,  Wash.,  a  city  in  Whatcom 
County,  on  -Puget  Sound  and  on  the 
Canadian  Pacific,  C.  M.  &  St.  Paul,  Great 
Northern  and  the  Northern  Pacific  rail- 
roads, 70  miles  north  of  Seattle,  west  of 
Mount  Baker  and  near  the  British  Columbia 
boundary.  It  has  a  fine  land-locked  harbor, 
an  inlet  of  the  Strait  of  Georgia,  and  has 
communication  by  steamer  not  only  with 
Seattle,  but  with  San  Francisco  and  the 
nearby  city  of  Victoria  the  capital  of  British 
Columbia.  Besides  its  shipping  trade, 
chiefly  in  lumber,  it  has  a  large  number  of 
shingle  and  saw  mills  and  several  large 
salmon  canneries.  Population,  36,890. 

Bellini  (bel-le'ne),  Vincenzo,  a  composer 
of  operas,  was  born  at  Castania,  in  Sicily,  in 
1802,  and  was  the  son  of  an  organist.  He 
was  sent  to  the  conservatory  of  Naples, 
where  he  studied  composition.  After  a 
number  of  early  operas  had  made  him  known 
in  Italy,  he  wrote,  in  1827,  the  opera  // 
Pirata,  which  gave  him  a  name  in  the 
musical  world.  Fcr  the  next  eight  years  he 
wrote  a  fresh  opera  almost  every  year,  and 
visited  Paris  and  London.  When  only 
thirty-two  years  old,  and  before  his  powers 
were  fully  developed,  he  died  near  Paris, 
Sept.  21,  1835.  Among  his  best  works  are 
Norma,  I  Puritani  and  La  Sonnambula. 
His  operas  are  replete  with  sweet  melodies. 

Beloit  (be-loit'},  a  city  of  Rock  County, 
Wisconsin,  situated  on  Rock  River,  ninety- 


4iaiiiniiiiiiiDiiiniiiiiiiiiaitiiiiiiiiiiDiiiHiiiiiiiioiiNiiiiiniiDiiiiiiiuiiiaidiiiiiiL;  A  HiiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiinn* 
g 

St.  Peter's 

Where  the  Pope 
Holds  Service 


ST.  PETER'S,  where  the  Pope  holds 
service,    is    the    world's    largest   and 
most  magnificent  church.  It  stands  on 
the  right  of  the  Tiber  near  the  Vatican 
in   a   space    in    the   form   of   an   ellipse. 
From  it  extend  the  huge  colonnades  or 
covered  drives  which  you  see.  The  dome  of 
the  capitol  at  Washington  is  copied  from 
the  dome  of  St.   Peter's,  the  erection  of 
which  was  supervised  by  Michelangelo. 

Now  imagine  yourself  in  this  wonder- 
ful building  looking  at  the  group  by  the 
famous  Spanish  painter,  Mas  y  Fondevila, 


"AVorshippers  at  St.  Peter's."  With  what 
skill  the  artist  has  brought  out  the 
lights  and  shadows  in  this  vast  palace 
of  religion  and  art  and  emphasized  the 
motherhood  of  the  church  which  knows 
no  distinction  of  rank  or  class.  What  a 
variety  of  figures  and  attitudes — the 
young  Italian  mother  with  her  babe, 
one  old  man  with  his  head  bowed  upon 
his  cane,  another,  rheumatic  and  in  rag- 
ged shoes  holding  to  the  chair  to  pre- 
vent himself  from  falling,  as  he  bows  in 
worship. 


\Vorshippers  in  St.  Peter's,  by  Ar 


la  (  Spanish  b.  1850) 


$Hiiiiiiiiinoiiiiiiiiiioiiiii!iiiioiiiiiiiiRoiiimiimainim 


POPE  BENEDICT  XV 


BELT  OF  CALMS 


199 


BENGALI 


two  miles  northwest  of  Chicago.  It  is  a 
handsome  town,  built  on  the  bluffs  over- 
looking the  river,  and  has  a  well-laid- 
out  park.  Among  its  manufactures  are 
paper-mill  and  wood-working  machinery, 
steam-pumps,  gas  and  gasoline  engines, 
agricultural  implements,  shoes,  hosiery  and 
paper.  The  river  furnishes  excellent  power 
for  manufacturing,  and  Beloit  has  the  serv- 
ice of  two  railroads.  It  is  the  seat  of  Beloit 
College,  a  well-equipped  and  endowed  insti- 
tution with  a  faculty  of  thirty.  Population, 
15,125. 

Belt  of  Calms,  a  narrow  zone  where  the 
winds  are  weak  and  irregular,  often  dying 
into  a  calm.  It  lies  along  the  line  of  greatest 
heat  around  the  globe,  and  shifts  north  or 
south  with  it.  The  northeast  tradewinds 
are  north  of  the  belt,  the  southeast  ones 
south.  In  this  belt  the  tradewinds  become 
hottest  and  lightest. 

Belt  of  Heat,  the  regions  on  and  near 
the  equator,  where  the  air  is  hot  all  the 
year,  because  at  noon  every  day  the  rays  of 
the  sun  strike  straight  down  or  nearly  so. 
The  slant  of  the  sunshine  varies  but  little. 
Day  and  night  always  are  each  about  twelve 
hours  long.  The  change  of  seasons  is  slight, 
and  there  is  no  winter. 

Beluchistan    See  BALUCHISTAN 

Bel'videre,  III.,  a  city,  the  county  seat 
of  Boone  County,  on  the  Kishwaukee  River, 
and  on  the  Chicago  &  Northwestern  Rail- 
road, about  75  miles  west-northwest  of 
Chicago.  It  is  an  active  industrial  center, 
and  is  situated  in  a  fine  fertile  region  with 
large  dairying  interests.  It  has  a  number 
of  fine  municipal  buildings,  besides  an  opera 
house,  a  public  library,  good  schools  and 
church  edifices.  Its  industrial  establish- 
ments embrace  automobiles,  bicycles,  sew- 
ing machines,  boilers,  screen  doors,  flour- 
mills,  etc.  Its  water-works  are  owned  and 
operated  by  the  city.  Population  (1910), 

7,253- 

t/         t, 

Benares  (ben-d'rez),  the  most  sacred  city 
of  the  Hindus.  Sacred  bulls  wander  among  its 
1,450  Hindu  temples  and  shrines  and  272 
Mohammedan  mosques,  pilgrims  bathe  in  the 
Sacred  Well,  or  Pool  of  Knowledge,  and  the 
Hindu  dead  are  cremated  in  the  Burning  Ghat. 
The  broad  flights  of  stairs  leading  to  the 
temples,  standing  on  the  high  banks  of  the 
crescent  sweep  of  the  Ganges,  present  a  view 
of  striking  beauty.  The  chief  industries  are 
the  manufacture  of  muslins  and  silk  shawls. 
Population  209,300,  of  whom  160,000  are 
Hindus. 

Benedict  XV.  was  elected  on  September  3, 
1914,  as  successor  to  Pope  Pius  X.  He  is  the 
son  of  the  Marchese  della  Chiesa,  and  at  the 
time  of  his  election  was  Cardinal  Giacomo 
della  Chiesa,  Archbishop  of  Bologna.  He  is  a 


comparatively  young  man  for  so  responsible 
an  office.  He  was  born  at  Pegli,  Italy,  Nov- 
ember 21,  1854.  Like  his  predecessor  His 
Holiness  is  a  man  of  unusual  intellectual  force 
and  activity.  His  first  public  utterance  was 
an  appeal  to  the  Roman  Catholics  throughout 
the  world  and  to  the  peoples  of  Europe  to  pray 
and  work  for  the  end  of  the  Great  War. 

Bengal  (ben-gal'),  the  most  important  of 
the  seven  great  "provinces  of  British  India. 
It  lies  in  the  west  of  India,  between  the  Him- 
alayas on  the  north  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal 
on  the  southeast.  It  is  nearly  as  large  as 
Spain,  and  its  population  is  about  52,668,000, 
or  nearly  that  of  the  population  of  the  United 
States.  Its  capital  is  Calcutta.  Eastern 
Bengal  and  Assam  have,  besides  Bengal 
proper,  an  area  of  106,130  square  miles 
with  a  population  of  30,961,459. 

Political  Divisions  and  Cities.  It  is  di- 
vided into  nine  large  provinces,  each  under 
a  commissioner,  while  these  are  again  divided 
into  forty-six  districts,  each  with  a  magis- 
trate. Besides  Calcutta  there  are  few  large 
cities;  though  there  are  over  thirty  towns, 
each  with  upwards  of  20,000  inhabitants. 
There  are  about  2,000  miles  of  railway  and 
5,110  miles  of  telegraph  line. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  generally  hot  and 
damp,  and  the  rainfall  in  Chera  Punji  is  the 
greatest  reported  in  the  world.  Destruc- 
tive cyclones  and  floods  are  frequent,  earth- 
quakes are  not  unknown,  and  famine,  un- 
happily, is  occasionally  rife. 

Natural  Resources.  The  land  contains  a 
good  deal  of  mineral  wealth,  especially  coal, 
iron  and  copper.  On  the  seacoast  are  the 
trackless  forests,  which  are  the  home  of  the 
tiger  and  the  rhinoceros.  The  land  is  very 
rich,  owing  to  the  dressing  of  soil  brought 
down  every  year  by  the  immense  network 
of  rivers,  the  largest  of  which  are  the  Ganges 
and  the  Brahmaputra. 

Occupations.  Agriculture  is  the  main 
occupation  of  the  people,  and  among  the 
products  are  indigo;  jute,  from  which  cer- 
tain cloths  are  made;  cinchona,  from  whose 
bark  quinine  is  made;  the  opium  poppy, 
varieties  of  rice;  grains,  spices,  cotton,  sugar 
and  drugs.  The  yearly  exports  amount  in 
value  to  about  $200,000,000. 

Education.  Bengal  stands  far  ahead  of 
the  rest  of  India  in  its  provision  for  educa- 
tion. There  are  five  colleges,  connected 
with  the  University  of  Calcutta,  and  a  fine 
system  of  public  and  private  schools  and 
special  schools.  Calcutta,  including  its 
suburbs  has  a  population  of  1,222,313.  (For 
history  see  INDIA.) 

Bengali,  a  modern  East  Indian  dialect, 
with  a  literature;  it  is  akin  to  Hindustani 
and  is  spoken  by  nearly  45  millions  of  na- 
tives in  the  presidencies  and  chief  provinces 
of  British  India.  With  Hindustani,  it  is 


BENGHAZI 


200 


BENNINGTON 


the  language  commonly  heard  in  Calcutta 
and  the  Valley  of  the  Ganges.  It  is  related 
to  Sanskrit,  which  has  had  an  influence  upon 
its  inflexion  and  syntax,  like  other  languages 
of  the  Aryan  family.  Its  literature  em- 
bodies translations  of  the  chief  Sanskrit 
epics,  notably  the  Mahabharata  and  the 
Ramayana.  See  Dutt's  Literature  of  Ben- 
gal; also  dictionaries  of  Bengali,  Sanskrit 
and  English. 

Benghazi.     See  BARCA. 

Benguela      (ben-gd'la),    a    district     and 

gDrt  in  Angola,  a  colonial  possession  of 
ortugal  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  It 
lies  south  of  French  Congo,  and  southward 
also  from  Sao  Paulo  de  Loanda,  the  capital 
town  of  the  district.  Its  trade  is  mainly 
with  Portugal,  its  chief  exports  being  coffee 
and  rubber.  Malachite,  copper  and  iron,  to- 
gether with  petroleum  and  salt,  are  found 
in  the  province.  Its  soil  is  fertile  and  pro- 
duces a  luxuriant  vegetation;  but  the  cli- 
mate, especially  near  the  coast,  is  hot, 
humid  and  unhealthy.  Besides  the  ship- 
ping trade  in  the  coast  towns,  the  province 
of  Angola  has  now  considerable  railway 
traffic  inland,  with  250  miles  of  railway  in 
operation.  From  Lobito  Bay  near  Benguela 
a  i,2oo-mile  railway  is  being  built  to  con- 
nect in  Northern  Rhodesia  with  the  Cape- 
to-Cairo  road. 

Ben'jamin,  meaning  "son  of  the  right 
hand,"  was  the  youngest  and  best  beloved  of 
the  sons  of  Jacob.  He  was  at  first  named 
Benoni  by  his  mother  Rachel,  but  after  her 
death  the  father  changed  the  name  to  Benja- 
min. He  was  the  founder  of  one  of  the  two 
tribes  of  Israel  whose  warriors  were  noted  for 
their  skill  in  archery  and  for  their  cleverness 
with  the  left  hand.  On  entering  Canaan  the 
tribe  numbered  45,600  warriors  above 
twenty  years  old.  The  territory  of  the 
tribe  lay  on  the  west  side  of  the  Jordan, 
between  the  tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Judah 
Saul,  the  first  king  of  Israel,  was  a  Benja- 
mite.  After  the  death  of  Solomon,  Benja- 
min along  with  Judah  formed  the  kingdom 
of  Judah,  and  on  the  return  from  the  cap- 
tivity these  two  tribes  formed  the  main 
element  of  the  new  Jewish  nation.  The 
Apostle  Paul  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin. 

Benjamin,  Judah  Peter,  an  American 
lawyer  and  politician,  was  born  in  181 1  in  the 
West  Indies,  of  Jewish  parents,  who  at  a  later 
day  emigrated  to  the  United  States.  He 
practiced  law  in  New  Orleans  and  became  in- 
terested in  politics,  acting  first  with  the 
Whigs.  He  was  elected  United  States  sena- 
tor from  Louisiana  in  1852,  and  on  the  slav- 
ery question  sided  with  the  Democrats. 
When  Louisiana  seceded,  he  withdrew  from 
the  senate  and  became  a  member  of  Jefferson 
Davis's  cabinet  as  attorney-general.  He 
was  later  secretary  of  war  and  then  secretary 
of  state  until  the  downfall  of  the  Confeder- 
acy. He  then  went  to  London,  where  he 


'was  called  to  the  English  bar  and  practiced 
with  success  until  1881,  when  he  retired. 
He  died  in  Paris,  May  6,  1884.  He  pub- 
lished a  treatise  on  the  Law  of  Sale  of  Per- 
sonal Property. 

Ben'nett,  James  Gordon,  founder  and 
proprietor  of  the  New  York  Herald,  was 
born  in  Scotland  in  1795,  and  studied  to  be 
a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  but,  abandoning 
that  idea,  emigrated  to  America  in  1819. 
For  a  livelihood,  he  tried  teaching,  proof- 
reading, writing  and  lecturing,  and  was 
connected  with  several  newspapers,  but 
remained  a  poor  man,  when  in  May,  1835, 
he  issued  the  first  number  of  the  New  York 
Herald.  By  his  industry  and  sagacity  he 
made  the  paper  a  great  success,  and  soon 
became  a  wealthy  man.  His  paper  was 
the  first  one  to  publish  the  stock  lists  and  a 
daily  money  article,  and  many  other  original 
features  were  afterwards  added.  When 
steam  communication  was  opened  with 
Europe,  he  crossed  the  Atlantic  and  made 
arrangements  for  correspondence  from  all 
countries.  The  first  speech  ever  reported 
in  full  by  the  telegraph  was  sent  to  the 
Herald.  The  paper  was  independent  in 
politics,  but  generally  supported  the  Demo- 
cratic party.  He  died  in  New  York,  June  2, 
1872,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  He  be- 
queathed the  Herald  to  his  son,  James  Gor- 
don Bennett,  who  is  now  its  editor  and  pro- 
prietor. The  present  editor,  together  with 
the  London  Daily  Telegraph,  supplied  the 
funds  for  Stanley's  journey  across  Africa 
(1874-7)  from  Zanzibar  to  Lakes  Victoria 
and  Tanganyika  and  down  the  Congo  to  the 
Atlantic. 

Ben  Nevis  (ben  nev'ts) ,  a  mountain  of  In- 
vernessshire,  Scotland.  One  of  the  loftiest 
peaks  in  Great  Britain,  it  has  a  height  of 
4,400  feet,  with  a  precipice  of  1,500  feet  on 
the  northeast  side.  A  road  was  built  to  the 
summit  in  1883,  where  a  weather  obser- 
vatory has  been  erected.  A  weather  report 
is  sent  daily  from  this  elevation  and  trans- 
mitted by  telegraph  over  Scotland. 

Ben'nington,  capital  of  the  county  of  the 
same  name  in  Vermont.  The  place  is  fa- 
mous because  of  the  battle  fought  there  in 
the  Revolutionary  War.  On  Aug.  16,  1777, 
Gen.  Stark,  at  the  head  of  a  column  of 
Green  Mountain  Boys,  defeated  a  force 
commanded  by  Col.  Baum,  sent  from  Gen. 
Burgoyne's  army  to  capture  the  public 
stores  at  Bennington.  Six  hundred  British 
prisoners  were  captured  In  1891  a  monu- 
ment commemorating  this  event  was  dedi- 
cated; it  is  a  shaft  301  'feet  in  height. 
The  anniversary  of  this  battle  has  been 
celebrated  almost  every  year  since,  and  in 
1877  a  centennial  celebration  was  held,  at 
which  the  then  president  of  the  United 
States  and  his  cabinet,  the  governors  and 
legislatures  of  Massachusetts,  New  Hamp- 
shire and  Vermont,  besides  many  promi- 
nent men  of  the  army  and  navy  and  DI  othei 


BENSON 


20  X 


BERANGER 


states,  were  present  There  ar«  valuable 
deposits  of  brown  hematite  ore  in  the  town 
and  also  considerable  manufacturing,  in- 
cluding knit  goods,  woolen  goods  and  ma- 
chinery. Population  8,698. 

Benson,  Arch'bishop  Edward  White, 
an  English  prelate  and  primate  of  all  Eng- 
land (1882—96),  was  born  in  1829  and  died 
in  Flintshire,  Wales,  After  graduating  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  he  taught  for 
a  while  at  Rugby,  was  head  master  of  Well- 
ington College,  chancellor  of  Lincoln  Cathe- 
dral, and  in  1877  was  consecrated  Bishop 
ot  Truro.  In  1882,  on  the  recommendation 
of  Mr.  Gladstone,  the  Crown  appointed 
him  as  successor  to  Dr.  Tait  in  the  Arch- 
bishopric of  Canterbury.  He  held  this 
high  office  in  the  church  until  his  death 
October  10,  1896.  Dr,  Benson  wrote  several 
religious  works  and  sermons,  including  The 
Seven  Gifts,  Christ  and  His  Times  and  The 
Cathedral:  its  Necessary  Place  in  the  Life 
and  Work  of  the  Church. 

Benson,  Maj.-Qen.  Frederick  William, 
son  of  the  late  Hon.  J.  R.  Benson,  senator  of 
Canada,  was  born  at  St.  Catharine's,  Ont., 
August  2,  1849,  and  educated  at  Upper 
Canada  College  and  at  the  Royal  Military 
College  at  Sandhurst.  He  served  as  a 
volunteer  during  the  Fenian  raids  of  1866, 
joined  the  2ist  Hussars  in  1869,  has  since 
seen  much  service  in  India,  Egypt  and 
South  Africa,  and  has  been  director  of  trans- 
ports and  remounts  since  1903. 

Ben'ton,  Thomas  Hart,  an  American 
statesman  and  writer,  was  born  in  North 
Carolina,  March  14,  1782.  He  subsequently 
moved  to  Tennessee,  where  he  practiced  law 
and  served  in 
the  state  legis- 
lature. After 
the  War  of 
1812,  in  which 
he  took  part,  he 
removed  to  St. 
Louis  and  there 
edited  the  Mis- 
souri Inquirer. 
In  1820  he  was 
elected  to  the 
United  States 
senate,  where 
he  served  for 
thirty  years, 
taking  a  strong 
stand  on  the 
questions 
which  were 
then  agitating  the  country.  Because  of 
his  earnest  support  of  President  Jackson 
in  his  war  on  the  United  States  Bank,  he 
earned  the  name  of  Old  Bullion.  He 
opposed  the  compromise  measures  of  1850, 
and  Calhoun's  measures  intended  to  pro- 
vide for  the  extension  of  slavery.  His 
stand  on  the  latter  measure  lost  nim  his 
scat  in  the  senate.  In  1852  he  was  elected 


THOMAS    HART    BENTON 


to  the  house  of  representatives;  but  two 
years  later  he  was  defeated  as  a  candidate 
for  re-election,  and  devoted  the  remainder 
of  his  life  to  literary  work.  He  published 
Thirty  Years'  View  or  A  History  of  the 
Working  of  the  American  Government  from 

1820  to    1857.     He  also   abridged  the   De- 
bates of  Congress  from  1789  to  1856.     He 
died  at  Washington,  April  10,  1858. 

Benton  Harbor,  Mich.,  a  city  in  Berrien 
County,  on  the  St.  Joseph  River  and  on 
the  Pere  Marquette,  the  Cleveland,  Cin- 
cinnati, Chicago  &  St.  Louis  and  other 
railroads.  It  lies  back  one  and  one  half 
miles  from  Lake  Michigan,  but  is  connected 
with  it  and  its  fine  harbor  by  a  ship  canal, 
and  from  the  harbor  steamboat  lines  ply 
to  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  other  ports  on 
the  lake.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in 
the  product  of  the  important  mineral  springs 
adjoining  the  city;  while  it  also  ships 
largely  of  flour,  furniture,  machinery,  be- 
sides fruit,  beet-sugar,  pickles,  cider  and 
vinegar.  Population,  11,000. 

Be'owulf,  a  long  and  notable  Anglo- 
Saxon  poem  of  the  8th  or  gth  century,  now 
among  the  treasures  of  the  British  Museum, 
in  London.  The  poem  or  epic,  it  is  thought 
by  scholars,  existed  prior  to  the  colonization 
of  Britain  by  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  was 
probably  brought  to  Britain  by  the  early 
Teutonic  invaders.  Its  hero  is  represented 
as  a  thane  and,  later,  as  a  king  of  the  Swedes, 
while  the  field  of  action  is  in  Swedish  and 
Danish  territory. 

Beranger  (ba'ran'zhdr),  Pierre  Jean 
de,  a  great  song  writer  of  France,  was  born 
in  Paris,  August  ip,  1780.  He  was  brought 
up  by  his  grandfather,  a  tutor,  and  later 
by  his  aunt,  an  innkeeper,  who  filled  him 
with  republican  ideas.  After  a  few  years 
of  work  as  a  printer,  he  retired  to  a  Paris 
garret,  where  he  gave  himself  to  literature 
and  study  But  poverty  soon  again  forced 
him  into  the  world.  He  received  aid  from 
Lucien  Bonaparte,  and  three  years  later 
was  made  a  clerk  in  the  Imperial  University. 
In  1815  he  published  his  first  collection  of 
songs,  which  made  him  the  poetic  champion 
of  the  masses  who  opposed  the  Bourbons. 
He  wrote  always  for  the  working  classes, 
for  whom  he  had  a  deep  sympathy,  and  he 
was  so  popular  among  them  that  his  verses 
were  repeated  from  mouth  to  mouth  before 
they  were  printed,  so  that  it  has  been  said 
that  he  is  the  only  poet  since  printing  was 
invented  who  did  not  need  its  service.  In 

1821  two  volumes  of   poems  which  he  pub- 
;  lished  were  so  strongly  republican  in  senti- 
ment that  he  was  brought  to  trial,  fined  500 
francs  and    sentenced    to  three  months  in 
prison;    and  in   1825  another  set  of  songs 
caused  him  to  be  again  imprisoned.     While 
in  prison  he  was  visited  by  the  great  literary 
men   of   the   day,   including  Victor   Hugo, 
Dumas  and  Sainte-Beuve.     In  1848  he  was 
elected    by    more    than    200,000    voters   to 


BERBERS 


202 


BERGH 


represent  the  department  of  the  Seine  in 
the  constituent  assembly,  but  after  a  few 
days  he  resigned  and  retired  to  his  quiet 
work  and  study,  where  he  remained  until 
his  death,  July  17,  1857.  His  songs  have 
a  lightness  and  wit,  a  smoothness  of  move- 
ment and,  at  times,  a  deep  humanity  and 
pathos,  which  make  their  author  still  the 
favorite  singer  of  his  countrymen.  Besides 
his  poems  he  wrote  the  story  of  his  own 
life 

Berbers  (ber*bers),  an  interesting  people 
living  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  Bar- 
bary  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Great 
Desert  They  are  called  Kabyles  in  Algeria, 
Shelluh  in  Morocco,  and  those  in  the  desert, 
Tuaregs  or  Tawareks  by  the  Arabs.  They 
are  the  descendants  of  the  earliest  inhabitants 
of  northern  Africa,  and  though  they  have  in 
their  veins  an  admixture  of  negro  blood, 
and  have  been  conquered  at  different  times 
by  the  Phoenicians,  Romans,  Vandals  and 
Arabs,  they  are  still  in  many  respects  a 
distinct  and  peculiar  race.  Their  number 
is  between  three  and  four  millions.  They 
are  fierce  and  cruel,  and  usually  at  war 
either  with  their  neighbors  or  among  them- 
selves. They  have  herds  of  sheep  and  cattle, 
till  the  soil,  manufacture  swords,  guns  and 
gunpowder,  and  work  the  mines  of  iron  and 
lead  in  the  Atlas  Mountains.  In  appear- 
ance they  are  strongly  built  and  of  middle 
height,  with  a  complexion  varying  from 
red  to  reddish  brown.  They  are  followers 
of  Islam. 

Berea  (bZr-e'a)  College,  a  non-secta- 
rian, co-educational  institution  situated  in 
Berea,  Ky.  In  1906  there  were  1,018 
students  enrolled.  The  president  is  Wm. 
G.  Frost,  Ph.D.,  D.D.  The  college  was 
founded  in  1855  ^7  anti-slavery  South- 
erners, and  was  intended  for  the  youth  of 
the  mountainous  district  of  the  South. 
For  many  years  it  admitted  both  white 
and  colored  students,  but  in  1904  the 
legislature  of  Kentucky  passed  a  bill  pro- 
hibiting co-education  of  the  races  in  any  of 
the  educational  institutions  of  that  State. 
The  object  of  this  bill  was  to  break  up  the 
co-education  of  races  in  Berea  College. 

Beresford,  Lord  Charles,  born  1846, 
rear-admiral  of  the  British  navy,  gained 
distinction  by  his  skillful  operation  of  the 
gunboat  Condor  at  the  bombardment  of 
Alexandria  in  1882.  In  this  action  he 
silenced  one  of  the  strongest  Egyptian  bat- 
teries. He  served  in  Egypt  under  Lord 
Wolseley,  and  commanded  the  naval  bri- 
gade in  battle  after  battle.  In  1875  he 
accompanied  the  Prince  of  Wales  on  his 
visit  to  India.  Lord  Charles  visited  the 
United  States  in  1899  and  again  in  1906, 
on  the  latter  occasion  to  claim  a  legacy. 
He  has  earnestly  endeavored  to  promote 
a  gocd  understanding  between  the  United 
States,  Eaigla»d  and  Germany  upon  the 
Chinese  question.  He  advocates  the.  "  open- 


door"  policy.  He  is  a  prominent  member 
of  Parliament,  and  has  written  books  upon 
the  Chinese  question  and  the  life  and  times 
of  Lord  Nelson. 

Ber'gamot,  Oil  of,  made  of  the  rind  of 
the  fruit  of  the  so-called  Bergamot  orange, 
now  cultivated  in  the  south  of  Europe. 
The  oil  is  used  in  making  pomades,  fragrant 
essences,  cologne,  etc.,  and  also  in  diluting 
the  expensive  oil  of  chamomile.  It  is  of 
a  pale  yellow  color  or  almost  colorless.  It 
is  obtained  by  distilling  or  by  grating  down 
the  orange  rinds  and  then  subjecting  them 
to  a  strong  pressure.  One  hundred  Berga- 
mot oranges  will  yield  about  two  and  a  half 
ounces  of  oil.  The  name  comes  from  Ber- 
gama,  a  city  in  Asia  Minor,  the  ancient 
Pergamos. 

Bergen,  Norway,  founded  in  1070  A.D., 
is  the  center  of  the  fish  trade  of  the  North- 
men; and  has  now  some  75,000  inhabitants. 
Bergen  lies  to  the  northwest  of  Christiania 
about  1 86  miles.  It  is  a  picturesque  city, 
being  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  water, 
and  enclosed  upon  the  fourth  side  by  moun- 
tains three  thousand  feet  in  height. 

Bergerac  (her' zhe-rdk') ,  S.  Cyrano  de 
(1619-55),  a  noted  French  dramatist  and 
novelist,  with  a  gift  for  the  writing  of  bur- 
lesque romance  and  satire.  Born  at  the 
Chateau  de  Bergerac  in  Perigord,  he  grew 
up  a  man  of  the  world,  entered  the  army, 
and  is  known  to  have  fought  many  duels. 
He  gave  free  play  to  his  satirical  humor, 
which  at  times  got  him  into  trouble,  par- 
ticularly with  the  Jesuits  of  his  era,  whom 
he  satirized,  as  in  his  political  letters  and 
quips  he  satirized  Cardinal  Mazarin,  Prime 
Minister  of  France  during  the  minority  of 
Louis  XIV,  He  is  doubtless  best  known, 
however,  by  his  Comic  Histories  of  the 
States  and  Empires  of  the  Moon,  with  a 
companion  work  on  the  Sun.  The  influence 
of  these  books  can  be  traced  in  the  imagi- 
native and  whimsical  later  work  of  Dean 
Swift,  Jules  Verne  and  Edgar  Allen  Poe. 
Bergerac's  other  work  embraces  a  comedy 
of  character,  entitled  Le  Pedant  lone,  and 
Agrippine,  a  tragedy.  Bergerac  is  the 
theme  of  a  brilliant  modern  drama  by 
Edouard  Rostand, Cyrano  de  Bergerac,  played 
with  acceptance  not  only  in  France,  but 
in  England  and  the  United  States.  Ber- 
gerac, as  has  been  often  remarked,  was  the 
first  author  to  use  the  novel  to  teach  natural 
science,  as  he  was  the  first  author  of  note 
in  France  to  manifest  the  influence  of  early 
English  fiction. 

Bergh,  Henry,  a  philanthropist  and 
author,  was  born  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
of  German  parents,  in  1823.  After  he 
graduated  from  Columbia  College,  he  wrote 
several  poems,  dramas,  sketches,  and  served 
as  secretary  of  legation  to  Russia;  but  on 
returning  from  abroad,  he  determined  to 
devote  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  the  cause 
of  dumb  animals.  On  April  10,  1866,  after 


BERING  SEA 


303 


BERKELEY 


several  years  of  hard  work,  in  speaking, 
lecturing  and  working  in  the  street,  in  the 
court-room  and  in  the  halls  of  legislature, 
the  first  Society  for  the  Prevention  of 
Cruelty  to  Animals  was  incorporated  by 
the  legislature  of  New  York,  and  since  then 
most  of  the  states  and  territories  have 
organized  societies.  Cruelty  to  animals  of 
all  kinds  is  dealt  with  by  the  society,  and 
a  great  work  has  already  been  done  in 
educating  public  opinion  to  the  sense  of 
the  need  of  reform.  There  is  now  a  very 
large  membership,  and  many  friends  have 
donated  money  liberally  to  its  support, 
one  patron,  Mr.  Lewis  Bonard,  giving  his 
entire  fortune  of  $150,000.  Out  of  this 
movement  has  also  grown  the  Society  for 
the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Children, 
which  has  become  almost  as  widespread  as 
the  original  society.  Henry  Bergh  died  in 
New  York,  March  12,  1888. 

Be'ring  (or  Behring)  Sea,  a  part  of 
the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  commonly  known 
as  the  Sea  of  Kamchatka,  is  bounded  by 
Kamchatka,  Alaska,  the  Aleutian  Islands 
and  Bering  Strait,  which  connects  it 
with  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  strait  was 

gissed  through  first  by  a  Siberian  named 
eschner,  in  1648,  and  later  the  sea  and 
strait  were  explored  by  Bering,  a  Danish 
navigator  in  the  employ  of  Peter  the  Great, 
in  1741.  The  latter  died  on  Bering  Island, 
one  of  the  Aleutian  group.  The  seal  fish- 
eries of  Bering  Sea  caused  a  sharp  dispute 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
on  behalf  of  Canada.  These  fisheries, 
owned  and  operated  by  Americans  directly 
for  their  own  benefit,  but  indirectly  for  the 
benefit  of  the  world,  were  in  danger  of  being 
entirely  destroyed  by  the  lawless  acts  of 
the  Canadian  seal-fishers  or  sealers 
An  agreement  was  concluded  which  per- 
mitted the  United  States  to  put  a  stop  to 
the  acts  of  the  Canadian  sealers  and  pro- 
vided that  the  whole  dispute  be  settled 
peaceably  by  a  board  of  arbitrators. 

Bering  Strait,  a  narrow  water-passage 
north  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  Bering 
Sea,  in  the  Northern  Pacific,  connecting 
the  latter  with  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  is 
in  the  vicinity  of  long.  170°  W.,  having 
on  the  east  of  it  Alaska  and  on  the  west 
the  projecting  peninsula  of  Siberia,  in  Rus- 
sian Asia.  It  was  at  an  early  era  discovered 
by  a  Russian  Cossack  navigator,  named 
Deshneff,  and  subsequently  explored  by 
Captains  Bering  and  Cook.  At  its  narrow- 
est part  it  is  about  40  miles  in  width;  and 
has  a  depth  varying  from  150  to  250  leet, 
the  deeper  water  being  on  the  Asiatic  side. 
St.  Lawrence  Island  lies  to  the  south  of 
the  Strait,  in  Bering  Sea. 

Berkeley  (berk'li),  a  town  in  Alameda 
County,  California,  in  Oakland  Township, 
is  situated  on  the  east  shore  of  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay  opposite  the  Golden  Gate.  It 
is  five  miles  from  the  city  of  Oakland, 


which  lies  immediately  south  of  iti  and 
eight  miles  from  San  Francisco.  The  South- 
ern Pacific  and  Santa  Fe  railroads  both 
pass  through  the  town.  Communication 
with  San  Francisco  every  twenty  minutes 
is  furnished  by  the  Southern  Pacific  local 
trains  and  the  Realty  Syndicate  furnishes 
a  like  number  of  the  best  equipped  electric 
trains  every  hour.  A  large  number  of 
manufactures  and  planing  mills  are  located 
near  the  water  front.  The  University  of 
California,  the  State  Agricultural  College 
and  the  State  Institution  for  the  Deaf, 
Dumb  and  Blind  are  loc  ,ted  here.  The 
population,  which  is  growing  quite  rapidly,  is 
now  54,879. 

There  is  a  complete  school  system,  in- 
cluding manual  training,  domestic  science, 
primary  and  grammar  schools  and  high 
schools,  including  a  Polytechnic  High 
School.  Within  the  last  two  years,  bonds 
to  the  amount  of  one-half  million  dollars 
have  been  voted  for  school  purposes,  and 
municipal  bonds  for  a  like  amount  for 
other  municipal  improvements  have  also 
been  voted. 

Berkeley,  George,  bishop  of  Cloyne. 
was  born  near  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  in 
1685.  After  graduating  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  he  remained  there  thirteen  years  as 
a  fellow,  studying  and  writing  on  philoso- 
phy. His  theory,  called  Idealism  was  that 
the  world  exists  only  in  our  thoughts  and 
that  the  objects  around  us  are  only  ideas, 
which  God,  as  the  highest  reason,  causes  to 
pass  before  our  minds.  At  Trinity,  he  had 
become  a  friend  of  Dean  bwift,  and  in  1713 
he  went  to  London,  where  Swift  introduced 
him  into  the  brilliant  society  of  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne.  He  next  traveled  for  some 
years  through  France  and  Italy  On  his 
return  he  wrote  a  great  deal  on  social  ques- 
tions. In  1 7  2  8,  having  formed  a  plan  to  con- 
vert the  American  savages,  he  came  to  Amer- 
ica, and  for  three  years  lived  in  Rhode  Island, 
writing,  studying  and  preaching.  He  then 
gave  up  his  work  and  returned  to  England, 
leaving  his  library  of  800  volumes  and  his  es- 
tate in  Rhode  Island, called  Whitehall,  to  Yale 
College.  He  was  soon  after  made  bishop  of 
Cloyne,  in  the  south  of  Ireland,  where  he 
lived  for  eighteen  years,  and  then  removed 
to  London  and  died  in  January,  1753.  Be- 
sides his  writings  on  philosophy  and  social 
questions,  Bishop  Berkeley  wrote  the  well- 
known  stanzas  On  the  Prospect  of  Planting 
Arts  and  Learning  in  America,  in  which 
occurs  the  famous  line :  "  Westward  the 
course  of  empire  takes  its  way." 

Berkeley,  Sir  William,  colonial  governor 
of  Virginia  in  the  time  of  Charles  I  and 
Charles  II  of  England,  was  born  near 
London  in  1608,  and  died  in  England  in 
1677.  He  was  commissioned  royal  governor 
of  Virginia  in  1641,  and  being  a  monarchist 
and  partisan  of  the  crown,  he  held,  for  nearly 
thirty-five  years,  this  colonial  outpost,  with 


BERLIN 


204 


BERLIN 


the  exception  of  the  interval  of  the  Common- 
wealth. During  the  Cromwellian  period 
Virginia  was  an  asylum  for  many  English- 
men of  rank  who  were  loyal  to  the  crown; 
the  colony,  indeed,  was  among  the  last  of 
the  crown  possessions  abroad  to  acknowledge 
the  Protector's  authority.  Berkeley,  in  his 
later  years,  grew  irascible  and  intolerant, 
and  behaved  despotically  toward  those  who 
took  part  in  Nathaniel  Bacon's  rebellion 
(see  tre  latter).  He  was  opposed  to  free 
schools,  to  printing  and  to  religious  liberty, 
and  was  recalled  to  England  in  1676. 

Ber'lin.  A  city  of  13,664  in  Waterloo 
County  (Ontario) ,  one  of  the  busiest  manu- 
facturing centers  in  all  Canada.  Is  rapidly 
growing.  Amongst  other  articles  of  manu- 
facture may  be  mentioned  furniture, 
leather,  buttons,  machinery  and  felt  goods. 
Population  largely  of  German  descent, 
churches,  schools, 
private  residences 
noticeably  attrac- 
tive, evidences  of 
thrift  and  progress 
everywhere,  the 
County  of  Water- 
loo is  one  of  the 
richest  and  most 
fertile  in  all  Can- 
ada. Another  im- 
portant manufact- 
uring town,  Wa- 
terloo, lies  imme- 
diately adjacent 
to  it. 

Berlin,  the  cap- 
ital of  Prussia 
and,  since  1871, 
of  the  German 
Empire,  the  third 
largest  city  of 
Europe,  lies  on  the 
banks  of  the  River 
Spree,  which  flows 
through  the  center  BERLIN — ROYAL  THEATER 
of  the  city  from 

southeast  to  northwest.  Its  population  is 
2,070,695,  and  it  covers  an  area  whose  circum- 
ference is  nearly  thirty-five  miles  The  city 
dates  as  a  small  fishing  village  as  far  back  as 
the  1 3th  century,  but  the  beginning  of  its 
rapid  growth  and  prosperity  was  not  made 
until  the  Great  Elector,  Frederick  William 
(1640-88),  united  the  separate  duchies  of 
which  Prussia  is  now  formed,  and  made 
Berlin  the  capital  of  the  new  state.  Among 
the  fine  buildings  for  which  the  city  is 
noted  are  the  royal  palace,  with  700 
apartments,  and  other  palaces;  the  royal 
library,  with  over  710,000  volumes  and 
25,000  manuscripts;  the  old  and  new  mu- 
seums, with  their  fine  collections  and  art 
galleries;  the  national  gallery;  the  arsenal; 
the  royal  theater;  the  opera  house;  the 
guardhouse;  and  the  university.  Through- 
out the  city  and  in  the  parks  are  numerous 


statues  of  national  heroes,  and  monuments, 
such  as  the  great  Column  of  Victory,  197 
feet  high.  The  street  called  from  its  double 
avenue  of  limes  Unter  den  Linden  is  one 
of  the  finest  streets  in  Europe.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Berlin  is  now  one  of  the  fore- 
most in  Germany.  Founded  in  1810,  it 
has  had  many  famous  professors  and  schol- 
ars. It  now  numbers  over  414  professors 
and  lecturers  with  over  5,000  students,  and 
as  many  more  non-matriculated  students. 
Besides  the  university,  there  are  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  one  of  the  most  learned 
institutions  in  Germany;  the  military  acad- 
emy and  academies  of  art  and  architecture; 
and  the  schools  of  mining,  agriculture, 
artillery,  engineering,  music,  etc.  The  Zoo- 
logical and  Botanical  Gardens  are  also 
worthy  of  mention.  The  commerce  of  Ber- 
lin, carried  on  by  the  Spree,  the  canals 


AND  NEW  CHURCH  IN  THE  GENSDARMENMARKET 

and  many  railroads,  with  its  manufactures, 
places  it  in  the  front  rank  of  the  mercantile 
cities  of  the  continent.  Grain,  cattle,  spirits 
and  wool  are  the  staples  of  trade.  The 
exchange  is  daily  visited  by  3,500  persons. 
The  main  branches  of  industry  are  woolen 
weaving,  calico  printing  and  the  manu- 
facture of  engines  and  other  machinery, 
also  of  iron,  steel  and  bronze  wares,  drapery 

EDods  and  confections.  Together  with 
eipsic,  Berlin  holds  the  first  place  among 
German  cities  in  the  publishing  trade. 
Owing  to  the  recent  great  strides  in  German 
manufactures  and  in  the  extension  abroad 
of  German  colonies,  the  capital  has  become 
a  still  greater  financial  and  imperial  center. 
Berlin,  N.  H.,  a  city  in  Coos  County, 
on  the  Androscoggin  River  and  on 
the  Grand  Trunk  and  the  Boston  & 
Maine  railroad,  16  miles  north-northeast  ol 


BERLIN,  TREATY  OP 


205 


BERNADOTTE 


Mount  Washington.  It  has  large  lumber 
and  pulp  mills,  with  an  extensive  annual 
product  and  employing  a  large  force  of 
men.  Its  other  industries,  all  of  which 
are  usefully  served  by  good  waterpower, 
include  shoe  manufacture  and  other  activ- 
ities. The  city  is  lighted  by  electricity, 
and  possesses  a  public  library,  several  fine 
church  buildings  and  schools,  as  well,  as 
a  number  of  attractive  residences.  Popu- 
lation, 11,780. 

Berlin,  Treaty  of.  After  the  Russp- 
Turkish  War  of  1877,  what  is  known  in 
Europe  as  the  Eastern  Question  arose 
to  trouble  the  diplomats,  and  a  congress 
of  the  great  powers  met  at  Berlin,  at  the 
call  of  Prince  Bismarck,  to  settle  the  affairs 
of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  and  other  boundary 
disputes.  As  a  result  of  the  conference, 
the  Treaty  of  Berlin  was  drafted  and  signed 
by  the  representatives  of  the  respective 
powers,  modifying  in  some  degree  the 
Treaty  of  San  Stefano,  previously  con- 
cluded between  Turkey  and  Russia.  By  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin,  Russia  received  from 
Rumania  the  territory  called  Bessarabia, 
lost  by  the  Crimean  War,  and  she  acquired 
the  fortress  of  Kars  and  the  port  of  Batum; 
Bulgaria,  the  territory  between  the  Danube 
and  the  Balkans,  became  virtually  independ- 
ent; Montenegro  acquired  full  freedom; 
and  Servia  and  Rumania  became  independ- 
ent kingdoms.  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
were  at  the  same  time  transferred  to  the 
rule  of  Austria,  while  Cyprus  became  a 
British  possession;  and  Greece  acquired 
Thessaly  and  a  portion  of  Epirus.  The 
T  urkish  empire  in  Europe  was  thus  reduced 
to  narrow  limits. 

Berlioz  (ber'l$-oz'),  Hector,  a  great  but 
eccentric  musical  composer,  was  born  in 
1803,  at  Cote  St.  Andre,  near  Grenoble,  and 
was  the  son  of  a  physician.  Disregarding 
the  wish  of  his  father,  who  wanted  his  son 
to  follow  his  own  profession,  he  studied 
music  at  the  Conservatoire  in  Paris,  winning 
several  prizes.  In  Italy,  where  he  studied 
for  a  year,  he  became  acquainted  with  Liszt 
and  Mendelssohn.  On  his  return  to  Paris, 
in  1832,  he  brought  out  some  of  his  com- 
positions, but  their  success  was  so  small 
that  he  had  to  eke  out  his  living  by  writing 
for  musical  journals  and  giving  concerts. 
In  his  foreign  concert  tours  he  was  far  more 
successful  than  in  his  own  country,  being 
received  with  enthusiasm  and  offered  several 
lucrative  posts.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1869. 
His  Faust  is  his  most  popular  musical  com- 
position. His  symphonies,  such  as  Romeo 
and  Juliet;  his  opera,  Beatrice  and  Benedict; 
his  overtures,  as  The  Carnival  of  Rome; 
and  his  sacred  pieces,  as  The  Childhood  of 
Christ  and  his  Te  Deum,  are  among  his 
most  successful  achievements.  His  literary 
work  is  also  of  a  high  order.  Liszt,  Heine 
and  Balzac,  the  great  novelist,  were  among 
his  intimate  friends. 


Bermu'das,   The,     or    Somers'   Islands, 

are  British  possessions  in  the  Atlantic, 
southeast  of  Cape  Hatteras,  680  miles  from 
New  York.  They  were  named  from  the 
Spaniard  Bermudez,  who  first  sighted  them 
in  1522,  and  from  the  Englishman,  Sir 
George  Somers,  who  was  shipwrecked  there 
in  1609.  They  are  said  to  be  360  in  number, 
but  many  are  mere  specks,  the  whole  being 
only  about  12,000  acres  in  extent.  They 
are  composed  of  coral  sand  and  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  living,  growing  reef  of  coral. 
They  are  important  to  the  British  govern- 
ment as  a  half-way  station  between  its  pos- 
sessions in  Canada  and  the  West  Indies. 
Hamilton,  the  seat  of  government,  is  situated 
on  Main  Island.  The  next  in  importance  is 
St.  George's  Island,  which  has  a  strongly 
fortified  harbor.  On  Ireland  Island  is  the 
Bermuda  floating  dock,  built  in  England 
and  towed  out  in  1869.  It  is  381  feet 
long  and  124  feet  wide.  A  large  number 
of  the  islands  are  without  name  or  inhab- 
itant. Because  of  the  balmy  and  temperate 
climate  the  Bermudas  have  become  in 
winter  a  popular  resort,  for  Americans  as 
well  as  for  English;  and  St.  George's  and 
Hamilton  have  many  hotels.  Although 
the  soil  is  poor,  yet,  because  of  the  absence 
of  winter  frosts,  crops  can  be  prepared  for 
March,  April,  May  or  June,  and  so  their 
early  potatoes,  onions,  tomatoes  and  other 
garden  vegetables  bring  high  prices  in  the 
New  York  markets  to  enrich  the  Bermu- 
dians.  The  population  is  17,535,  more 
than  half  of  which  is  colored.  A  governor 
and  council  of  six  members,  appointed  by 
the  crown,  and  an  assembly  of  thirty-six, 
four  being  elected  by  each  of  the  nine  par- 
ishes into  which  the  Bermudas  are  divided, 
make  up  the  governing  body.  The  chief 
town  is  Hamilton,  population,  2,627. 

Bern  or  Berne,  the  capital  of  the  canton 
of  Bern  and  of  Switzerland,  lies  on  a  promon- 
tory formed  by  the  River  Aar,  which  sur- 
rounds it  on  three  sides.  The  population, 
85,264.  Berne  is  the  first  city  in  Switzer- 
land, although  Zurich,  Bale  and  Geneva 
have  each  larger  populations.  The  houses 
are  massive,  built  of  freestone,  resting  on 
arcades,  which  are  lined  with  shops  and 
furnish  a  covered  walk  on  both  sides  of 
the  streets.  A  bridge  which  spans  the  Aar 
is  one  of  the  largest  bridges  in  Switzerland. 
The  Gothic  cathedral,  mint,  hospital  and 
university  are  among  the  fine  buildings  of 
the  city.  The  trade  is  chiefly  in  dress 
fabrics  and  hats.  The  figure  of  a  bear  is 
conspicuous  in  the  ornaments  of  the  place, 
in  allusion  to  the  origin  of  the  name  Bern, 
and  a  bear's  den  is  maintained  by  the 
municipality  at  public  expense.  The  area 
of  the  canton  is  2,675  square  miles,  with 
a  population,  642,744. 

Bernadotte  (ber'na-dot'),  Jean  Baptiste 
Jules,  king  of  Sweden  and  Norway  as 
Charles  XIV,  was  born  at  Pau,  in  the  south 


BERNARD 


206 


BERTILLON  SYSTEM 


of  France,  January  26,  1764,  the  son  of  a 
lawyer.  He  entered  the  army  as  a  private, 
but  his  promotion  was  rapid  after  the  out- 
break of  the  French  Revolution.  In  1794 
he  was  a  general  in  command  of  a  division, 
and  in  1804  he  was  made  a  marshal  in  the 
army.  In  1797  he  was  sent  with  20,000  men 
to  re-enforce  the  army  of  Italy,  which  led  to 
his  first  meeting  with  Napoleon.  Of  all 
Napoleon's  marshals,  Bernadotte  was  the 
one  least  under  his  influence,  and  refused 
to  help  him  in  any  of  his  political  designs. 
But  his  generalship  was  highly  thought  of 
by  his  chief.  He  commanded  the  center  at 
Austerlitz  and  helped  to  prevent  the  allies 
from  turning  the  right  flank  of  the  French 
army.  With  a  separate  command,  he 
defeated  the  Prussians  at  Halle  and  forced 
Blucher  to  surrender.  He  defeated  the 
Russians  at  Mohrungen,  commanded  a  corps 
of  Saxons  at  the  battle  of  Wagram,  after 
which  a  dispute  with  Napoleon  caused  his 
resignation.  Bernadotte  was  also,  for  a 
time,  minister  of  war  and  ambassador  to 
Vienna.  He  was  elected  crown  prince  of 
Sweden  in  1810.  He  refused  to  agree  to 
Napoleon's  demand  that  he  should  pledge 
himself  not  to  take  up  arms  against  France, 
saying  that  from  that  time  the  interests 
of  Sweden  were  his  It  was  not,  however, 
until  French  troops  invaded  Sweden  that 
he  attacked  Napoleon.  When  Napoleon 
declared  war  against  Russia,  Bernadotte 
held  in  his  hands  the  destiny  of  Europe, 
Napoleon  offering  him  large  territories  if 
he  would  attack  Russia.  He,  however, 
joined  the  allies,  but  halted  when  France 
was  invaded,  before  reaching  the  border, 
determined  not  to  attack  his  native  land. 
In  1814  he  forced  Denmark  to  cede  to  him 
Norway,  which  until  June  7,  1905,  remained 
joined  to  Sweden.  In  1 8 1 8  he  became  king 
of  Sweden  and  Norway  under  the  name  of 
Charles  XIV.  Throughout  his  long  reign 
of  twenty-six  years,  though  knowing  nothing 
of  the  languages  of  his  subjects,  he  ruled 
successfully  and  built  up  the  country  in 
many  ways.  He  died  at  Stockholm,  March 
8,  1844. 

Bernard  (ber-ndrd'),  Great  Saint,  a 
mountain  pass  of  the  Alps,  between  the 
Swiss  canton  of  Vaud  and  the  valley  of 
Aosta.  At  the  highest  point  of  the  pass, 
nearly  8,000  feet  above  the  sea,  near  the 
line  of  perpetual  snow,  is  the  monastery  or 
hospice  of  St.  Bernard.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  in  062,  for  the  succor  of  trav- 
elers crossing  the  mountains.  The  cele- 
brated St.  Bernard  dogs  are  trained  to  assist 
in  this  work.  By  this  pass,  Roman  armies, 
armies  under  Chailemagne  and  Frederick 
Barbarossa  and  Napoleon's  army  of  30,000, 
with  artillery  and  cavalry,  crossed  the  Alps. 
The  Little  St.  Bernard  is  a  mountain  7,200 
feet  in  height,  south  of  Mont  Blanc.  It 
has  a  pass  by  which  Hannibal  is  thought 
to  have  crossed  rnto  Italy. 


SARAH    BERNHARDT 


Bernardino    de    Betto    Bagio.     See  PIN- 

TURICCHIO. 

Bernhardt  (bern'hdrt),  Rosine  (called 
Sarah),  a  famous  French  actress,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1844.  Her  parents  were  Jews, 
but  she  was  brought  up  in  a  convent  at 
Versailles.  She  made  her  first  appearance 
on  the  stage  in 
1862,  at  the 
Theatre  Fran- 
9aise,  but  at 
first  attracted 
little  notice.  In 
1867  her  play- 
ing of  the  part 
of  Marie  de 
Neuberg  in  a 
play  by  Victor 
Hugo,  called 
Ruy  Bias,  made 
her  famous. 
She  then  went 
back  to  the 
Theatre  Fran- 
jaise,  in  Paris, 
and  after  1879 
began  to  appear 
each  year  in  London,  where  she  was  very 
successful.  Her  trips  through  America  and 
Russia  were  also  successes.  In  the  United 
States  her  favorite  roles  were  those  of 
Fedora  and  La  Tosca,  while  she  drew  im- 
mense audiences  when  she  appeared  in 
Adrienne  Lecouvreur  and  La  Dame  aux 
Camelias.  Madame  Bernhardt  is  probably 
the  greatest  living  actress  of  tragedy.  She 
is  also  gitted  as  an  artist  and  a  sculptor. 

Bertill'on  System,  The,  was  made 
public  by  Dr.  Alphonse  Bertillon  in  1885 
in  Paris,  after  he  had  been  at  work  upon 
it  for  six  years.  The  purpose  of  the  system 
is  to  identify  criminals.  Its  chief  feature 
is  accurate  bodily  measurement.  After  the 
age  of  twenty  the  skeleton  is  almost  wholly 
fixed;  and  yet  in  no  two  individuals  are 
the  measurements  of  parts  of  the  body 
liable  to  be  closely  alike.  Precise  descrip- 
tions, in  which  the  color  of  the  eyes  is  most 
important  and  also  photographs  are  em- 
ployed to  assist  the  method  ot  measure- 
,  ment.  Marks,  moles  and  scars  are  care- 
fully noted,  and  their  position  is  registered 
with  great  exactness.  The  system  has  now 
been  adopted  in  most  European  countries. 
Its  employment  in  the  United  States  dates 
from  1887.  It  is  very  needful  to  identify 
criminals;  and  the  Bertillon  system  makes 
innocent  persons  safe  from  the  danger  of 
being  identified  with  some  criminal  who 
may  resemble  them.  In  Paris  there  is  a 
collection  of  the  measurements  and  descrip- 
tions of  no  less  than  120,000  criminals; 
and  it  is  likely  that  the  United  States 
will  form  a  similar  central  collection,  for 
it  is  said  that  European  criminals  flock 
to  the  United  States  because  the  Bertillon 
system  is  less  universal  in  this  country. 


feERYL 


207 


BETHLEHEM 


Beryl,  a  precious  stone,  a  variety  of 
emerald  and  known  also  as  aquamarine. 
They  are  usually  found  embedded  in  granite 
or  in  veins  that  traverse  granite  or  gneiss. 
Their  color  is  sometimes  yellowish  and 
sometimes  of  a  greenish-blue  tinge.  The 
best  beryls  come  from  Brazil,  Ceylon  and 
Siberia;  the  common  opaque  beryl  is  met 
with  in  this  country.  The  difference  be- 
tween the  beryl  and  the  emerald  is  due  to 
the  coloring-matter;  both  are  double  sili- 
cates of  alumina  and  glucina;  in  the  beryl 
the  coloring  matter  is  oxide  of  iron,  and  in 
the  emerald  it  is  oxide  of  chromium. 

Besancon  (be-zan'sdn'),  a  French  city, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Doubs,  lies 
on  both  sides  of  the  River  Doubs.  The 
citadel  is  perched  on  an  almost  inaccessible 
rock,  410  feet  above  the  river,  and  the  city 
is  so  well  fortified  that  it  is  considered  one 
of  the  strongest  places  in  France.  In  the 
days  of  Caesar  it  was  called  Vesontio,  and 
there  he  gained  several  victories.  Some 
streets  still  bear  old  Roman  names,  and 
Roman  ruins  are  to  be  seen  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. The  modern  inhabitants  are 
largely  engaged  in  watch-making,  the  yearly 
product  being  nearly  450,000  watches. 
Victor  Hugo  and  Abel  Re'musat,  the  great 
scholars,  were  born  at  Besangon.  The 
city  was  ceded  by  Spain  to  France 
in  1679,  and  was  unsuccessfully  beseiged 
by  the  Austrians  in  1814.  Population, 

55Besant  (bte&wt),  Sir  Walter,  English 
novelist,  was  born  at  Portsmouth  in  1836, 
and  educated  at  King's  College,  London,  and 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge.  In  1868  he 
published  his  first  work,  Studies  in  Early 
French  Poetry,  which  was  followed  later  by 
a  work  on  the  French  Humorists.  His  ca- 
reer as  a  romance  writer  was  in  conjunction 

with  a  journal- 
ist, James  Rice, 
in  partnership 
with  whom  ap- 
peared Ready 
Money  Morti- 
boy  and  many 
other  novels. 
Of  the  stories 
that  appeared 
in  his  own 
name  the  best 
are:  All  Sorts 
and  Conditions 
of  Men,  Chil- 
dren of  Gibeon, 
All  in  a  Garden  Fair,  Katherine  Regina, 
For  Faith  and  Freedom,  Armor  el  of  Lyonesse 
and  The  Orange  Girl.  Sir  Walter  took  great 
interest  in  matters  that  affect  the  interests 
and  status  of  authors  in  respect  of  copy- 
right; he  was  for  many  years  secretary  to 
the  Palestine  Exploration  fund;  and  the 
People's  Palace,  in  the  East  of  London, 
was  inspired  by  one  of  his  stories.  He  was 


WALTER     BESANT 


knighted  for  his  services  to  literature  in 
1895.  He  died  June  9,  ipoi. 

Bes'semer,  Ala.,  a  city  in  Jefferson 
County,  in  the  center  of  an  iron-producing 
region,  on  the  Louisville  &  Nashville  and 
other  railroads,  n  miles  southwest  of  Birm- 
ingham. Its  industries  embrace  large  iron 
and  steel  works,  blast  furnaces,  foundries, 
rolling  and  planing  mills,  machine  shops 
and  fire  brick  works.  There  are  coal  as 
well  as  iron  mines  in  the  vicinity.  Popu- 
lation, 20,000. 

Bes'semer   Process.    See  STEEL. 

Bessemer,  Sir  Henry,  an  English  inven- 
tor and  engineer,  was  born  in  Hertford- 
shire in  1813,  and  died  in  London,  March  14, 
1898.  He  is  famed  for  his  many  inventions, 
but  especially  for  the  revolution  in  the  steel 
making  trade,  due  to  his  cheap  and  ready 
process  of  making  steel  from  pig-iron.  The 
process  increased  the  output  of  steel  enor- 
mously both  in  this  country  and  in  England : 
in  England  the  annual  production  at  once 
rose  from  50,000  to  3,000,000  tons,  while 
the  price  fell  nearly  80  per  cent.  The 
Bessemer  invention  consisted  in  taking 
the  pig-iron  when  in  a  state  of  fusion  and 
blowing  a  blast  of  air  through  it,  to  clear  it 
of  all  carbon,  and  then  adding  the  necessary 
carbon  to  produce  well-tempered  steel.  He 
was  knighted  in  1879,  and  was  the  recipient, 
of  many  honors  and  decorations.  See  KEL- 
LEY,  WILLIAM. 

Beth'any,  meaning  "the  house  of  dates," 
lies  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  in  Palestine,  2,208  feet  above  the 
sea.  This  little  village  was  the  home  of 
Lazarus  and  his  sisters,  and  was  often 
visited  by  Christ,  and  there  He  worked  his, 
greatest  miracle.  It  was  also  the  scene  of 
His  ascension.  It  is  now  a  place  of  about 
200  inhabitants.  Houses  said  to  be  those 
of  Martha  and  Mary  and  the  cave  where 
Lazarus  was  buried",  are  pointed  out  to 
the  traveler. 

Bethes'da,  Pool  of,  meaning  "house  of 
mercy,"  or  "house  of  the  stream,"  is  the 
tank  or  pool  at  Jerusalem  associated  with 
Christ's  healing  of  the  impotent  man.  The 
large  reservoir,  called  "  Birket  Israel,"  near 
St.  Stephen's  gate,  and  the  spring  Gihon  01 
En  Rogel,  in  Kedron  Valley,  are  each  cited 
by  different  scholars  as  the  place  of  this 
ancient  pool. 

Beth'lehem,  meaning  "house  of  bread," 
now  called  Beitlahm,  known  as  the  birth- 
place of  Christ  and  of  King  David,  is  a  small 
village  six  miles  south  of  Jerusalem.  The 
present  inhabitants,  numbering  about  3,000, 
live  by  making  and  selling  crucifixes,  beads, 
boxes,  shells  and  other  articles  of  mother-of- 
pearl  and  of  olive  wood.  The  Convent  of 
the  Nativity  is  a  large  square  building, 
believed  to  have  been  built  by  the  Empress 
Helena,  327  A.  D.;  destroyed  by  the  Mos- 
lems in  1236;  and  rebuilt  by  the  crusaders. 
The  Church  of  the  Nativity  within  it  is 


BETHLEHEM 


208 


BEYROUT 


divided  among  the  Latin.  Greek  and  Ar- 
menian Christians,  who  make  up  the  entire 
population.  The  church  is  in  the  form  of 
a  cross,  the  finest  part  being  the  nave, 
which  is  supported  by  forty-eight  Corinthian 
columns  of  solid  granite.  At  the  head  of 
U  cross,  a  sculptured  marble  star  marks 
the  entrance  to  a  long  passage  descending 
to  the  crypt  or  chamber,  in  which  a  silver 
star  shows  the  spot  where  Christ  is  said  to 
have  been  born.  The  star  is  engraved  with 
the  words,  in  Latin:  "Here  Jesus  Christ 
was  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary."  The  manger 
in  which  he  was  laid  is  in  a  recess  cut  in 
the  rock. 

Bethlehem,  Pa.,  a  borough  in  North- 
impton  County,  about  55  miles  north  of 
Philadelphia,  with  which  the  town  of  West 
Bethlehem  was  incorporated  in  1 004.  Total 
population  (census  1910)  12,837.  It  is  sit- 
uated on  the  Lehigh  River  and  Canal,  two 
bridges  across  which  give  access  to  South 
Bethlehem,  the  seat  of  Lehigh  University. 
Bethlehem  is  reached  by  the  Central  Rail- 
road of  New  Jersey,  the  Lehigh  Valley  and 
the  Philadelphia  &  Reading  railroads. 
Founded  by  Moravians  in  1742,  it  early 
became  a  noted  seat  of  the  Brethren  of  that 
church  and  of  their  institutions,  including 
a  theological  seminary  and  academy  known 
as  Nazareth  Hall,  located  since  1858  at 
Bethlehem.  The  town  has  a  public  library 
and  a  hospital  (St.  Luke's);  it  has  also 
considerable  manufactures,  including  silk- 
mills,  iron  and  steel  works,  zinc  and  graphite 
works,  knitting  mills,  and  large  paint  works. 
The  town,  which  was  incorporated  in  1845, 
received  its  charter  in  1851,  and  it  owns 
and  operates  its  own  water-works.  In  the 
Revolutionary  War  a  hospital  of  the  Con- 
tinental Army  was  located  here,  and  in 
West  Bethlehem  are  the  graves  of  some 
500  soldiers.  See  an  article  by  Jordan  on 
Bethlehem  During  the  Revolution,  in 
the  Pennsylvania  Magazine  of  History  (Phil- 
adelphia, 1890) ;  also  Martin's  Historical 
Sketch  of  Bethlehem  (Philadelphia,  1872). 

Bethsaida  (beth-sa'l-da) ,  meaning  "house 
of  fish,"  is  the  name  of  two  villages  on  the 
Lake  of  Galilee.  The  one  on  the  western 
shore  was  the  birthplace  of  Peter,  Andrew 
and  Philip,  the  Apostles.  A  heap  of  grass- 
grown  rums  is  thought  to  mark  its  site.  The 
other,  at  the  northern  end  of  the  lake,  lies 
adjacent  to  the  scene  of  the  feeding  of  the 
five  thousand  by  Christ.  It  was  afterward 
called  Julias. 

Beust  (jdn  boist),  Frederick  Ferdinand 
von,  Count,  a  prominent  modern  Ger- 
man statesman,  was  born  in  Dresden  in 
1809.  He  devoted  himself  to  politics,  and 
was  employed  by  his  government  in  differ- 
ent services  in  Berlin,  Paris  and  London. 
In  1849  hg  was  rnade  minister  of  foreign 
affairs.  He  opposed  Prussia,  and  after  the 
battle  of  Sadowa,  entered  the  service  of 
Austria,  where  he  was  made  chancellor  in 


1867.  He  completely  reorganized  the  Aus- 
trian Empire,  and  the  present  constitution 
was  his  work.  He  was  later  an  Austrian 
ambassador  at  London  (1871—78),  and  acted 
in  the  same  capacity  at  Paris  (1878—82). 
He  died  October  24,  1886. 

Bevan,  Theodore  F.,  F.R.G.S.A.,  the 
explorer,  was  born  near  London,  October 
14,  1860,  and  has  largely  given  his  life  to 
the  exploration  of  British  New  Guinea.  In 
1887  he  discovered  the  Aird  and  the  Purari 
Rivers  there,  the  latter  the  next  to  the 
largest  in  the  territory. 

Bev'eridge,  Albert  Jeremiah  (1862-), 
American  senator,  was  born  in  Highland 
County,  Ohio,  and  as  a  child  was  taken 
by  his  parents  to  Indiana  where  his  younger 
years  were  spent  in  farm  and  railway  con- 
struction work.  He,  however,  snatched 
time  to  study  in  the  winter  months  and 
subsequently  entered  De  Pauw  University, 
at  Greencastle,  Ind.,  from  which  he  grad- 
uated in  1885.  He  later  on  became  clerk 
iu  a  law  office  in  Indianapolis,  where  he 
was  drawn  to  political  life  and  took  part 
in  the  Blaine  campaign  of  that  era,  mean- 
while going  on  with  his  law  studies,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  During  the 
nineties  he  became  widely  known  in  his 
state  by  his  political  speeches,  and  in  1899 
was  elected  as  a  Republican  senator  from 
Indiana.  In  the  latter  year  he  visited  the 
Philippines,  and  in  the  following  year  he 
addressed  the  senate  in  favor  of  the  admin- 
istration's policy  of  retaining  the  islands 
under  such  local  government  as  the  situation 
demanded.  This  was  in  January  10,  1900. 
Among  his  many  speeches  and  addresses; 
is  one  on  "The  March  of  the  Flag,"  delivered 
at  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  September  16,  1898. 
By  these  speeches  he  has  made  a  notable 
mark,  while  he  is  also  known  as  an  author 
by  his  work  on  The  Russian  Advance  (1904) 
and  by  a  booklet,  issued  in  1905,  entitled 
The  Young  Man  and  the  World. 

Beverly,  Mass.,  a  city  in  Essex  County, 
Mass.,  on  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  18  miles 
northeast  of  Boston,  and  on  the  line  of  the 
Boston  &  Maine  (Eastern)  Railroad.  It 
has  factories  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
women's  boots  and  shoes,  and  leather,  the 
largest  shoe  machinery  plant  in  the  country 
and  has  considerable  trade  in  fish.  It  pos- 
sesses a  good  harbor  and  has  a  share  in  the 
coasting  trade.  Here  is  located  the  New 
England  Institute  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb. 
Population,  20,679. 

Beyrout  (ba'root)  or  Beirut,  known  to 
the  ancients  as  Berytus,  is  a  commercial 
city  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  55  miles  from 
Damascus  and  147  from  Jerusalem.  It  is 
the  chief  seaport  and  market  town  for  all 
the  trade  on  the  shores  of  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine. British,  French  and  Egyptian  steam- 
ers maintain  a  regular  service,  carrying 
back  wool,  olive  oil,  gums  and  silk  in 
exchange  for  their  cargoes;  and  since  the 


BHUTAN 


209 


BIBLE 


opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  a  direct  eastern 
trade  in  spices,  coffee,  indigo  and  jute  has 
sprung  up.  The  first  line  of  omnibuses 
in  Syria  was  established  here  in  1859,  and 
water  works  and  gas  works  have  been  in- 
troduced by  European  companies.  A  Scot- 
tish school  for  Jews  and  the  Protestant 
Syrian  College  have  also  been  founded  here. 
The  American  Presbyterian  Mission  in 
Syria  has  its  headquarters  here.  Popula- 
tion, 150,000. 

Bhutan  or  Bhotan  (bb^-tdnr),  an  inde- 
pendent state,  in  the  Eastern  Himalayas, 
area  about  16,800  square  miles.  It  lies 
south  of  Tibet  and  north  of  Assam  and 
Bengal,  and  is  flanked  in  the  west  by  Sikkim 
and  Nepal.  Its  population  is  close  upon 
30,000,  and  its  capital  is  Punakha,  a  place 
of  much  natural  strength.  It  has  a  dual 
ruler,  Deb  Raja,  the  secular,  and  Dharin 
Raja,  the  spiritual,  head  of  the  state.  Its 
trade  is  chiefly  with  British  India,  its  main 
products  being  rice,  Indian  corn,  millet, 
musk,  chowries  and  silk.  Formerly  its 
native  tribes  were  given  to  aggress  on 
British  India,  but  this  was  put  a  stop  to, 
the  Bhutan  rulers  receiving  an  annual 
subsidy  from  the  Indian  government  con- 
ditional on  the  good  behavior  of  the  natives. 
The  latter  are  nominally  Buddhists,  but 
their  religious  exercise  consists  chiefly  in 
the  propitiation  of  evil  spirits  and  the 
recitation  of  verses  from  the  Tibetan  Scrip- 
tures. The  principal  monastery  in  Bhutan 
(lasichozong) ,  has  300  priests.  The  coun- 
try has  a  varied  cfimate  and  a  wide  range 
of  products. 

Bible.  The  word  Bible  comes  from  the 
Greek,  where  it  is  plural  and  means  the 
books:  books  that  stand  apart  from  and  in 
moral  worth  are  higher  than  all  other  books. 
The  Bible  consists  of  two  great  parts,  the  Old 
and  the  New  Testament — testament  mean- 
ing covenant,  a  covenant  between  God  and 
His  people.  The  Jews  had  a  threefold  divi- 
sion of  the  Old  Testament  into  the  Law,  the 
Prophets,  and  the  Sacred  Writings.  By  the 
Law,  they  meant  the  first  five  books,  called 
usually  the  Books  of  Moses  or  the  Pentateuch. 
Of  course,  law  is  not  the  only  thing  we  find 
here.  There  is  also  history,  from  the  story  of 
the  creation  in  Genesis  to  the  death  of  Moses 
in  Deuteronomy.  But  in  this  bed  of  history 
we  find  three  sets  of  law  or  codes;  the  Book 
of  the  Covenant  (Ex.  xx-xxiii).  which  seems 
to  have  been  followed  by  the  Israelites  till 
the  reign  of  Josiah;  Deuteronomy,  which  pre- 
vailed from  the  time  of  Josiah  to  the  exile; 
and  the  Priestly  Code  (Leviticus) ,  which  came 
to  be  looked  upon  as  authoritative  after  the 
Restoration, 

The  Jews  divided  the  Prophets  into  the 
former  prophets  and  the  latter  prophets.  By 
the  former  prophets,  they  meant  what  we 

5snerally  call  the  historical  books,  Joshua, 
udges,  Samuel,  and  Kings,  which  give  us 
the  sayings  of  the  great  prophet-statesmen, 


Sarrael,  Elijah,  and  Elisha,  though  they 
themselves  wrote  nothing.  With  the  Israel- 
ites ihe  sense  of  being  a  people  and  the  sense 
of  being  a  people  of  Jehovah  were  almost  one 
and  the  same,  and  this  is  one  reason  why  we 
find  so  much  history  in  the  Bible.  So  in  the 
Prophets,  as  in  the  Pentateuch,  we  find  his- 
tory; Joshua  to  Kings  being  really  one  work, 
setting  forth  the  fortunes  of  the  people  from 
the  conquest  of  Canaan  to  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem. 

The  latter  prophets  are  divided  into  the 
greater  prophets,  Isaiah.  Jeremiah,  and  Eze- 
Kiel;  and  the  minor  prophets,  the  twelve 
smaller  books.  The  prophets  made  predic- 
tions, but  this  was  not  all  their  work.  They 
were  sent  usually  to  guide  the  people  in  great 
crises.  Amos  and  Hosea  came  before  the 
fall  of  Samaria,  Isaiah  during  the  great  strug- 
gle with  Assyria,  and  Jeremiah  before  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem.  The  Sacred  Writings 
include  books  of  poetry — Psalms,  Prov- 
erbs, Ecclesiastes,  Lamentations  and  the  Song 
of  Songs;  books  of  history — Chronicles, 
Ruth,  Esther,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  one  pro- 
phet, Daniel.  That  the  Psalms  are  true 
poetry  no  one  will  deny;  yet  there  is  no  ac- 
cent, or  counting  of  syllables,  no  rhyme  or 
rhythm.  The  one  thing  that  makes  the 
Psalms  the  finest  religious  poetry  in  the 
world  is  what  is  called  parallelism ;  that  is,  an 
arrangement  in  couplets  or  pairs,  the  second 
line  repeating  or  contrasting  the  thought  of 
the  first.  There  is  much  poetry  outside  of 
the  poetical  books,  and  the  oldest  piece  of 
writing  in  the  Bible  is  a  song,  that  of  Debo- 
rah (judges  v). 

Running  all  through  the  Old  Testament 
we  find  hints,  passages,  and  whole  discourses 
showing  that  Jehovah  had  promised  the  peo- 
ple a  deliverer  out  of  all  their  troubles,  who 
was  to  be  known  as  the  Messiah.  It  is  these 
Messianic  prophecies,  as  they  are  called, 
more  than  anything  else,  that  bind  the  Old 
Testament  to  the  New  Testament,  which 
tells  of  a  new  co/enant,  through  Christ  the 
Messiah. 

The  New  Testament  begins  with  four  ac- 
counts of  Christ  by  his  followers,  called  the 
Gospels  The  authors  of  the  first  and  fourth, 
Matthew  and  John,  were  themselves  disci- 
ples, while  the  other  two  gospels  were  writ- 
ten by  Mark,  a  follower  of  Peter,  and  Luke 
a  companion  of  Paul.  The  A ct s  of  the  Apos- 
tles tells  of  the  planting  of  the  church.  Then 
follow  twenty-one  letters  of  the  Apostles — 
personal  letters,  as  the  epistles  to  Timothy, 
and  letters  to  the  churches  that  sprang  up 
as  the  Apostles  went  preaching  from  town 
to  town  and  from  country  to  country.  Christ 
uttered  prophecies,  but  the  one  prophetical 
book  in  the  New  Testament  is  the  Revela- 
tion of  St.  John. 

The  Old  Testament  was  written  in  He- 
brew on  skins,  linen  cloth,  or  papyrus  and 
kept  in  rolls.  The  first  draft  of  Matthew 
seems  to  have  been  in  Hebrew,  but  was 


B1CHAT 


210 


BIERSTADT 


translated  into  Greek,  in  which  language  were 
written  the  other  New  Testament  books,  as 
the  Greek  tongue  was  read  and  understood 
throughout  the  Roman  world.  In  modern 
times  translations  have  been  made  into  all 
spoken  languages.  The  first  English  ver- 
sion was  Wichfs  Bible  (1382).  Tindale's 
New  Testament  was  the  earliest  printed  ver- 
sion, and  Miles  Coverdale  brought  out  the 
first  complete  English  Bible  in  1535.  Other 
editions  followed:  the  Great  Bible,  brought 
out  through  the  efforts  of  the  Protector 
Cromwell;  the  Geneva  Bible,  through  the 
English  refugees  at  Geneva  in  the  reign  of 
Mary;  the  Bishop* 's  Bible,  superintended  by 
Archbishop  Parker;  the  New  Testament  at 
Rheims,  and  the  Old  Testament  at  Douai,  by 
the  English  Catholic  College.  The  King 
James  or  Authorized  Version  appeared  in 
1 6 1 1 ,  the  work  of  six  committees  of  scholars. 
The  Revised  Version,  the  joint  work  of  Eng- 
lish and  American  scholars,  appeared,  the 
New  Testament  in  1880,  and  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  1884.  The  most  famous  version  in 
a  foreign  language  is  the  German  Bible  of 
Luther,  finished  in  1534. 

Bichat  (b$'shd'),  Marie  Francois  Xa- 
vier  (1771-1802),  a  very  talented  anatomist 
and  physiologist  who  made  an  epoch  by 
studying  the  tissues  and  thereby  founding 
modern  histology  (q.  v.).  He  is  regarded 
by  Buckle  as  a  greater  man  than  Cuvier. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  thirty-one,  worn  out 
by  too  severe  application  to  study  and  re- 
search. 

Bicycle  (bVsi-kl) ,  a  machine,  as  the  name 
shows,  for  riding  with  two  wheels,  moved  by 
pressing  the  feet  on  pedals.  The  first  two- 
wheeled  "  cycle' '  was  called  the  "  dandy 
horse,"  and  was  moved  by  kicking  the  feet, 
one  after  the  other,  into  the  ground,  and 
then  holding  them  up  until  the  dandy  horse 
stopped,  when  the  process  was  repeated. 
The  first  practical  bicycles  were  made  in 
England  in  1869,  of  wood  and  iron,  and  were 


BICYCLE 

fitly  called  "bone-shakers."  The  invention 
oy  an  Englishman  soon  after  of  the  rubber 
tire  and  steel  frame  made  the  modern  bicy- 
cle. The  old  high-wheeled  bicycle,  with  its 
tendency  to  "headers"  was  soon  laid  aside 
for  the  convenient  "safety,"  which  is  now  in 
most  common  use.  The  pneumatic  tire, 
ball  bearings,  which  greatly  reduce  fric- 
tion, the  evolution  of  the  chainless  wheel 


and  other  improvements,  together  with  a 
large  reduction  in  cost,  made  the  bicycle  a 
popular  and  expeditious  means  of  travel  and 
recreation  for  old  and  young  of  both  sexes 
and  all  classes.  "  Cycling  clubs "  became 
popular  and  long  tours  were  made  with  ease. 
While  bicycling  as  a  sport  has  largely  died 
out,  the  wheel  is  still  widely  used  as  a  prac- 
tical and  convenient  means  of  locomotion. 

Biddeford,  Me.,  a  town  in  York  County, 
Me.,  on  the  Saco  River,  and  opposite  Saco 
Falls,  six  miles  from  the  Atlantic  and  15 
miles  southwest  of  Portland.  The  town  was 
settled  early  in  the  1 7th  century,  was  incor- 
porated in  1718,  and  became  a  city  in  1855, 
The  city  has  excellent  water  power,  and  as  a 
result  is  a  manufacturing  center.  Among 
the  leading  products  are  lumber,  boots, 
shoes,  machinery  and  also  the  extensive 
manufacturing  of  cotton  cloth  and  leather 
tanning.  The  vicinity  of  the  city  is  rich  in 
good  granite,  and  the  export  of  this  fine 
building  stone  adds  considerably  to  the  in- 
dustrial wealth  of  its  people.  Biddeforu  has 
an  excellent  school  system  and  a  high  school 
building  erected  at  a  cost  of  $50,000,  a  fine 
public  library  and  daily,  weekly  and  monthly 
papers.  Population,  17,079. 

Bien'nials,  plants  which  endure  through 
two  growing  seasons.  See  DURATION. 

Bienville  (by  an' v  el'"),  Jean  Baptiste, 
Sieur  de,  French  governor  of  Louisiana,  was 
born  in  Montreal,  Canada,  in  1680,  and  died 
in  France  in  1768.  With  his  brother,  Iber- 
ville  and  a  few  settlers  from  old  and  new 
France,  Bienville  erected  a  fort  in  1699  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  was  for 
many  years  director  of  the  colony,  and  sub- 
sequently governor  of  Louisiana.  Quarrel- 
ing with  La  Salle,  the  royal  commissioner, 
Bienville  was  for  a  time  deposed  from  office 
and  recalled  to  France,  but  was  afterward 
reinstated.  When  Law's  Mississippi  com- 
pany was  formed,  Bienville  moved  his  head- 
quarters to  New  Orleans  in  1718,  and 
founded  the  town.  Later  on,  having  un- 
dertaken unsuccessful  expeditions  against 
the  Chickasaw  Indians,  he  was  removed 
from  the  governorship,  and  in  1743  returned 
to  France.  He  published  the  code  r.oir 
(black  code) ,  which  remained  in  force  in  the 
colony  until  Louisiana  was  purchased  by 
the  United  States.  The  code  was  rather 
vigorous  in  its  provisions,  as  not  only  did  it 
regulate  the  condition  of  the  slaves,  but  ban- 
ished Jews  from  the  colony,  and  banned 
every  religion  save  that  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church. 

Bierstadt  (bSr'stat),  Albert,  an  emi- 
nent American  artist,  was  born  near  Dus- 
seldorf,  Germany,  in  1830.  His  parents 
emigrated  to  the  United  States  when  he 
was  two  years  old,  but  he  returned  when 
older  and  spent  several  years  in  study 
in  his  native  city.  In  1858  he  visited  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  first  result 
of  his  visit  was  his  sketch  of  Lander's  Peak, 


BIG   BLACK  RIVER 


211 


BILLINGS 


which  attracted  special  notice  in  the  Paris 
exposition  of  1867.  Upon  this  picture 
and  upon  his  other  landscapes  his  fame 
mainly  rests.  Other  works  are  the  Domes 
of  the  Yosemite,  Laramie  Peak,  Emigrants 
Crossing  the  Plains,  Mi.  Hood  and  Mt. 
Whitney.  In  1873  ne  visited  the  Pacific 
Coast  and  painted  a  series  of  pictures  of 
that  region.  His  house  and  studio  at  Irving- 
ton,  N.  Y.,  were  burned  in  1882.  For- 
tunately some  of  his  best  pictures  were  on 
exhibition  in  New  York  city  at  the  time 
and  so  were  saved.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  St.  Peters- 
burg. His  death  occurred  in  1902. 

Big  Black  River,  a  river  of  Mississippi, 
is  about  200  miles  long  and  flows  into  the 
Mississippi.  It  is  navigable  for  boats  for 
fifty  miles,  and  is  bordered  by  rich  cotton 
plantations  for  most  of  its  length. 

Big  Horn  River,  the  largest  branch  of  the 
Yellowstone,  rises  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains in  the  northwest  part  of  Wyoming, 
where  it  is  called  the  Wind  River.  It  en- 
ters the  Yellowstone  at  Big  Horn  city,  in 
Montana,  and  is  about  350  miles  in  length. 

Big  Sandy  River  flows  into  the  Ohio 
and  forms  the  boundary  between  Kentucky 
and  West  Virginia.  Steamboats  navigate 
it  for  a  hundred  miles.  The  timber  and 
coal  along  its  valley  are  very  valuable. 

Bigelow  (big'e-ld),  John,  American  jour- 
nalist and  author,  was  born  at  Maiden, 
N.  Y.,  November  25,  1817.  He  graduated 
at  Union  College  in  1835,  and  for  a  time 
practiced  law,  but  afterward  deserted  it 
for  journalism.  In  the  fifties  he  was  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  New  York  Evening 
Post,  and  in  the  following  decade  was 
consul,  and  subsequently  (1864-67)  United 
States  minister  to  France.  In  1875-77 
he  was  secretary  of  the  state  of  New  York. 
His  writings  include  Lives  of  Fremont  and 
W m.  Cullen  Bryant;  France  and  Hereditary 
Monarchy;  and  a  History  (in  French)  of 
The  United  States  of  America  in  1863. 
He  also  edited  Franklin's  Autobiography  and 
His  Works  and  the  Speeches  of  Samuel  J. 
Tilden.  He  died  Dec.  19,  1911. 

Billiards,  an  indoor  pastime  of  great 
popularity,  calling  for  the  exercise  in 
playing  the  game  not  only  of  a  quick  eye 
but  also  of  a  steady  hand  and  delicate 
touch,  besides  good  judgment  in  estimating 
the  strength  of  stroke  necessary  to  good 
billiard  playing,  in  addition  to  proficiency 
in  the  use  of  the  cue,  with  which  the  game 
is  played,  and  correctness  and  accuracy 
of  aim.  Not  much  definitely  is  known  of 
the  origin  of  the  game,  though  it  would 
appear  to  have  been  played  in  many  parts 
of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages,  in  the 
1 5th  century  in  France,  and  later  on  in 
England.  About  the  year  1565  it  would 
seem  to  have  been  introduced  on  this 
continent  by  Spaniards  residing  in  Florida. 
The  game  is  played  with  two  white  balls 


propelled  by  ivory-tipped  cues  or  staffs 
usually  well-chalked,  in  the  hands  of  the 
players,  on  an  oblong  rectangular  table, 
with  a  cloth  or  baize  covering  over  its  slate 
bed,  the  table  having  vulcanized  cushions 
round  its  inner  sides,  so  that  the  balls 
when  they  strike  the  sides  may  rebound 
from  it  in  the  player's  design  to  strike 
not  only  his  opponent's  white  ball,  but 
the  red  ball  placed  in  position  on  a  small 
black  spot  at  the  head  of  the  table  bed, 
and  in  the  center  of  it.  The  players  may 
be  two  or  more  in  number  on  each  side. 
In  Great  Britain  the  tables  are  generally 
furnished  with  six  pockets  at  the  four 
corners  and  on  either  side,  the  players 
commonly  using  four  balls;  while  in  France 
and  in  this  country  the  game  is  played 
with  three  balls,  and  on  a  table  without 
pockets.  The  balls,  which  are  of  ivory  2$ 
inches  in  diameter,  are  propelled  by  a  cue, 
made  of  maple  or  ash  wood  4^  to  5  feet  in 
length,  the  diameter  at  the  butt  end  aver- 
aging ij  inches  tapering  to  a  point  at  the 
delivery  end  of  fromf  ths  to  a  J-inch  in  diam- 
eter. Balk-lines  are  frequently  marked  on 
the  billiard  table,  in  championship  games 
14  and  sometimes  18  inches  from  the  sides 
and  top  and  bottom,  to  give  increased 
interest  to  the  matches  and  calling  for 
higher  skill  in  playing  games.  In  play- 
ing the  game  the  lead  off  is  determined 
by  what  is  called  banking.  The  several 
players  take  their  stand  at  the  foot  of  the 
table,  and  each  strikes  his  ball  in  turn  with 
such  force  as  to  send  it  to  the  head  or  far 
end  of  the  table  and  back  again,  the  player 
whosa  ball  lands  nearest  the  foot  or  near 
cushion  being  declared  winner.  The  game 
is  begun  by  placing  the  red  ball  on  the 
marked  spot  at  the  head  of  the  table, 
while  the  white  ball  of  the  player  who  has 
lost  the  bank  is  placed  on  the  spot  at  the 
near  end.  In  opening  the  game  the  player 
must  strike  his  opponent's  white  ball  be- 
fore striking  any  other  with  his  own  ball. 
A  shot  is  made  when  the  player  strikes 
his  ball  so  that  it  shall  hit  the  two  object 
balls;  and  he  continues  to  play  until  he 
fails  in  this,  when  it  is  his  opponent's 
turn  to  play.  For  other  details  of  the  game, 
see  any  good  work  on  billiards;  also,  see 
the  important  contemporary  almanacs  of 
the  year  for  records  of  notable  matches 
and  championship  tournaments. 

Billings,  Montana,  a  city,  the  county 
seat  of  Yellowstone  County,  on  the  Yellow- 
stone River,  about  236  miles  east  by  south 
of  Helena,  and  reached  by  the  Northern 
Pacific,  Great  Northern  and  Chicago,  Bur- 
lington &  Quincy.  It  is  the  center  of  a  large 
live  stock,  sheep  raising  and  agricultural 
region,  having  considerable  trade  in  the 
shipment  of  live  stock  and  an  extensive 
export  of  wool.  In  its  neighborhood  are 
important  mineral  deposits,  chiefly  of 
coal,  limestone  and  marble.  Among  its 


BILL  OF  RIGHTS 


212 


BIOLOGY 


public  buildings,  besides  a  city  hall  and 
court  house,  are  a  public  library  and  an 
opera  house.  Population,  15,000. 

Bill  of  Rights.  This  name  is  com- 
monly given  to  the  declarations  of  the 
rights  of  citizens  which  are  prefixed  to  the 
constitutions  of  most  of  the  states  of  the 
Union.  It  is  also  given  to  the  first  ten 
amendments  to  the  U.  S.  constitution 
proposed  by  the  first  constitutional  con- 
gress and  adopted  in  1791  by  the  states. 
The  original  bill  of  rights  was,  however,  an 
English  act  of  Parliament  which  summed 
up  the  results  of  the  revolution  which 
had  placed  William  and  Mary  on  the  throne. 
This  bill  of  1689  made  it  illegal  for  the 
crown  to  suspend  the  laws,  levy  money 
without  the  consent  of  parliament,  or 
keep  a  standing  army  in  time  of  peace. 
It  also  declared  the  rights  of  citizens  to 
impartial  and  not  over-severe  justice, 
frequent  parliaments,  carrying  arms  for 
self-defense,  free  elections"  and  petition 
to  the  king.  To  this  bill  of  rights  was 
added  an  act  for  the  settlement  of  the 
crown  upon  William  and  Mary  and  their 
children;  and  next  upon  Anne  and  her 
children. 

Bimetallism.  The  system  of  money 
which  admits  both  gold  and  silver  to 
coinage  at  a  fixed  relative  value,  and 
which  regards  them  as  having  the  same 
legal-tender  value  is  called  Bimetallism. 
Up  to  the  time  of  the  Civil  War,  the  bimetal- 
lic system  was  the  legal  system  in  the 
United  States.  In  1873  "the  gold  standard 
was  recognized  by  law.  Silver  coins  are 
used,  but  are  not  coined  upon  the  same 
terms  as  gold,  and  not  all  of  them  have 
the  same  legal-tender  value  as  gold,  hence 
the  system  is  not  bimetallic.  It  is  claimed 
by  the  adherents  of  bimetallism  that  if 
a  definite  ratio  of  value  were  established 
by  law  between  gold  and  silver  that  (i) 
the  exchanges  between  nations  would  be 
simplified,  and  (2)  that  the  price  of  com- 
modities would  fluctuate  less,  since  the 
fluctuations  in  the  prices  of  the  latter  are, 
so  it  is  claimed,  associated  with  the  fluctua- 
tions m  the  value  of  silver.  The  question 
of  bimetallism  was  the  great  issue  in  the 
presidential  campaign  of  1896,  and  the 
candidate  who  advocated  that  theory 
was  defeated.  Since  that  time  discoveries 
of  gold  in  great  quantities  have  relieved 
the  financial  situation  to  such  an  extent 
that  a  change  in  the  money  standard  is 
not  urged  with  the  same  earnestness  as 
formerly. 

Bingen  (blng'en),  a  picturesque  old 
town  of  Germany,  on  the  Rhine,  in  the 
grand  duchy  of  Hesse-Darmstadt.  Popu- 
lation of  the  commune,  8,187.  Neighbor- 
ing mountains,  crowned  with  ruins,  and 
an  old  bridge,  dating  back  to  the  era  of 
the  Romans,  increase  the  beauty  of  the 
place.  Below  the  town  is  the  famous 


Bingerloch  or  Bingen  Hole,  where  the 
Rhine  narrows  into  a  strait  between  tower- 
ing rocks.  Above  them,  rises  the  Mause- 
thurm  or  Mouse-tower  in  the  middle  of 
the  river,  where,  in  the  loth  century,  Bishop 
Hatto,  of  Metz,  collected  toll  from  all 

Eassing  vessels,  and  where  he  himself  was 
nally  eaten  alive  by  mice  atti  acted  to 
the  tower  by  the  grain  he  had  stored  away 
in  a  time  of  famine.  In  popular  legend 
it  was  near  Bingen  that  the  treasure  of 
King  Nibelung,  which  gave  its  name  to 
the  Nibelungen-Lied,  was  sunk  in  the 
Rhine. 

Bing'hamton,  the  county  seat  of  Broome 
County,  N.  Y.,  lies  on  both  sides  of  the 
Susquehanna  River,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Chenango  River,  and  both  rivers  are  spanned 
by  several  bridges.  It  is  an  important  rail- 
road town,  and  has  more  than  300  manufac- 
turing establishments,  the  leading  ones  being 
furniture,  glass,  gloves,  scales,  leather, 
boots,  shoes  and  cigars.  It  takes  third 
rank  in  the  U.  S.  n  the  last  named  indus- 
try. Among  its  noted  buildings  are  the 
U.  S.  government  building,  the  state 
armory,  the  state  insane  asylum,  two 
orphan  asylums,  etc.  The  use  of  an- 
thracite coal  has  kept  the  city  clean  and 
free  from  smoke,  earning  it  th-j  title  of  the 
parlor  city.  Population  55,901. 

Biology,  a  subject  of  great  interest  and 
importance,  not  only  to  scholars  and 
medical  men,  but  to  all  intelligent  people 
who  care  for  living  nature.  All  questions 
in  regard  to  the  living  world  belong  here. 
An  animal  or  plant  is  wonderfully  con- 
structed, but,  after  all,  the  most  wonder- 
ful thing  about  it  is  that  it  is  endowed 
with  life.  While  it  is  interesting  to  ob- 
serve the  structure  of  animals  and  plants,  it 
is  even  more  interesting  to  learn  the  pur- 
pose of  the  structure  and  to  determine 
what  is  taking  place  within  their  bodies, 
what  has  been  their  past  history,  how  they 
behave  in  reference  to  their  surroundings, 
etc.  This  is,  of  course,  very  difficult;  it 
requires  observations  with  and  without 
the  microscope,  experiments,  and  the  use 
of  the  best  powers  of  the  mind. 

Biology  is  an  attempt  to  analyze  the 
activities  of  life  and  finally,  if  possible,  to 
give  an  explanation  of  the  same.  It  is 
one  of  the  natural  sciences  and  is  related 
to  many  branches  of  learning.  It  is  easily 
separated  from  physics  and  chemistry, 
both  of  which  deal  with  lifeless  matter, 
but  is  is  closely  connected  with  natural 
history,  medicine,  physiology,  botany,  zool- 
ology,  psychology  and  with  many  affairs 
of  eyery-day  life. 

Biology  in  its  modern  sense  is  of  recent 
origin.  It  is  customary  to  consider  it  as 
having  taken  rise  about  1860,  but  in  order 
to  understand  the  reason  for  this  way  of 
looking  at  the  matter,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  trace  the  growth  of  the  subject.  It  is 


BIOLOGY 


213 


BIOLOGY 


a  long  story,  reaching  over  several  cen- 
turies, but  it  can  be  briefly  told. 

Among  the  ancient  Greeks  observations 
directly  upon  animals  and  plants  led  to 
many  facts  of  natural  history.  Aristotle 
(384-322  B.  C.)  is  the  best  representative 
of  the  knowledge  of  his  time  about  life. 
But  after  a  few  centuries  the  mind  of  man- 
kind was  turned  away  from  nature.  In 
due  course  of  time,  there  was  a  complete 
arrest  of  inquiry  into  all  things  relating 
to  the  external  world. 

During  this  period,  other  branches  of 
learning  might  make  a  little  advance,  but 
the  knowledge  of  nature  suffered  the  most, 
because  we  cannot  know  anything  about 
natural  phenomena  without  turning  the 
mind  outward  and  making  direct  observa- 
tions upon  the  external  world  Therefore, 
it  was  an  epoch  of  great  importance  when 
men  began  again  to  observe,  to  use  their 
eyes,  and  to  turn  to  the  great  world  of 
nature  outside  themselves.  The  men  who 
started  independent  observations  deserve 
much  credit,  for  the  authorities  of  both 
church  and  state  were  unfriendly  to  unbiased 
inquiry,  and  they  went  against  every 
motive  of  self-interest  in  becoming  pioneers 
in  the  new  intellectual  life.  Vesalius  (see 
ANATOMY),  Galileo  and  Descartes  were 
among  the  reformers  in  the  i6th  century, 
and  in  the  i7th  century  the  work  of  Mal- 
pighi,  Swammerdam  and  Leeuwenhoek  is 
worthy  of  especial  mention.  Their  great 
work  consisted  chiefly  in  this,  that  "they 
broke  away  from  the  thraldom  of  book- 
learning,  and,  relying  alone  upon  their  own 
eyes  and  their  own  judgment,  won  for  man 
that  which  had  been  quite  lost,  the  bless- 
ing of  independent  and  unbiased  observa- 
tion." 

Thus  awoke  again  the  good  spirit  of  in- 
quiry and  thereby  the  foundations  of 
modern  science  were  laid.  When  atten- 
tion was  turned  to  animals  and  plants,  the 
first  things  noticed  were,  of  course,  the 
simplest  and  most  obvious :  external  form, 
color,  habits.  This  is  the  period  in  which 
the  organism  was  studied  as  a  whole,  for 
each  plant  and  animal  is  an  organism. 
The  naturalist  of  the  time  knew  relatively 
little  about  the  internal  structure  of  animals 
and  plants  but  many  general  facts  about 
them.  Linnaeus  and  Ray  represent  this 
level  of  knowledge.  For  them,  the  study 
of  nature  consisted  in  observing  and  col- 
lecting widely,  grouping  or  classifying 
animals  and  plants,  learning  about  their 
habits,  etc.  Linnaeus  made  an  epoch  by 
introducing  a  method  of  naming  plants 
and  animals  by  giving  to  each  two  names — 
a  generic  and  a  specific  name.  This  made 
knowledge  more  definite.  He  used  Latin, 
wh;ch  was  the  language  of  science,  and,  as 
his  method  was  universally  adopted,  the 
same  name  same  to  apply  to  the  same 
animal  or  plant  in  afl  countries.  This 


directed  the  attention  of  naturalists  to 
species  or  particular  kinds,  and  thereby 
prepared  the  way  for  the  discussion  of  the 
origin  of  species,  w/rch  is  the  fundamental 
question  in  the  doctrine  of  organic  evolution. 

But  another  advance  was  to  come.  The 
next  natural  step  after  the  study  of  the  or- 
ganism as  a  whole  was  to  think  of  its 
architecture  or  the  way  in  which  it  is  con- 
structed. Men  began,  therefore,  to  ob- 
serve the  organs  or  parts  that  are  united 
together  to  make  up  animals  and  plants. 
This  was  a  study  of  internal  structure. 
The  construction  of  animals  was  studied 
very  widely  and  they  were  compared  with 
one  another,  so  that  there  arose  the  new 
science  of  comparative  anatomy  (see 
ANATOMY)  of  which  Georges  Cuvier  (1769- 
1832)  was  the  founder.  Similar  work  was 
done  for  plants  by  Jussieu.  But  knowl- 
edge of  nature  was  becoming  so  much  ex- 
tended that  it  was  necessarily  subdivided, 
and  investigations  into  the  uses  of  the 
organs  were  being  made  by  physiologists 
like  Haller  and  J.  Miiller  (see  PHYSIOLOGY) 
at  the  same  time  that  structure  was  being 
studied  by  the  anatomists. 

The  next  step  was  based  on  the  obser- 
vation that  organs  are  composed  of  simpler 
parts  called  tissues.  Ofter  several  differ- 
ent kinds  of  tissue  will  unite  into  one  organ ; 
for  example,  the  heart  is  not  all  muscle 
but  connective  tissue  and  nerves  enter 
into  it;  the  walls  of  the  stomach  also  con- 
tain glands,  muscles,  nerves,  connective 
tissue,  etc.,  all  united  to  form  the  one  or- 
gan— the  stomach.  The  leaf  of  a  plant 
is  not  all  one  kind  of  tissue,  but  several 
different  kinds  enter  into  it.  We  are  thus 
approaching  step  by  step  the  finer  structure 
or  living  beings.  Bichat  (1771-1802)  studied 
the  tissues  extensively,  and  at  the  beginning 
of  the  1 9th  century  laid  the  foundation  of 
microscopic  anatomy  or  histology. 

The  next  step  was  based  upon  the  per- 
fection of  the  microscope.  This  instru- 
ment had  been  introduced,  in  a  crude  form, 
into  natural  history  in  the  i7th  century, 
and  had  opened  a  new  world  to  naturalists. 
About  1840  great  improvements  were 
made  in  manufacturing  the  magnifying 
glasses  for  the  microscope,  and  observers 
began  gradually  to  see  that  the  tissues  are 
not  the  simplest  parts  of  animals  and 
plants,  but  that  tissues  are  composed 
of  very  small  units  or  particles,  brought 
together  and  built  into  the  tissues  as  bricks 
might  be  fitted  together  into  a  building. 
This  idea  took  definite  form  about  1839-40. 
principally  through  the  observations  of  two 
men,  Schleiden  and  Schwann.  The  for- 
mer was  a  botanist,  and  he  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  all  the  parts  of  plants  are 
built  of  little  box-like  compartments  or 
cells.  The  latter,  his  friend,  was  an  anatom- 
ist and  zoologist,  who,  from  his  studies 
with  the  microscope  on  animals,  reached 


BIOLOGY 


214 


BIOLOGY 


similar  conclusions.  This  great  discovery 
unites  all  animals  and  plants  on  a  broacl 
plane  of  similitude  of  structure.  It  is  known 
as  the  cell  theory,  and  ha~  done  much  to- 
ward unifying  the  knowledge  of  animals 
and  plants.  This,  taken  m  connection 
with  the  fact  that  all  animals  and  plants 
arise  from  a  single  cell,  has  great  meaning. 
The  discovery  that  the  egg  of  all  animals 
is  a  single  cell,  shows  that  the  starting- 
point  is  one  of  the  single  bricks  of  organic 
architecture,  which  by  successive  divisions 
gives  rise  to  all  the  others  that  enter  into  the 
construction.  Plants  also  proceed  from 
a  single  cell.  These  are  among  the  most 
remarkable  facts  in  all  nature.  In  its 
original  form,  however,  the  cell  theory 
was  very  imperfect.  Both  Schleiden  and 
Schwann  supposed  that  the  cell  wall  was 
important,  and  looked  upon  the  cells  as 
little  box-like  compartments.  This  had 
to  be  changed  by  later  students,  and  the 
cell  theory  was  reformed  and  modified  into 
the  protoplasm  theory. 

The  progress,  thus  far,  had  brought  out 
the  facts  that  cells  are  joined  to  make 
tissues,  the  tissues  to  make  organs,  and 
organs  to  make  the  organism,  but  there 
was  one  turther  step  to  be  taken  to  bring 
this  line  of  advance  to  its  proper  goal.  It 
was  soon  discovered  that  the  cell  wall  of 
cells  is  not  important,  but  that  the  jelly- 
like  viscid  fluid  within  is  the  substance 
that  is  actually  alive.  This  substance 
is  the  seat  of  all  life  and  is  called  proto- 
plasm (see  PROTOPLASM).  We  see  that 
observations  began  on  the  outside  and  led 
by  a  series  of  steps  to  the  true  seat  of  life, 
just  as  a  flight  of  stairs  uncovered  by  some 
good  genii  in  the  old  fairy  tales,  led  from 
the  surface  to  a  treasure  cavern,  but  it 
took  a  good  many  years  for  naturalists  to 
take  each  step.  Max  Schultze,  in  1860, 
placed  the  ideas  about  protoplasm  on  a 
firm  base's,  and  from  that  time  dates  modern 
biology,  which  is  all  about  this  living  sub- 
stance—what it  is  like  in  its  various  mani- 
festations, what  it  is  doing,  and  what  it 
has  done  in  the  world. 

Therefore,  a  great  deal  of  the  work  of 
the  biologist  is  the  study  of  this  living  sub- 
stance _at  first  hands.  He  can  place  under 
his  microscope  the  simplest  plants  and 
animals,  and  if  they  are  translucent  enough 
to  let  the  light  through,  he  can  see  many 
things  that  are  taking  place  within  the 
protoplasm.  One  of  the  common  organ- 
isms of  great  interest  to  biologists  is  the 
amoeba — a  simple  microscopic  particle  of 
living  jelly  in  which  the  processes  of  life 
are  reduced  to  their  simplest  expression, 
and  it  meets  all  the  requirements  for  ob- 
servation. This  organism  is  really  an 
animal  and  a  single  cell,  and,  therefore,  it  lies 
near  the  bottom  of  the  animal  series. 

By  suitable  experiment  and  observa- 
tion it  can  be  shown  that  the  amoeba,  sim- 


ple as  it  appears,  is  really  verv  complex, 
on  account  of  the  powers  and  activities 
which  it  exhibits  by  virtue  of  being  alive. 
A  list  or  catalogue  of  its  activities  will  be 
the  same  as  those  occurring  in  the  various 
tissues  and  organs  of  higher  animals.  There- 
fore, we  have  in  it  the  germ  of  all  the  activi- 
ties of  the  higher  creation.  Its  body  is  a 
little  mass  of  protoplasm,  and  anything 
determined  about  it  holds  good  for  pro- 
toplasm. This  substance  is  the  only  one 
in  the  world  that  is  endowed  with  life,  and 
biologists  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
it  is  practically  identical  in  plants  and 
animals,  but  at  the  same  time  exhibits  a 
wide  range  of  variations  and  differences, 
not  in  kind,  but  depending  on  the  degree 
of  perfection  and  specialization. 

Protoplasm  has  properties  which,  taken 
together,  distinguish  it  absolutely  from 
every  form  of  non-living  matter.  These 
are:  (i)  its  chemical  composition;  (2)  its 
power  of  waste  and  repair  and  of  growth; 
(3)  its  power  of  reproduction.  Other  sub- 
stances are  simpler  in  composition  than 
protoplasm,  in  fact,  it  is  the  most  complex 
substance  in  the  universe.  Common  chem- 
ical elements  like  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  enter 
into  it,  but  they  are  combined  in  a  very  much 
more  complex  manner  than  in  any  other 
substance,  and  they  are  all  present  at  the 
same  time.  Living  matter  is  also  con- 
tinually undergoing  a  process  of  breaking 
down,  by  a  sort  of  internal  combustion, 
and  making  good  the  loss  by  the  manu- 
facture of  new  protoplasm  out  of  the  simpler 
food  particles.  It  also  has  the  power  of 
growth,  and  "lastly,  living  matter  not  only 
thus  repairs  its  own  waste,  but  also  gives 
rise,  by  reproduction,  to  new  masses  of 
living  matter;  which,  becoming  detached 
from  the  parent  mass,  enter  forthwith 
upon  an  independent  existence." 

"We  may  perceive  how  extraordinary 
these  properties  are  by  supposing  a  locomo- 
tive engine  to  possess  like  powers:  to  carry 
on  a  process  of  self -rep  air  in  order  to  com- 
pensate for  wear;  to  grow  and  increase  in 
size,  detaching  from  itself  at  intervals  pieces 
of  brass  or  iron  endowed  with  the  power 
of  growing  up  step  by  step  into  other  loco- 
motives capable  of  running  themselves, 
and  of  reproducing  new  locomotives  in 
their  turn.  Precisely  these  things  are 
done  by  every  living  thing,  and  nothing 
like  them  takes  place  in  the  lifeless  world." 
— Sedgwick  and  Wilson,  General  Biology. 

The  higher  animals,  all  of  which  are 
many-celled  may  be  looked  upon  as  com- 
binations of  amoeba-like  elements,  variously 
modified  and  built  into  the  tissues.  In 
passing  from  the  condition  of  a  single  cell 
to  that  of  many  there  has  been  not  only 
an  increase  in  the  number  of  cells,  but 
there  has  been  also  a  physiological  division 
of  labor,  so  that  particular  groups  of  cells 


BIOLOGY 


215 


BIOLOGY 


have  been  set  apart  to  perform  a  certain 
particular  round  of  duties,  while  other 
cells  have  been  set  aside  for  other  work. 
For  example,  the  protoplasm  of  certain 
cells  has  become  very  contractile  and  forms 
the  muscles;  in  certain  ether  cells  the  pro- 
toplasm has  become  highly  irritable  and 
responsive,  and  makes  the  nervous  tissues; 
and  so  on  for  the  other  groups.  This  phys- 
iological division  of  labor  has  led  to  the 
different  tissues. 

Plants  show  very  nicely  the  gradations 
between  the  single-celled  and  the  many- 
celled  condition.  There  are  first  linear 
aggregates,  in  which  the  cells  are  united 
end  to  end  in  a  single  row.  The  next 
step  is  groups  of  cells  arranged  in  a  single 
layer  to  form  an  expanded  surface;  and 
finally  the  combination  of  cells  into  a  solid 
mass  having  length,  breadth  and  thick- 
ness. 

In  biology,  animals  and  plants  are  con- 
sidered from  a  variety  of  view-points:  as 
to  their  Structure,  or  the  way  in  which  they 
are  constructed  (see  ANATOMY);  as  to  their 
Development,  or  the  stages  through  which 
they  pass  from  the  egg  or  seed  to  the  adult 
(see  DEVELOPMENT)  ;  as  to  their  Physiology, 
or  the  uses  of  the  different  organs  and  the 
changes  that  are  taking  place  in  the  pro- 
toplasm of  the  tissues;  as  to  their  Distribu- 
tion. Biology  is,  therefore,  a  complex 
science,  and  is  the  result  of  the  concurrent 
progress  in  all  these  departments.  It  may 
be  likened  to  a  great  stream  into  which  a 
number  of  smaller  streams  have  united  to 
make  the  main  one,  and  it  contains  mixed 
together  the  product  of  all. 

The  main  divisions  of  biology  are,  of 
course,  greatly  subdivided;  for  example, 
under  structure,  we  might  consider  animals 
and  plants  in  reference  to  their  surround- 
ings, and  show  that  the  structural  pecu- 
liarities are  the  result  of  responses  to  the 
surrounding  conditions,  and  we  might 
further  show  how  likeness  in  structure  in- 
dicates relationship,  and  is  the  basis  upon 
which  animals  and  plants  are  classified  or 
arranged  into  systematic  groups.  More- 
over, development  and  physiology  are 
very  extensive  branches,  and  must  be 
divided  into  smaller  topics  for  practical 
consideration.  In  reference  to  the  dis- 
tribution of  animals  and  plants,  it  must 
be  said  that  it  takes  two  directions:  first, 
their  geographical  distribution,  and,  sec- 
ondly, their  distribution  in  time.  The  first 
will  be  clear  without  further  statement, 
but  the  second  requires  a  word.  We  know 
that  there  are  entombed  in  the  rocks  count- 
less numbers  of  animals  and  plants  that 
lived  centuries  ago  and  became  extinct. 
The  succession  of  life  in  the  rocks  is  very 
interesting,  beginning  as  it  does  with  the 
lowest  forms,  in  the  earliest  formed  rocks, 
and  passing  to  the  higher  ones  in  the  later 
formed  rocks.  In  this  succession  of  stages 


we  can  read  the  past  history  of  life  on  the 
earth,  and  this  has  helped  greatly  in  estab- 
lishing the  doctrine  of  organic  evolution. 

It  is  an  indefinite  line  that  separates 
biology  from  botany  and  zoSlogy.  Modern 
botany  and  zoology  embrace  all  that  is 
known  about  plants  and  animals  respect- 
i  ely,  but  the  plant  kingdom  and  the 
animal  kingdom  are  considered  separately. 
In  biology  the  facts  are  approached  from 
a  different  standpoint,  and  the  emphasis  is 
differently  placed.  The  phenomena  of  life 
are  brought  into  union  in  both  animals 
and  plants,  and  the  attention  is  especially 
directed  to  the  activities  of  protoplasm, 
and  its  responses  to  surrounding  conditions. 
General  biology  is  a  term  in  common  use 
to  indicate  the  consideration  of  certain 

feneral  facts  about  animals  and  plants, 
t  is  recognized  as  a  distinct  branch,  and 
frequently  studies  of  these  general  topics 
are  made  to  precede  studies  that  are  mainly 
botanical  on  the  one  hand,  or  mainly 
zoological  on  the  other. 

These  facts  should  make  clear  how  the 
department  of  biology  arose  and  what 
it  is  about;  but  before  leaving  the  sub- 
ject we  should  at  least  glance  at  its  igth 
century  features.  The  three  things  that 
most  distinctly  mark  biological  advance 
during  the  igth  century  are:  (i)  The 
cell-doctrine  (which  see), — the  discovery 
of  the  fact  that,  with  the  exception  of 
unicellular  forms,  plants  and  animals  are 
composed  of  groups  of  cells,  and  moreover, 
that  they  all  begin  their  existence  as  eggs 
or  ovules,  in  the  single-cell  condition. 

(2)  The    discovery    of    protoplasm    (which 
see),    and    the    recognition    of    the    r61e    it 
everywhere  plays  in  animal  and  plant  life. 

(3)  The   doctrine  of  organic   evolution,   or 
the  discovery  of  the  genealogy  of  animals 
and  plants. 

There  are  in  addition  other  things  to 
be  mentioned:  The  great  extension  of 
knowledge  in  reference  to  microbes  and 
bacteria  (which  see)  has  been  character- 
istic. Advances  in  this  direction  have 
led  to  the  discovery  of  the  nature  of  fer- 
mentation, of  decay,  to  the  germ  theory 
of  disease,  etc.;  and  have  also  brought 
in  their  train  an  unusual  number  of  prac- 
tical applications :  antiseptic  surgery,  the 
canning  of  fruits  and  meats,  infecting  in- 
sects with  disease  to  stop  the  ravages  of 
the  injurious  kinds;  and  also  the  protec- 
tion of  silk-worm  culture,  etc. 

The  growth  of  information  regarding 
the  development  of  animals  and  plants 
has  been  very  great,  and  has  been  turned 
to  account  in  reading  the  past  history  of 
life. 

The  question  of  the  spontaneous  origin 
of  life  was  revived  in  1858.  That  is  the 
belief  that  the  simplest  microscopic  forms 
of  life  are  sometimes  formed,  spontane- 
ously, from  lifeless  matter.  But  it  was 


BIRCH 


2XO 


BIRD  DA? 


again  answered  in  the  negative,  as  It  had 
been  in  the  i8th  century,  and  finally  it 
was  put  to  rest  through  the  work  of  Pas- 
teur, Tyndall  and  others. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  century  experi- 
ments on  living  forms  became  prominent. 
The  eggs,  the  larvae  and  the  older  stages 
have  been  placed  under  different  condi- 
tions of  temperature,  light,  food,  chemical 
and  mechanical  surroundings,  and  the 
effect  of  these  changes  watched.  Many 
important  facts  have  been  brought  to  light 
by  these  experiments. 

Biology  is  a  body  of  rapidly  expanding 
knowledge  of  intense  interest  o.nd  great 
service  to  mankind.  Much  was  accom- 
plished by  it  in  the  ipth  century,  but 
much  more  is  to  be  expected  in  the  aoth 
century. 

For  books  about  biology,  see  Sedgwick 
and  Wilson's  General  Biology,  Parker's 
Elementary  Biology  and  Thompson's  The 
Science  of  Life.  Additional  titles  will  be 
found  under  ANATOMY,  BOTANY,  ZOOLOGY. 
WM.  A.  LOCY. 

Birch,  species  of  the  genus  Betula, 
which  consists  of  trees  or  shrubs,  very 
widely  distributed  throughout  the  north 
temperate  regions.  The  birches  have  usu- 
ally a  bark  which  separates  in  thin  papery 
plates,  and  the  long  and  pendulous  cat- 
kins of  flowers  appearing  in  very  early 
spring  are  well  known.  They  grow  in 
North  America,  Europe,  North  and  Cen- 
tral Asia.  Bailey  states  that  no  tree 
grows  farther  north  than  the  birch.  The 
Dwarf  Birch  is  highly  valued  by  the  Lap- 
lander, furnishing  him  most  of  his  fuel, 
and  its  tiny  nut  furnishing  food  for  that 
bird  so  useful  to  the  Laplander,  the  ptar- 
migan. The  wood  of  many  birches  is 
inferior  owing  to  the  toughness  of  the 
bark  interfering  with  the  evaporation 
of  the  sap,  its  consequent  fermentation 
and  the  crumbling  of  the  wood.  It  makes 
excellent  fuel;  is  used  in  manufacture, 
and  is  employed  for  furniture  and  small, 
common  articles.  Of  the  bark  are  made 
baskets,  boxes,  and  that  of  the  Paper 
Birch  is  extensively  used  for  canoes;  a 
dye  is  also  made  of  it,  and  an  oil  which  is 
used  in  the  preparation  of  Russia  leather. 
A  number  of  birches  are  cultivated  as 
ornamental  trees,  the  weeping  birch  being 
extensively  planted  in  this  country.  They 
are  graceful  of  form,  fair  appearing  from 
bark  to  least  tremulous  leaf.  They  ate 
easily  propagated  by  seeds  and  grow 
rapidly. 

The  American  White  Birch  has  a  short 
life,  but  is  a»graceiul  tree  and  plucky  one, 
springing  up  in  deforested  land  and  aban- 
doned fields.  It  grows  south  as  far  as  Penn- 
sylvania. It  is  a  small  tree,  from  25  to 
45  feet  high,  the  bark  smooth  and  white, 
not  readily  peeling;  foliage  tremulous; 
dark  green,  triangular  leaves,  turning  yel- 


low in  autumn.  Recently  the  wood  has 
come  into  value,  found  useful  as  wood 
pulp,  for  shoe-pegs  and  spools. 

The  Canoe  Birch  or  Paper  Birch  is  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  picturesque  of  the 
birches,  and  is  widely  distributed  through- 
out our  northern  states.  It  usually  grows 
to  a  height  of  from  60  to  80  feet,  some- 
times reaches  to  120  feet;  its  bark  a  con- 
spicuous chalky  white,  which  tears  off 
readily  in  horizontal  sheets.  The  leaves 
are  large  and  broadly  ovate.  This,  as 
the  name  suggests,  is  the  tree  so  friendly 
to  the  Indians,  giving  them  bark  for  their 
famous  canoes,  for  their  shelters,  and  for 
their  household  utensils,  giving  them  fuel 
that  quickly  crackled  and  flamed;  even 
giving  them  food,  they  making  this  use  of 
the  layer  between  wood  and  bark  (cam- 
bium). 

"And  the  tree  with  all  its  branches 
Rustled  in  the  breeze  of  morning, 
Saying  with  a  sigh  cf  patience: 
'Take  my  cloak,  O  Hiawatha!'  " 

The  Indians  to-day  .still  make  canoes 
of  birch  bark,  baskets  and  various  other 
articles  thereof.  The  bark,  as  is  well 
known,  tears  off  in  thin  sheets  of  several 
layers,  the  thinner  ones  being  frequently 
used  as  letter  paper,  a  use  of  birch  bark 
going  back  to  ancient  times.  The  peeling 
of  the  bark  by  careless  hands,  cutting  too 
deep,  results  in  the  loss  of  many  goodly 
trees,  whose  far-gleaming  white  columns 
have  proved  their  undoing. 

The  Cherry  Birch  is  a  comely  and  useful 
tree  also  known  as  Sweet  Birch  and  as  Black 
Birch.  It  grows  from  50  to  80  feet  high,  and 
is  noted  for  its  grace.  The  bark  is  dark 
brown,  the  leaves,  from  two  to  five  inches  long, 
are  oblongovate.  Early  in  the  spring  the 
Black  Birch  is  all  aglow  with  yellow  catkins, 
is  golden  in  the  fall,  and  in  the  summer  bears 
an  abundance  of  glossy  foliage.  In  the  spring 
the  wintergreen  flavor  of  the  saplings  is  very 
pleasant.  The  sap  is  made  into  birch  beer, 
and  from  the  inner  bark  are  obtained  salicylic 
acid  and  wintergreen  oil.  The  hard,  strong 
wood,  of  good  red-brown  color,  is  used  for 
furniture,  and  for  wheel  hubs  and  fuel.  The 
range  of  the  tree  is  from  Newfoundland  to 
Ontario,  south  to  Florida,  Tennessee  and 
Kansas.  Other  varieties  are  the  Yellow  or 
Gray  Birch  and  the  Red  or  River  Birch.  See 
Bailey:  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Horticulture 
and  The  Tree  Book  by  Julia  E.  Rogers. 

Bird  Day,  a  day  set  apart  for  the  pur- 
pose of  interesting  boys  and  girls  in  wild 
birds  and  in  bird  protection.  The  idea 
of  Bird  Day  originated  with  Professor 
C.  A.  Babcock  of  Oil  City,  Pa.,  in  1894. 
Bird  day  was  observed  in  Oil  City  in  1895. 
In  some  states  Arbor  and  Bird  Day  are  ob- 
served as  a  single  festival. 

Bird  Protection,  nature  lovers  had  long 
been  working  for  federal  protection  of  birds, 
but  the  first  distinct  bird  reservation  was 


BIRDS 


BIRDS'  NESTS 


made  in  1903  at  Pelican  Island,  Fla.  Since 
then  many  others  have  been  added  and  a 
national  law  passed  for  the  protection  of 
migratory  birds.  In  1916  a  treaty  with 
Canada  brought  the  hunting  season  and  pro- 
tection afforded  in  the  two  countries  into  agree- 
ment. 

Birds*  a  natural  class  of  vertebrates. 
Other  groups  of  equal  value  are  Fishes, 
Amphibia,  Reptilia  and  Mammals,  each  of 
which  is  called  a  class.  Birds  are  distinguished 
from  all  other  animals  in  that  they  possess 
feathers.  They  moult  or  change  the  feathers 
once  a  year.  They  are  warm-blooded  animals 
with  a  four-chambered  heart;  their  lungs  are 
connected  with  air-sacs,  and  the  bones  are 
often  hollow  with  spaces  which  are  connected 
with  the  air-sacs,  to  make  them  light  for 
flight.  Living  birds  have  no  teeth,  but 
many  fossil  birds  had  teeth.  The  birds  as 
a  group  are  closely  related  to  reptiles. 
There  were,  in  geological  times  flying  rep- 
tiles, and  there  is  a  bird  (Archaeopteryx) 
found  in  the  rocks  of  Bavaria  that  forms 
a  connecting  link  between  birds  and  reptiles. 
The  largest  living  birds  are  the  ostriches, 
but  the  great  fossil  birds  (Dinornis)  of 
New  Zealand  were  from  six  to  ten 
feet  in  height.  There  are  several  other 
extinct  birds  of  very  large  size.  In  the 
world  to-day  there  are  between  13,000  and 
14,000  species. 

The  best  way  to  observe  our  common 
birds  is  with  the  help  of  opera-glasses.  We 
should  go  into  the  fields  and  woods  armed 
with  opera-glasses  instead  of  a  gun.  Quietly 
reclining  under  the  trees,  we  may,  with 
field-glasses,  bring  the  birds  near  enough  to 
see  their  colors  and  observe  many  of  their 
habits.  Besides  their  beauty,  birds  are 
h'ghly  useful,  destroying  numberless  in- 
sects and  acting  as  agents  in  cross  fertiliza- 
tion and  seed  planting.  A  good  book  to 
help  is  Chapman's  Color  Key  to  North 
American  Birds. 

The  modern  classification  of  birds  in- 
cludes the  extinct  forms,  and  is  too  tech- 
nical to  give  here,  but  the  following  arrange- 
ment may  be  found  convenient:  Our  com- 
mon birds  are  either  (a)  water  birds  or  (b) 
land  birds.  The  water  birds  include  divers, 
swimmers,  waders,  and  the  shore  birds, 
represented  by  loons,  gulls,  ducks,  geese, 
swans,  auks  and  pelicans,  herons,  storks, 
ibises,  cranes,  rails  and  snipes,  sandpipers, 
woodcocks,  plovers  and  kill  deer. 

The  land  birds  are  more  numerous. 
Here  the  largest  order  is  that  of  the  perch- 
ing birds,  embracing  many  families  and 
representatives,  including  most  of  the  song 
birds.  Flycatchers,  kingbird,  phoebe,  larks, 
crows,  jays,  blackbirds,  oriole,  bobolink, 
meadow  laik,  cowbird,  sparrows  and  finches, 
song  sparrow,  field  sparrow,  goldfinch, 
purple  finch,  rose-breasted  grosbeak,  swal- 
lows, waxwings,  warblers,  threshers  wren, 
catkird,  mockingbird,  red  thrush,  creepers, 


nuthatch;  the  thrush  family,  blue  bird, 
robin,  hermit  thrush,  etc.  Other  families 
and  representatives  of  the  land  birds  are 
the  scratchers:  common  fowl,  turkey, 
pheasant,  grouse,  pigeons  and  doves;  birds 
of  prey:  turkey  buzzard,  hawk,  eagle,  owl, 
ctickoos,  kingfishers,  wood-peckers,  goat- 
suckers nighthawks,  whip-poor-wills,  swifts 
and  humming  biids.  In  addition  to  the 
above  are  the  running  birds;  ostriches,  emus, 
cassowaries. 

See  Chapman:  Bird-Life  (1899)  fcnd  Bird 
Studies  with  Camera  (1901);  Davie :  Nests  and 
Eggs  of  N.  A.  Birds  (sth  ed..  1898);  Coues: 
Key  to  North  A  merican  Birds;  Blanchan :  Birds 
Every  Child  Should  Know;  How  to  Attract 
the  Birds  (1902);  Bird  Neighbors  (1897"); 
Birds  that  Hunt  and  are  Hunted  (1898); 
Dugmore:  Bird  Homes  (1900);  Merriam: 
Birds  of  Village  and  Field  (1898). 

Birds'  Nests  are  primarily  for  rearing  the 
young  rather  than  for  shelter.  They  show  a 
great  difference  in  architecture,  from  the 
most  rude  to  the  very  complex,  and  birds 
may  be  divided  into  groups  according  to  the 
way  in  which  their  nests  are  built.  The  min- 
ing birds  either  dig  holes  in  the  ground  for 
their  nests  or  use  holes  already  dug  by  other 
animals.  Thus  the  kingfisher  digs  a  crooked 
gallery  several  feet  into  a  bank  and  lays  its 
eggs  in  a  round  hole  at  the  end.  Other  birds 
of  similar  habits  are  the  common  bank  swal- 
low, the  bee-eaters  and  the  family  of  storm 
petrels.  The  wood-wren  and  the  burrowing 
owl  make  their  nests  in  ready-made  bur- 
rows. Among  ground-builders  some  build 
no  nest  at  all,  others  only  occasionally.  The 
nighthawks  lay  their  eggs  on  bare  ground, 
as  a  large  number  of  sea  birds  do  on  the 
sand.  The  brush  turkeys  of  Australia,  called 
mound  builders,  gather  a  large  heap  of 
decaying  leaves  and  grass,  and  when  the 
heap  has  become  warm  from  rotting,  dig  a 
hole  about  two  feet  deep  in  the  top,  and  lay 
their  eggs,  leaving  them  to  hatch  out  by  the 
heat.  Vultures  and  common  fowls  belong 
to  this  group.  The  masons  build  their  nests 
with  walls  or  sometimes  only  coverings  of 
mud.  The  cliff  swallows  build  flask-shaped 
nests  against  the  sides  of  rocks  or  cliffs. 
Several  birds  usually  work  at  one  nest,  bring- 
ing mud,  while  one  of  their  number  directs 
the  work  from  within.  The  baker  bird  of 
South  America  is  the  most  skillful  of  this 
class.  It  builds  its  nests  very  high,  in  the 
shape  of  a  baker's  oven,  with  an  entrance 
on  the  side  twice  as  high  as  it  is  long,  and 
the  interior  divided  into  two  chambers  by  a 
partition.  The  common  robin  is  allied  to 
this  group.  The  carpenters  bore  holes  for 
their  nests  in  trees.  The  woodpeckers,  for 
example,  dig  with  their  beaks  a  short  tunnel 
upward  and  then  a  larger  hole  downward, 
in  the  middle  of  the  tree,  where  the  eggs  are 
laid.  The  platform  builders  include  the 
eagle  and  pigeon.  The  level  platforms  of 
branches  of  trees  and  sticks  built  by  eagles 


BIRDS-OP-PARADISE 


218 


BIRMINGHAM 


are  strong  enough  to  hold  the  weight  of  a 
man.  The  basket-makers  form  a  very  large 
class.  The  mocking  bird  and  the  red-winged 
blackbird  are  familiar  examples.  A  family 
of  grosbeaks  build  a  large,  basket-like  cluster 
of  nests,  sometimes  as  many  as  800  in  a 
single  group.  The  weavers  include  the 
orioles,  etc.  The  social  weavers  of  Africa 
join  together  and  build  in  tree-tops  large 
grass  canopies  shaped  like  umbrellas. 
Among  tailors  is  the  bird  of  India,  which 
usually  makes  its  nests  by  sewing  a  dead 
leaf  to  a  living  one,  making  a  sort  of  pouch, 
which  is  filled  with  fine  down.  The  felt- 
makers,  as  the  canary  bird,  build  a  closely 
woven  nest,  arranging  the  material  like  the 
fibre  of  felt.  The  nest  of  the  hornbill  is  a 
hole  in  a  tree,  in  which  the  female  is  made 
a  prisoner  during  the  period  of  incubation. 
She  is  locked  up  in  the  nest,  by  plastering 
the  entrance,  leaving  only  a  small  hole 
through  which  she  is  fed  by  the  male.  As 
interesting  a  bird  structure  as  any  is  that 
of  the  swift,  which  makes  the  nest  so  highly 
prized  by  the  Chinese,  in  bird's-nest  soup. 
See  Davie:  Nests  and  Eggs  of  North  American 
Birds;  Dugmore:  Bird  Homes. 

Birds-or-Paradise,  the  name  given  to 
an  Australasian  family  of  birds  of  very 
brilliant  and  varied  plumage,  no  bird  its 
rival  in  splendor.  The  history  of  the  name 
is  interesting.  The  early  voyagers  to  the 
Moluccas  were  shown  dried  skins  of  these 
birds  from  which  the  feet  and  wings  had 
been  removed,  and  for  several  centuries 
thereafter,  no  perfect  specimens  were  seen 
in  Europe.  About  the  year  1 600,  they  came 
to  be  known  as  birds-of-Paradise.  One 
writer  of  that  period  tells  us  that  no  one  has 
seen  these  birds  alive,  for  they  live  in  the 
air,  always  turning  toward  the  sun,  and 
never  alighting  on  the  earth  till  they  die, 
for  they  have  neither  feet  nor  wings.  Even 
Linnaeus,  in  1758,  named  the  largest  kind 
the  footless  Paradise-bird,  as  no  perfect 
specimen  had  been  seen  in  Europe.  During 
1854-62  Alfred  Russel  Wallace  was  in  the 
Malay  Archipelago  and  was  the  first  natural- 
ist to  observe  these  birds  in  their  native 
haunts.  They  are  now  very  common  in 
museums,  and  some  kinds  are  used  in  trim- 
ing  ladies'  hats,  certain  species  having  almost 
been  exterminated  owing  to  the  milliners. 
Some  are  caught  in  snares,  others  are  shot 
with  blunt  arrows  by  the  natives. 

There  are  twenty-five  or  thirty  species  of 
these  Paradise-birds,  including  the  great 
bird-of-Paradise,  the  largest  kind,  about 
eighteen  inches  from  beak  to  tip  of  tail,  the 
lesser  bird-of-Paradise,  etc.  The  males  alone 
have  brilliant  and  gorgeous  plumage;  the 
females  are  plain.  Associated  with  the  more 
brilliant  kinds,  in  the  same  family,  are  the 
bower  birds  of  Australia  and  New  Guinea. 
They  are  all  related  to  the  crow-family  and 
vary  in  size  from  that  of  the  crow  to  that  of 
the  sparrow.  The  plumage  is  not  only  of 


great  brilliance  but  also  of  the  richest 
velvety  appearance.  In  many  species  there 
are  numerous  long  tufts  of  feathers  that 
start  from  the  shoulders  and  spread  out  and 
down  in  wondrous  fashion.  These  are  the 
prized  bird-of-Paradise  plumes  used  by  the 
milliners.  The  various  species  [show  varied 
gorgeousness ;  the  Paradise  Minor  is  golden 
above  with  throat  and  top  of  head  a  me- 
tallic green,  coppery  red  below,  and  with 
copper-red  wings  and  tail,  a  great  swirl  of 
golden  and  white  plumes  completing  its 
splendor;  the  King  Bird  is  a  glossy  crimson 
above,  divided  by  a  band  of  metallic  green 
about  the  throat  from  the  white  below,  and 
has  a  fan  of  ashy  plumes  tipped  with 
emerald.  See  Wallace:  Malay  Archipelago. 

Birds  of  Passage  are  birds  which  are 
migratory,  passing  regularly  with  the 
seasons  from  one  climate  to  another.  Birds 
which  breed  in  the  United  States  and  go 
south  in  the  fall,  returning  to  the  north  in 
the  spring,  are  called  summer  birds  of  pas- 
sage; while  the  wild  geese  which  breed  in 
the  Arctic  regions  and  visit  the  United 
States  in  autumn,  flying  north  again  in  the 
spring,  are  winter  birds  of  passage.  Most 
of  the  migratory  birds  of  the  western  United 
States  pass  the  winter  in  Mexico.  Birds  of 
the  eastern  states  winter  in  the  south,  West 
Indies,  Central  America  and  even  (Bobo- 
links) in  Brazil. 

Birkenhead,  an  English  seaport  in 
Cheshire,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mersey, 
opposite  Liverpool.  The  population,  130,- 
832.  It  dates  back  to  the  xath  century,  but 
has  gained  its  present  importance  within 
recent  years.  It  has  several  fine  parks,  one 
being  180  acres  in  extent,  and  a  number  of 
public  buildings,  such  as  a  free  library  and 
public  baths.  In  its  neighborhood  is  St. 
Aidan's  College.  There  is  communication 
across  the  Mersey  by  bridge,  by  ferry  and 
by  a  railroad  tunnel,  1,230  yards  long, 
which  was  opened  in  1886.  The  docks  are 
united  with  those  of  Liverpool.  For  some 
years  Birkenhead  has  been  noted  for  its 
shipbuilding  yards,  where  have  been  built 
some  of  the  largest  iron  ships  afloat. 

Birmingham,  Alabama,  founded  in  1871 
and  called  the  Magic  City  of  the  South,  is 
situated  in  Jones  Valley,  from  which  rises 
Red  Mountain,  and  is  the  county  seat  of 
Jefferson  County.  It  is  close  to  almost  inex- 
haustible supplies  of  iron  ore,  coal,  limestone, 
oil  and  gas,  and  promises  to  rival  Birmingham, 
England,  and  to  become  the  greatest  metal- 
workers' city  in  America.  It  has  large  rolling 
mills,  which  manufacture  rail  and  bar  iron, 
plate  and  sheet  iron,  steel  and  rail  mills,  and 
by-product  plants,  factories  for  making  ice, 
glass,  bridges,  chains,  steel  cars,  etc.  Twenty- 
five  furnaces  in  or  near  the  city  are  now  en- 
gaged in  making  iron.  One  company  employes 
10,000  men.  The  red  and  brown  iron  ores, 
found  in  enormous  quantities  in  the  region, 
make  an  excellent  Quality  of  steel,  and  the 


HUMMING    BIRD  S    NEST. 


PHOEBE'S  NEST  BUILT  ox  A  BEAM. 


WORM-EATING    WARBLER'S    NEST. 


5LUE    JAY'S    NEST. 


CROW'S   NEST    WITH  YOUNG  NEARLY  READY  TO  FLY. 


WOOD   THRUSH    ON    NEST 


VESPER    SPARROW  S    NEST 


NEST    OF    YELLOW-WINGED    SPARROW. 


REED-WARBLER  S  NEST  BETWEEN*  THREE  REED  STEMS. 


WOOD    PEWEE  S    NEST. 


WARBLING   VIREO'S    NEST. 


WHITE-EYED    VIREO    ON    NEST. 


BIRMINGHAM 


BISMARCK 


annual  output  is  now  very  considerable,  giving 
employment  to  many  thousands.  Nine  rail- 
roads center  here:  The  Southern,  the  Louis- 
ville and  Nashville,  the  Seaboard  Air  Line,  the 
Central  of  Georgia,  the  Alabama  Great  South- 
ern (a  part  of  the  Queen  and  Crescent  System) , 
the  Illinois  Central,  the  Atlanta,  Birmingham 
and  Atlanta,  the  Birmingham  Southern  and 
the  Kansas  City,  Memphis  and  Birmingham. 
Fine  buildings  are  constantly  going  up,  of 
which  the  magnificent  Union  Station,  the  First 
National  Bank  and  Saint  Vincent  Hospital  are 
good  examples.  The  city  has  fine  schools  and 
churches,  and  includes  among  its  public  build- 
ings a  handsome  courthouse,  several  high 
school  buildings  and  many  other  fine  civic 
institutions,  including  a  million  dollar  building. 
Near  by,  at  East  Lake,  is  Howard  College,  a 
Baptist  institution,  and  three  miles  west  of  the 
city  is  Birmingham  College,  the  Methodist 
institution  of  the  state.  The  population  is 
215,894.  Birmingham  furnishes  a  most  strik- 
ing example  of  the  wonderful  commercial 
development  of  the  New  South. 

Birmingham,  an  English  manufacturing 
city  in  Warwickshire,  famed  for  its  metal 
works,  is  situated  near  the  center  of  England. 
From  an  early  period  it  has  made  all  kinds  of 
metallic  articles.  The  chief  variety  is  the 
brass-working  trade,  in  which  10,000  people 
are  engaged.  The  next  in  importance  is  the 
manufacture  of  jewelry,  gold,  silver  and 
gilt;  then  come  small  arms  of  all  sorts. 
Other  specialties  are  buttons,  hooks  and 
eyes,  pins,  screws,  nails,  steel  pens,  electric- 
plating  and  bell  making.  About  20,000,- 
ooo  steel  pens  are  made  every  week,  and 
Birmingham  has  the  monopoly  of  the  screw 
trade  in  England.  There  are  a  large  number 
of  fine  buildings,  such  as  the  City  Hall, 
where  musical  festivals  are  held  every  three 
years,  and  great  political  gatherings,  for 
which  the  place  is  famous.  Mason  and 
Queen's  Colleges  are  situated  here,  together 
with  several  art  galleries  and  libraries.  A 
large  number  of  fine  statues  adorn  the  place, 
among  them  those  of  Lord  Nelson  and  Sir 
Robert  Peel.  The  famous  Soho  works, 
founded  by  Watt  and  Boulton,  where  the 
first  engines  were  made,  are  near  Birming- 
ham. The  city  is  divided  into  seven  dis- 
tricts, each  of  which  returns  a  member  to 
Parliament.  The  population,  570,113. 

Bisbee,  a  city  in  Cochise  County,  Arizona, 
about  thirty  miles  from  Tombstone,  is 
situated  in  a  canon  of  the  Mule-Pass  Moun- 
tains, and  is  a  substantially  built  modern 
city.  Noteworthy  buildings  are  the  Y.  M. 
C.  A.,  Y.  W.  C.  A.  library,  the  high  and 
central  schools.  Bisbee  has  an  admirable 
public-school  system  and  several  fine 
churches.  Its  copper  mines  are  among  the 
richest  in  the  world,  and  the  two  of  greatest 
importance  are  known  as  the  Calumet  and 
Arizona  and  the  Copper  Queen.  The  city 
has  electric  light,  waterworks  and  an 
electric  street-car  system;  also  the  service 


of  the  El  Paso  &  Southwestern  Railroad, 
by  which  it  is  connected  (at  Tucson)  with 
the  Southern  Pacific.  Bisbee,  inclusive  c-f 
its  suburbs,  has  a  population  of  21,000. 

Biscay  (tiis'kd}  Bay  of,  an  eastern  arm 
of  the  Atlantic,  extending  from  Ushant 
Island  to  Cape  Ortegal,  and  flanked  on  the 
east  by  France  and  on  the  south  by  Spain. 
It  is  about  350  miles  long  by  300  miles  in 
width.  Violent  circular  currents,  as  well 
as  storms,  make  the  navigation  difficult. 
The  Spanish  coast  is  rocky,  but  the  French 
coast  is  low  and  sandy.  The  depth  varies 
from  20  to  200  fathoms.  The  principal  ports 
on  the  French  coast  are  Bayonne,  Bordeaux, 
Nantes,  Rochefort,  La  Rochelle  and  Brest; 
those  on  the  Spanish  coast  are  Santander, 
San  Sebastian  and  Bilboa.  The  Rivers 
Loire  and  Garonne  flow  into  the  bay. 

Bismarck  (bis' mark}  Archipelago,  is  made 
up  of  what  was  formerly  called  the  New  Brit- 
ain Archipelago,  the  Admiralty  Islands  and 
several  other  groups  lying  to  the  north  and 
east  of  Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land  or  German 
New  Guinea.  The  white  population  in  1909 
was  474,  of  whom  364  were  Germans.  The 
imports  in  1910  amounted  to  2,914,792 
marks;  the  exports  to  3,224,027,  chiefly 
copra,  with  some  cotton,  coffee  and  kapok, 
a  sort  of  cotton.  About  170,000  acres  are 
under  cultivation. 

Bismarck,  N.  Dakota,  since  1889  capital 
of  the  state,  on  the  Missouri  River.  Four 
federal  buildings  are  located  here — anjndian 
school  an  army  post,  a  weather  bureau  and 
a  modern  building  containing  the  new  post 
office,  the  land  office  and  the  federal 
courts  The  state  buildings  are  the  capitol 
and  the  penitentiary.  The  city  has  good 
grammar  schools,  a  model  high  school, 
ample  fire  and  police  protection,  good 
sewerage  and  well  lighted  streets.  Sixteen 
wholesale  houses  have  their  home  offices 
or  branches  here  and  there  are  three 
excellent  banking  institutions.  It  has  the 
service  of  two  railroads.  The  site  of  the 
town  was  visited  by  the  explorers,  Lewis 
and  Clarke,  but  it  was  not  until  after 
1875  that  it  was  incorporated.  Popula- 
tion, 5,443' 

Bismarck,  Otto  Edouard  Leopold  von, 
Prince,  one  of  the  greatest  of  modern 
statesmen,  was  born  at  SchSnhausen,  in 
Brandenburg,  April  i,  1815,  of  an  old  and 
distinguished  family.  Educated  at  Got- 
tingen,  Berlin  and  Greifswald,  he  lived  for 
awhile  on  his  estates;  but  in  1847  entered 
politics  as  a  member  of  the  first  Prussian 
parliament,  where  he  sided  with  the  con- 
servatives. From  that  time  forward  he  was 
the  great  champion  of  a  united  Germany, 
with  Prussia  at  its  head.  He  was  sent  as  min- 
ister to  St.  Petersburg  and  Paris;  and  in  1862 
was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and 
prime  minister.  His  policy  was  strongly 
opposed  by  the  liberals,  and  for  awhile  he 
became  very  unpopular.  At  this  time  the 


BISMUTH 


220 


BISON 


rivalry  between  Austria  and  Prussia  stood 
in  the  way  of  the  reunion  of  Germany  as  a 
nation,  and  so  Bismarck  hurried  on  a  war 
between  these  two  powers  which  (1866- 
67)  ended  in  forming  the  North  German 
Confederacy,  with  Prussia  at  its  head,  and 
B  i  smarck  as 
chancellor.  In 
1870,  during  the 
war  with  France, 
he  was  wont  to 
accompany  the 
army  and  King 
William,  and  was 
present  on  many 
battlefields  and 
at  the  siege  of 
Paris,  while  he 
negotiated  the 
treaty  of  peace 
in  1871.  Bis- 
marck received  pRINCE  BISMARCK 
tne  titleoi 

prince  and  was  made  chancellor  of  the 
new  German  empire.  From  that  time 
his  whole  energy  was  given  to  putting  tha 
empire  into  good  condition  within  and 
securing  it  from  attack  without.  His  social 
measures  won  for  him  the  designation  of  the 
greatest  state  socialist  of  the  age,  and  his 
efforts  to  keep  peace  in  Europe  by  an  alli- 
ance against  Russia  and  France,  earned  him 
the  titles  of  the  Peacemaker  and  the 
Peacekeeper  of  Europe.  He  was  also 
called  the  Iron  Chancellor,  and,  from 
his  own  words  in  a  speech,  the  man  of 
blood  and  iron.  Though  not  a  smooth 
orator,  Bismarck  had  great  power  in  the 
use  of  his  native  tongue,  and  his  speeches 
were  always  strong  and  effective.  He  made 
many  enemies  and  his  life  was  frequently 
in  danger.  He  was,  however,  a  great 
national  hero,  and  his  birthday,  while  he 
lived,  was  several  times  celebrated  by  the 
whole  nation.  During  the  brief  rule  of  the 
Emperoi  Frederick,  Bismarck  retained  his 
power,  but  the  strong  opposition  to  his 
plans  by  the  present  Emperor  William  led 
him  to  resign.  He  latterly  lived  in  retire- 
ment on  his  estate.  Prince  Bismarck  was 
tall  and  of  an  imposing  presence,  and  had 
a  piercing  eye.  Though  imperious  and 
even  unscrupulous  as  a  statesman,  yet  in 
private  life  he  was  genial,  witty  and  en- 
tertaining. He  died  at  Friednchsruh,  July 
30,  1898. 

Bismuth,  a  hard  orittls  metal  having  a 
bright  metallic  luster  and  a  distinct  reddish 
tinge  of  color.  It  melts  at  518°,  and  ex- 
pands, as  water  does,  when  it  solidifies.  It 
is  used  for  making  very  fusible  alloys.  One 
of  these,  known  as  Wood's  metal,  consists 
of  two  parts  bismuth,  two  parts  lead,  one 
part  tin  and  one  part  cadmium,  and  melts 
at  1411°,  a  temperature  that  can  be  borne 
by  the  hand.  Basic  bismuth  nitrate,  fre- 
quently called  sub-nitrate  of  bismuth,  is 


extensively  used  In  medicine.  The  greater 
part  of  the  bismuth  comes  from  Saxony. 

Bison,  wild  cattle,  related  to  the  ox, 
living  in  Europe  and  North  America.  The 
European  bison  was  common  in  Europe 
in  the  times  of  ancient  Rome,  but  is  now 
confined  to  a  few  herds  in  the  Caucasus 
and  Ural  Mountains.  The  European  form 
eats  buds,  shoots  and  bark.  When  it 
was  abundant,  it  did  much  harm  in  the 
forests.  The  true  buffalo  belongs  to  India 
and  South  America.  In  appearance  the 
bison  differs  from  the  true  buffalo  in  the 
high  hump  on  its  shoulders,  the  long  hair 
with  which  the  head  is  so  heavily  clothed, 
the  heavy  barb,  and  the  fringe  of  long, 
coarse  hair  on  the  forelegs 

The  American  bison,  popularly  called 
buffalo,  is  the  most  famous  of  our  hoofed 
animals.  Once  buffalo  were  almost  unbe- 
lievably abundant  here.  In  comparatively 
recent  days  herds  derailed  trains  in  the  west 
and  stopped  boats  on  the  Yellowstone 
and  Missouri  Rivers.  Toward  winter  they 
migrated  in  an  enormous  company  south- 
ward on  their  range,  herd  upon  herd  unit- 
ing. Various  authorities  repeat  the  story 
told  of  Col.  Dodge's  experience  while  trav- 
eling in  Arkansas  in  1871:  "For  twenty- 
five  miles  he  passed  through  a  continuous 
herd  of  buffalo;"  the  number  estimated 
at  4,000,000.  To-day  there  are  probably 
less  than  3,000  to  be  found  in  Canada  and 
the  United  States  together;  this  remnant 
saved  in  private  preserve,  public  park  and 
garden,  in  a  desolate  region  in  Canada 
southwest  of  Great  Slave  Lake,  on  the 
Flathead  Reservation  in  Montana  and 
in  the  Yellowstone  National  Park.  In 
Corbin  Park  in  New  Hampshire  there  is  a 
notable  herd  of  pure-breed  animals.  The 
Oklahoma  national  forest  also  is  a  pre- 
serve for  the  rearing  of  buffalo.  The 
range  of  the  American  bison  was  once 
3,000  miles  from  north  to  south,  2,000 
miles  from  east  to  west;  in  their  migra- 
tions they  climbed  great  mountains  and 
swam  mighty  rivers.  Their  food  was  the 
herbage  of  plain  and  prairie.  Vast  ex- 
panses of  land  were  marked  by  "buffalo 
paths,"  and  still  today  the  "buffalo  wal- 
lows" show  how  hosts  of  these  great  creatures 
sought  relief  from  flies  and  insects.  They 
were  indispensable  to  the  Indian,  furnished 
him  with  his  chief  subsistence.  He  dried 
great  quantities  of  the  meat  and  made 
use  of  the  hide  for  shelter,  clothing,  boots 
and  many  other  purposes — nothing  was 
thrown  away,  the  dried  dung  served  for 
fuel. 

The  bison  begins  to  shed  its  hair  in 
March,  shortly  becomes  quite  bare,  and  to 
protect  itself  rolls  in  muddy  sloughs  until 
caked  in  an  armour  of  mud.  The  new 
coat  is  fine  by  October,  and  at  its  best  in 
November  and  December.  The  fur  is 
valuable,  the  hide  makes  excellent  leather. 


BITTERN 


221 


BLACK 


and  the  meat  is  edible,  almost  like  beef. 
A  naturalist  once  shot  a  great  animal  that 
measured  ten  feet  in  length,  its  estimated 
weight  2,000  pounds.  When  at  its  best 
the  American  bison  is  of  very  splendid 
appearance.  Hornaday  thus  describes  one 
in  perfect  pelage:  "The  magnificent  dark 
brown  frontlet  and  beard  of  the  buffalo, 
the  shaggy  coat  of  hair  upon  the  neck, 
hump  and  shoulders,  terminating  at  the 
knees  in  a  thick  mass  of  luxuriant  black 
locks,  to  say  nothing  of  the  dense  coat  of 
fur  upon  the  body  and  hind  quarters,  give 
to  our  species  a  grandeur  and  nobility  of 
presence  which  are  beyond  all  comparison 
with  ruminants." 

Greed  brought  to  an  end  the  life  of  this 
noble  and  most  useful  creature.  Settlers 
coming  in  restricted  the  range  and  also 
ruthlessly  slaughtered;  sportsmen  wantonly 
killed;  and  droves  of  hide-hunters  had 
their  full  share  in  the  extermination.  See 
Hornaday:  American  Natural  History;  Stone 
and  Cram:  American  Animals. 

Bittern  (Botaurus  Lentiginosus),  a  noc- 
turnal bird  allied  to  the  herons,  widely 
distributed  over  North  America  and  fre- 
quently found  in  marshy  or  reedy  places 
in  the  eastern  continents  as  well  as  in 
Australia.  In  size  it  varies  from  two  to 
three  feet  in  height,  with  a  bill  about  three 
inches  in  length,  and  an  expanse  of  wing 
close  upon  four  feet.  In  its  marshy  haunts, 
it  feeds  at  night  on  water-insects,  fish, 
lizards  and  frogs.  In  the  spring  especially, 
at  the  breeding  season,  its  notes  have  a 
bellowing,  booming  sound.  Nesting  on  the 
ground,  their  eggs  have  a  plain  olive-green 
color,  the  birds  themselves  having  a  pur- 
ple-brown tint,  with  occasional  buff  streaks 
on  throat,  breast  and  belly.  They  are 
very  solitary  in  their  habits,  as  well  as  shy 
and  retiring. 

Bitu'  men,  a  general  name  applied  to  a 
variety  of  substances  occurring  beneath 
the  earth's  surface,  and  consisting  prin- 
cipally of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  though 
often  containing  a  little  oxygen,  nitrogen 
and  sulphur.  Natural  gas  represents  one 
extreme  of  the  bitumen  series,  and  solid 
asphalt  the  other.  Between  these  ex- 
tremes are  naphtha,  petroleum,  mineral 
tar,  etc.  Bitumen  is  very  widely  distributed, 
though  its  occurrence  in  quantities  suffi- 
cient to  make  it  commerically  valuable  is 
relatively  rare.  See  NATURAL  GAS,  PETRO- 
LEUM, ASPHALT. 

Bituminous  Coal.     See  COAL. 

Bjornson  (bySrn'  sun),  Bjornstjorne,  a 
celebrated  writer  of  Norway,  was  born 
Dec.  .8,  1832.  While  studying  at  the 
University  of  Christiania,  he  conceived  a 
passion  for  the  theater,  and  began  his  career 
as  a  writer  by  an  historical  drama.  A  few 
years  later,  when  in  Copenhagen,  he  pub- 
lished his  beautiful  story,  Synnove  Solbakken, 
which  at  once  became  popular  and  marked 


an  epoch  in  Norwegian  literature.  Soon 
after,  he  was  made  manager  of  the  Na- 
tional theater  in 
Bergen  by  its 

Eroprietor,  0 1  e 
ull.  He  pub- 
lished a  series  of 
national  dramas 
from  subjects 
taken  from  the 
old  Norse  sagas 
or  legends.  After 
a  few  years  spent 
in  Rome,  Ger- 
m  a  n  y  and 
Prance,  he  re- 
turned to  Nor- 
way. The  par- 
liament voted 
him  a  yearly 
"poet's  salary,  '  BJSRNSTJORNE  BJSRNSON 
so  that  he  was 

free  to  devote  his  time  to  writing.  He  became 
director  of  the  Danish  theater  at  Christiania, 
and  editor  of  the  Norse  People's  Journal. 
He  also  took  an  active  part  in  politics,  and 
came  to  be  an  eloquent  speaker.  In  1881 
he  visited  the  United  States,  studying  the 
workings  of  republican  government  and 
lecturing  to  his  countrymen  in  the  western 
states.  Among  his  works  are  the  so-called 
saga  tragedies,  Limping  Hulda,  King  Sverre, 
Sigurd  Slembe  and  others.  The  play,  Mary 
Stuart  in  Scotland,  is  the  only  one  taken 
from  foreign  history.  Among  his  novels 
are  The  Fisher  Maiden,  Arne,  In  God's  Way, 
The  Heritage  of  the  Kurtz  and  The  Bridal 
March;  he  has  also  written  shorter  tales 
and  poems.  His  later  works  dealt  mostly 
with  society  and  social  reforms;  among  these 
are  The  Editor,  The  King,  A  Bankruptcy  and 
The  New  System.  Died  April  26,  1910. 

Black,  Jeremiah  Sullivan,  American 
jurist  and  statesman,  was  born  in  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1810,  and  died  there  Aug.  19,  1883. 
In  politics  he  was  what  is  known  as  a 
Jeffersonian  Democrat,  and  was  prominent 
as  a  lawyer,  taking  part,  at  one  period  of 
his  professional  career  in  the  Vanderbilt 
will  contest.  In  1851  and  again  in  '1854 
he  was  elected  one  of  the  supreme  court 
judges  of  Pennsylvania,  and  from  1857  to 
1860  he  was  attorney-general  in  President 
Buchanan's  administration,  and  afterward 
(1860-61)  was  secretary  of  state.  In  the 
latter  year  (1861)  he  retired  from  public 
life. 

Black,  William,  a  British  novelist,  was 
born  at  Glasgow  in  1841,  where  he  was  edu- 
cated and  studied  art.  He  was,  however, 
led  to  writing,  and  did  his  first  work  for  a 
Glasgow  newspaper.  He  afterward  went  to 
London,  where  he  wrote  for  several  maga- 
zines. During  the  war  between  Prussia  and/ 
Austria,  in  1866,  he  was  war  correspondent 
for  the  London  Morning  Chronicle.  He 
afterward  editor  of  the  London  Review 


BLACKADER 


222 


BLACK  FOREST 


assistant  editor  of  the  Daily  News.  In  1875 
he  abandoned  journalism  and  devoted  him- 
self to  writing  fiction.  He  visited  America 
:n  1876.  A  Daughter  of  Heth  was  Black's 
first  really  successful  work,  and  A  Princess 
of  Thule  is  perhaps  his  finest  romance. 
Other  works  are  Strange  Adventures  of  a 
Phaeton,  Madcap  Violet,  Macleod  of  Dare, 
White  Wings,  Sunrise,  Shandon  Bells,  Judith 
Shakespeare  and  Strange  Adventures  of  a 
Houseboat.  He  died  at  Brighton,  Dec.  10, 
1898. 

Black'ader,  Alexander  Dougall,  B.A., 
M.D.,  M.R.C.S.,  has  been  lecturer  on  the 
diseases  of  children  since  1883,  and  pip 
fessor  of  pharmacology  and  therapeutics  in 
McGill  University,  Montreal,  since  1891, 
where  he  received  his  earlier  education, 
afterward  studying  in  London  Vienna  and 
Prague.  He  is  a  member  of  many  learned 
medical  societies  in  Canada  and  the  United 
States,  and  is  the  author  of  numerous 
articles  and  of  the  Reference  Handbook  of 
the  Medical  Sciences. 

Black'berry.  Certain  species  of  the 
genus  Rubus,  belonging  to  the  rose  family. 
The  blackberry  is  distinguished  from  the 
raspberry,  which  belongs  to  the  same  genus, 
by  the  fact  that  the  receptacle  remains  with 
the  druplets  when  the  fruit  is  picked.  It 
seems  that  the  fruit  is  known  in  commerce 
only  in  America.  Although  it  has  been  a 
well-known  wild  fruit  from  the  earliest 
settlement  of  this  country,  it  has  recently 
been  developed  as  a  garden  fruit. 

Blackbird,  a  common  name  for  a  num- 
ber of  birds  of  black  plumage,  some  of  them 
only  distant- 
ly related. 
In  America 
several  birds 
receive  this 
name.  The 
crow  -  black- 
bird or  pur- 
p  1  e  grackle 
is  one  of  the 
c  o  m  m  o  n 
blackbirds; 
it  lives  in 
flocks.  The 
rusty  black- 
bird is  less 
common  . 
The  red- 
win  g  e  d 
blackbird  is 
abundant  in 
swamps  and  marshes  of  the  United  States.  It 
is,  really,  a  starling.  The  common  blackbird 
of  Great  Britain  and  Europe  is  the  merle;  it 
is  closely  related  to  the  American  robin, 
which  it  resembles  in  form  and  habits,  but 
is,  of  course,  black.  It  is  a  true  thrush. 

Black'burn,  a  manufacturing  town  in 
Lancashire,  England,  twenty-one  miles 
northwest  of  Manchester.  Its  population 


BLACKBIRD 


is  over  133,064.  Its  importance  dates  back 
to  the  1 7th  century.  Its  chief  industry  now 
is  cotton  manufacture,  in  which  it  leads  the 
world,  having  a  large  number  of  cotton 
factories,  many  of  them  employing  from 
1,000  to  2,000  hands.  Among  the  improve- 
ments in  the  machinery  for  spinning  cotton 
which  are  traced  to  Blackburn  is  the  spin- 
ning jenny,  invented  in  1707  by  James 
Hargreaves,  a  native  of  the  town.  The 
chief  public  buildings  are  the  town  hall,  the 
Gothic  exchange  and  the  infirmary.  It  has 
a  grammar  school,  founded  by  Queen  Eliza- 
beth in  1567.  Blackburn  sends  two  mem- 
bers to  Parliament. 

Black'feet,  a  tribe  of  Indians  of  the 
Algonquin  family,  living  in  the  states  of 
Montana  and  Wyoming,  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  between  the 
Yellowstone  and  the  Missouri  River,  and 
also  in  northwestern  Canada.  They  num- 
ber about  6,000  in  Canada,  and  7,000  in 
Montana  and  Wyoming.  They  are  divided 
into  the  Jrue  Blackfeet,  the  Bloods,  the 
Pigeons  and  the  Small  Robes.  In  the  early 
days  of  the  west  they  were  a  powerful 
tribe,  given  to  robbery  and  hostile  to  the 
whites,  but  have  been  friendly  and  peace- 
ful for  a  number  of  years,  though  in  1865 
they  were  involved  in  troubles  with  miners. 
In  1870  a  large  number  were  massacred. 
They  differ  from  the  other  Algonquin  tribes 
in  worshiping  the  sun  instead  of  the  Great 
Spirit.  A  briei  vocabulary  of  their  dialect 
has  been  published  by  George  Catlin  in 
his  North  American  Indians.  They  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  Blackfeet 
Sioux. 

Black  Forest,  a  wooded  mountain  chain 
in  Baden  and  Wurttemberg,  running  north- 
east and  southwest  along  the  course  of  the 
Rhine.  The  chief  rivers  rising  in  it  are  the 
Danube  and  the  Neckar.  The  loftiest  eleva- 
tion is  reached  in  the  round-topped  Feld- 
berg,  and  is  4,903  feet  high,  above  the  nar- 
row valley  of  HSllenthai,  connected  with 
Moreau's  famous  retreat  in  1796.  The 
Kaiserstuhl  or  Emperor's  Chair  is  a  great 
mass  west  of  the  main  chain.  Its  numerous 
valleys  are  beautiful.  The  legends  of  many 
centuries  cluster  around  the  whole  region. 
Silver,  copper,  cobalt,  lead  and  iron  are 
found,  and  the  mineral  waters  are  famous, 
especially  those  at  Baden-Baden.  Some 
farming  is  done,  but  cattle  rearing  and  the 
manufacture  ot  wooden  articles,  such  as 
clocks,  musical  boxes  and  toys,  form  the 
chief  industries.  Of  these  articles,  600,000 
are  exported  yearly  to  all  parts  of  the 
world.  A  railroad  encircles  the  forest,  and 
numerous  lines  cross  it.  The  engineering 
has  been  very  difficult,  the  line  between 
Freiburg  and  Neustadt  rising  in  elevation 
2,000  feet  in  twenty-two  miles.  The  region 
forms  a  district  in  Wurttemberg,  Germany, 
area,  i  .844  square  miles,  with  a  population 
of  541,662,  largely  Protestant. 


BLACK  HAWK 


223 


BLACKSTONE 


Black  Hawk,  a  famous  Indian  chief  of 
the  Sac  and  Fox  tribe,  was  born  about  1768 
unthe  east  shore  of  the  Mississippi,  near  the 
'.nouth  of  Rock  River.  When  about  twenty 
years  old,  he  succeeded  his  father  as 
chief  of  the  Sacs.  In  the  War  of  1812,  he 
took  part  with  England.  When  the  remainder 
of  the  tribes  removed  to  their  reserva- 
tion across  the  Mississippi,  Black  Hawk, 
with  his  followers,  remained.  Some  years 
after,  war  began  with  the  whites,  and  after 
a  number  of  the  whites  had  been  massacred, 
the  Indians  were  driven  to  the  Wisconsin 
River  and  twice  defeated,  and  Black  Hawk 
was  captured.  A  treaty  was  made,  and  the 
Indians  were  removed  tc  the  region  near 
Fort  Des  Moines.  Black  Hawk  and  his 
two  sons  were  taken  as  hostages  through 
the  cities  of  the  East.  They  were  confined 
for  a  time  in  Fortress  Monroe,  but  were 
allowed  to  rejoin  their  tribes  in  1833.  Black 
Hawk  died  in  Iowa  in  1838. 

Black'heath,  an  open  common  of  sev- 
enty acres  in  extent,  in  the  county  of  Kent, 
England,  seven  miles  from  London.  Many 
schools  are  situated  here.  It  is  famous  in 
English  history.  Here  were  the  insurrec- 
tions of  Wat  Tyler,  of  Jack  Cade  and  of  the 
Cornishmen  under  Lord  Audley;  here  the 
Danes  encamped  in  ion;  here  the  London- 
ers welcomed  Henry  V  from  Agincourt; 
and  here  Charles  II  on  his  way  from  Dover 
met  the  army  of  the  Restoration.  It  was, 
for  a  long  time,  a  noted  place  for  high- 
waymen. 

Black  Hills,  a  range  of  mountains  in 
South  Dakota  and  Wyoming,  about  100 
miles  long  and  60  miles  wide,  or  an  area 
of  about  6,000  square  miles.  They  are  a 
continuation  of  the  Big  Horn  and  Snow 
Mountains,  which  branch  off  from  the 
Rockies.  The  highest  point  is  Laramie 
Peak,  in  Wyoming,  nearly  8,000  feet  above 
sea-level.  About  one  third  of  the  area  is 
covered  with  vast  forests  of  black  pine, 
giving  the  name  to  the  mountain  range. 
Gold  has  been  discovered  and  extensively 
mined  in  the  Black  Hills,  and  other  mineral 
wealth  is  believed  to  be  abundant.  The 
value  of  the  mineral  products  of  South 
Dakota  in  1905,  which  were  chiefly  gold, 
was  close  upon  seven  million  dollars ;  though 
this  is  a  large  falling  off  from  the  era  of 
the  seventies,  when  the  region  was  opened 
to  settlement.  Harney  Peak  is  the  most 
elevated  point  in  the  Black  Hills,  reaching 
an  altitude  of  over  7,200  feet. 

Black'  more,  Richard  Doddridge,  a  well- 
known  novelist,  was  born  in  Berkshire, 
England,  in  1825,  and  graduated  at  Exeter 
College,  Oxford.  He  studied  law,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar,  but  practiced  only  a  short 
time.  He  was  fond  of  gardening,  and  so, 
in  his  novels,  his  descriptions  of  nature  are 
his  best  efforts.  With  the  exception  of 
Lorna  Doone,  a  Romance  of  Exmoor,  his 
works  lack  movement  and  life.  Lorna  Doone 


however,  is  considered  one  of  the  best 
romances  in  the  English  language.  Other 
stories  are  Springhaven,  Alice  Lorraine  and 
The  Maid  of  Sker.  He  has  also  translated 
the  Georgics  of  Vergil.  He  died  Jan.  20, 
1900. 

Black  Mountains,  a  group  of  mountains 
in  the  western  part  of  North  Carolina,  a 
few  miles  west  of  the  Blue  Ridge  and 
belonging  to  the  Appalachian  system.  The 
name  comes  from  the  forests  of  dark  bal- 
sams on  its  summits.  It  has  twelve  peaks, 
all  higher  than  Mt.  Washington,  the  highest 
being  the  Black  Dome  or  Mitchell's  Peak, 
as  it  is  called  in  honor  of  Dr.  Mitchell,  of 
the  University  of  North  Carolina,  who  per- 
ished while  exploring  the  mountain  and 
was  buried  on  its  top.  The  height  of  this 
peak  is  6,707  feet — the  highest  point  of  the 
United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Black  Sea  or  Euxine,  meaning  "hos- 
pitable," is  an  inland  sea  lying  between 
Europe  and  Asia.  Its  greatest  length  is  720 
miles,  its  greatest  breadth  380  miles,  and 
it  covers  163,711  square  miles  or,  including 
the  Sea  of  Azov,  172,500  miles.  It  is  thus 
more  than  five  times  as  large  as  Lake  Supe- 
rior. Its  depth  in  the  center  is  over  a  thou- 
sand fathoms.  It  is  connected  with  the 
Sea  of  Azov  on  the  northeast,  and  flows  into 
the  Bosphorus,  the  Sea  of  Marmora  and  the 
Dardanelles.  Many  large  rivers  flow  into 
it,  and  it  drains  nearly  one-quarter  of  the 
surface  of  Europe,  besides  a  large  area  of 
Asia.  There  is  only  one  island  in  it,  the 
Adassi  or  Isle  of  Serpents,  opposite  the 
mouths  of  the  Danube.  There  are  many 
important  ports  along  the  coast,  such  as 
Kustendji,  Odessa,  Trebizond  and  Sebas- 
topol.  In  summer  navigation  is  safe  and 
easy,  but  in  winter,  when  the  sea  is  closed 
on  every  side,  conflicting  winds  rage  over 
it,  and  short  but  terrible  storms  are 
frequent.  There  is  no  tide,  but  the  large 
rivers  flowing  into  it  give  rise  to  currents. 
The  sea  has  been  known  and  navigated 
from  a  very  early  period.  For  many  years 
it  was  under  the  control  of  Turkey  alone, 
but  now  both  Russia  and  Turkey  maintain 
fleets  in  its  waters,  and  it  is  open  to  the 
commerce  of  all  nations. 

Black  Snake,  in  many  localities  called 
blue  racer,  is  common  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  United  States.  Its  length  varies  from 
four  to  six  or  seven  feet,  and  it  moves  very 
rapidly.  It  feeds  on  frogs,  lizards,  mice  and 
eggs,  occasionally  captures  a  young  chicken, 
and  drinks  cream  and  milk  in  dairies.  It  has 
no  poison  fangs,  but  the  embrace  of  its  coils 
is  powerful.  The  name  is  also  applied  to 
poisonous  black  or  blackish  serpents  of  the 
eastern  hemisphere. 

Blackstone,  Sir  William,  an  English 
commentator  on  law,  was  born  in  London  in 
1723,  and  after  his  college  and  law  studies 
he  began  the  .practice  of  law.  He  was  not  at 
first  successful,  but,  after  delivering  a  course 


BLACKWELL 


224 


BLAIR 


of  lectures  at  Oxford  on  the  law  of  England, 
was  made  professor  of  English  law  there 
Later  he  was  made  a  king's  counsel,  entered 
parliament,  was  appointed  solicitor-general 
to  the  queen,  was  knighted,  and  finally 
appointed  a  justice  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas.  He  published  in  four  volumes  his 
Oxford  lectures,  which  form  his  celebrated 
Commentaries  on  the  Law  of  England.  He 
died  in  1780. 

Black'well,  Elizabeth,  the  first  woman 
who  received  a  medical  diploma  in  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  England  in  1821, 
and  with  her  family  emigrated  in  1832  to 
the  United  States.  She  taught  for  some 
years  at  Cincinnati,  helping  to  support  a 
large  family  of  brothers  and  sisters.  After 
much  difficulty  she  was  admitted  to  the 
Medical  School  at  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  from  which 
she  graduated  with  honors  in  1849.  She 
next  visited  Europe  in  furtherance  of  her 
studies,  and  was  admitted  into  hospitals  in 
Paris  and  in  London.  In  1851  she  returned 
to  the  United  States  and  began  a  successful 
practice  in  New  York,  where  she  has  mostly 
resided.  In  1859,  with  her  sister,  she  opened 
the  New  York  Infirmary  for  Women  and 
Children.  In  1869  she  delivered  a  course  of 
medical  lectures  in  England.  She  has  writ- 
ten several  popular  books  on  the  laws  of 
health,  especially  for  girls,  besides  a  volume 
entitled  Pioneer  Work  in  Opening  the  Med- 
ical Profession  to  Women  (1905.)  On  all 
questions  of  social  reform  and  the  status  of 
woman  she  has  always  taken  an  active  part. 

Black'  well's  Island  is  in  the  East  River 
and  is  part  of  New  York  city.  It  has  an 
area  of  120  acres.  It  is  the  seat  of  many  of 
the  penal  institutions  of  the  city.  It  has 
a  lunatic  asylum,  an  asylum  for  the  blind, 
a  workhouse,  almshouse,  penitentiary  and 
several  hospitals.  On  its  north  end  is  a 
stone  lighthouse,  with  a  fixed  red  light, 
which  is  fifty-four  feet  above  the  sea 

Blaine  (Man),  James  Qillcspie,  an 
American  statesman,  was  born  at  West 
Brownsville,  Pa.,  Jan.  31,  1830.  He  grad- 
uated at  Wash- 
ington College  in 
1847,  ^d  then 
taught  for  two 
years  in  the  Wes- 
tern Military  In- 
stitution .George- 
town, Ky.  After 
studying  law  and 
being  admitted 
to  the  bar,  he  re- 
moved to  Au- 
gusta, Me.,  where 
he  took  charge  of 
the  Kennebec 
Journal.  When 


ed,    he    became    prominent     as     a    public 
speaker;     was     chairman     of     the     state 


committee  of  that  party;  and  served  four 
years  in  the  state  legislature,  being  speaker 
of  the  house  for  two  years.  He  edited  the 
Portland  Advertiser,  and  in  1862  entered 
Congress,  where  he  soon  showed  himself  an 
able  and  ready  debater,  and,  on  the  death 
of  Thaddeus  Stevens,  became  leader  of  his 
party  in  the  house.  From  1869  to  1875  ne 
was  speaker,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  chosen 
senator  from  Maine.  During  the  short  ad- 
ministration of  President  Garfield,  Blaine 
was  secretary  of  state,  and,  on  the  death  of 
his  chief,  he  retired  to  his  home  in  Augusta, 
having  first  delivered  an  eulogy  on  Garfield 
before  the  two  houses  of  Congress,  He  now 
began  to  prepare  his  Twenty  Years  of  Con- 
gress,  a  review  of  American  political  history 
during  1861-81,  and  had  issued  the  first  vol- 
ume when  he  was  nominated  for  the  presi- 
dency in  1884,  but  was  defeated  by  Mr. 
Cleveland.  The  next  few  years  were  spent 
in  literary  work  and  in  visiting  Europe,  and 
when  Mr.  Harrison  became  president,  in 
March,  1889,  Blaine  again  became  secretary 
of  state.  Here  he  carried  out  the  scheme  of 
a  Pan-American  congress,  which  he  had 
begun  in  his  former  short  term,  and  was 
chosen  chairman  of  the  meeting.  The  policy 
of  reciprocity  with  other  American  states,  at 
his  suggestion,  became  a  feature  of  the 
McKinley  tariff  law.  In  June,  1892,  Blaine 
resigned  from  the  cabinet.  He  died  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  Jan.  28,  1893. 

Blair,  Hon.  Andrew  George,  born  in 
Frederickton,  New  Brunswick,  in  1844. 
Called  to  the  Bar  in  1866.  Entered  New 
Brunswick  Legislature  in  1878.  Leader  of 
the  Opposition  in  1879.  Remained  in  the 
Legislature  until  1896.  In  1883  defeated  the 
Hannington  Government  and  formed  a  new 
Government.  His  Government  was  sus- 
tained at  four  general  elections.  Member  of 
the  Inter-Provincial  Conference  held  at  Que- 
bec, 1887.  Elected  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons and  joined  the  Laurier  Administration 
in  1896  as  Minister  of  Railways  and  Canals. 
Secured  the  extension  of  the  Intercolonial 
Railway  from  Levis  to  Montreal  in  1898. 
While  he  was  Minister  the  St.  Lawrence 
canals  were  deepened  to  14  feet  from  the 
Great  Lakes  to  the  sea. 

Blair,  Francis  Preston,  journalist  and 
politician,  and  founder  and  editor  for  a  time 
of  the  Washington  Globe,  was  born  in  Vir- 
ginia in  1791,  and  died  in  Maryland,  Oct. 
1 8,  1876.  He  took  an  active  part  in  politics 
before  and  after  the  War  of  the  Rebellion, 
and  on  both  the  Democratic  and  the  Repub- 
lican side.  In  1856  he  was  instrumental  in 
organizing  the  republican  party  and  in  1860 
was  one  of  the  leaders  who  nominated  Lin- 
coln for  the  presidency.  During  the  war  he 
sought  to  bring  about  peace  in  the  South. 
After  Lincoln's  death  he  was,  however, 
opposed  to  the  Republican  reconstruction 
policy,  and  returned  tp  the  Democratic 
camp. 


BLAIR 


225 


BLAKE 


Blair,  Francis  Preston,  Jr.,  American 
politician,  major-general  of  volunteers  and 
son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born  at  Lexington, 
Ky.,  Feb.  19,  1821,  and  died  at  St.  Louis, 
July  9,  1875.  A  graduate  of  Princeton  and 
student  of  law,  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Kentucky  bar  and  practiced  for  a  time  at 
St.  Louis.  In  1845  the  state  of  his  health 
took  him  westward  to  the  Rockies,  and  there 
he  took  part  in  the  war  with  Mexico.  Later 
on,  he  became  editor  of  the  Missouri  Demo- 
crat, and  represented  his  state  in  the  legis- 
lature. He  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a 
republican  in  1856,  and  was  re-elected  in 
1862.  When  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  he 
became  colonel  and  later  major-general  of 
volunteers,  commanded  a  division  in  the 
Vicksburg  campaign,  and  was  at  the  head 
of  the  i  7th  corps  in  Sherman's  march  to  the 
sea.  Like  his  father,  he  veered  to  both 
political  parties  in  the  state,  and  in  1868 
was  democratic  candidate  for  vice-president. 
From  1870  to  1873  ne  was  United  States 
senator  from  Missouri.  In  1848  he  published 
a  Life  of  General  W  O.  Butler. 

Blair,  Montgomery,  an  American  officer 
and  politician,  was  born  in  Franklin  County, 
Ky.,  in  1813.  After  graduating  at  West 
Point,  he  served  in  the  Seminole  War,  and 
then  entered  upon  the  practice  of  law,  rising 
high  in  the  profession  and  filling  several  im- 
portant positions.  In  1857  he  was  counsel 
for  Dred  Scott.  Under  President  Lincoln 
Blair  was  postmaster-general  for  four  years. 
He  then  returned  to  the  practice  of  his  pro- 
fession, and  died  July  27,  1883,  at  Silver 
Spring,  Md. 

Blake,  Edward,  was  born  in  Middlesex 
County,  Ontario,  in  1833,  an(^  m  I^5^  gradu- 
ated at  the  University 
of  Toronto,  of  which 
he  was  elected  chancel- 
lor in  1876.  Elected 
to  the  Ontario  legisla- 
ture in  1867,  he  led 
the  Opposition  till 
1871,  when  he  was 
called  on  to  form  a 
government.  He  re- 
signed the  Ontario 
premiership  in  1872 
after  a  brilliant  and 
successful  career  in  its 
local  legislature.  In 
1867  he  had  been HON-  EDWARD  BLAKE 
elected  to  the  Canadian  House  of  Com- 
mons. 

At  the  request  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Irish  Parliamentary  party,  he  went  to  Ire- 
land in  1892  and  was  elected  Member  for 
South  Longford.  In  1904  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the 
Irrh  Party.  A  member  of  the  Royal  com- 
mission to  inquire  into  the  financial  rela- 
tions between  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
In  1896  one  of  the  committee  of  15  of 
the  House  of  Commons  to  investigate  South 


African  affairs  and  the  causes  of  the  Trans- 
vaal raid.  His  cross-examination  of  Cecil 
Rhodes  was  the  leading  feature  of  the  in- 
vestigation. Elected  Chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Toronto  in  1876,  contributed 
generously  to  its  funds.  Engaged  frequently 
in  very  important  cases  before  the  Privy 
Council.  One  of  the  greatest  advocates  of 
the  day  of  any  country. 

Blake,  Robert,  the  greatest  English  ad- 
miral next  to  Nelson,  was  born  at  Bridge- 
water  in  1598.  Until  he  was  forty  years  old 
he  lived  quietly  in 
England  as  a 
country  gentle- 
man. Entering 
the  army  on  the 
side  of  Cromwell, 
he  distinguished 
himself  by  de- 
fending Taunton 
against  the  Royal- 
ists for  a  year,  and 
in  1649  ne  was  ap- 
pointed with  two 
others  to  command 
the  fleet.  Within 
two  years  his 
energy  had  built 
up  the  fleet,  block- 
aded Lisbon,  de- 
stroyed the  squad-  ADMIRAL  BLAKE 
ron  of  Prince  Rupert,  and  forced  the 
royalists  to  give  up  their  last  strong- 
holds. At  this  time  the  Dutch  were 
masters  of  the  sea,  and  in  1652  Blake  began 
his  struggle  with  them.  After  several  bat- 
tles with  the  great  Dutch  admirals,  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1653.  Blake  defeated  Van  Tromp  in 
a  long  running  fight  which  extended  from 
Portland  to  Calais,  and  within  a  few  months, 
instead  of  Van  Tromp's  scouring  the  channel 
with  a  broom  at  his  masthead,  the  English 
had  established  their  naval  supremacy.  In 
1654  he  made  the  fleet  of  England  respected 
in  the  Mediterranean.  The  last  exploit  of 
the  great  admiral,  however,  was  his  greatest 
and  most  daring  one.  In  1657,  hearing  that 
a  Spanish  fleet  had  arrived  at  Santa  Cruz, 
he  at  once  sailed  thither,  where  he  found 
sixteen  ships  lying  in  the  semicircular  bay, 
protected  by  a  castle  and  six  or  seven  forts. 
Dashing  boldly  in  by  night,  he  completely 
destroyed  the  ships  and  the  town,  and  with- 
drew with  little  loss.  This  exploit  excited 
great  enthusiasm  in  England  and  admira- 
tion throughout  Europe.  After  this  his 
health  failed  rapidly  and  he  died  on  his  way 
home,  as  he  was  sailing  into  the  harbor  of 
Plymouth,  Aug.  17,  1657. 

Blake,  William,  an  English  artist  and 
poet,  was  born  in  London,  in  1757.  As  a 
boy  he  was  dreamy  and  spent  his  time  in 
drawing  and  verse  making.  After  studying 
art  for  some  years,  he  began  to  paint  in 
water  colors,  and  to  engrave  illustrations  for 


BLANC 


226 


BLEAK  HOUSE 


magazines.  At  the  same  time  he  wrote 
poetry  which  showed  great  power  and 
beauty.  Poetical  Sketches,  Songs  of  Experi- 
ence and  Songs  of  Innocence  are  among  his 
best  works.  Most  of  his  other  poems  are 
strange  and  mysterious,  and  are  valuable 
chiefly  because  of  the  wonderful  way  he  had 
of  illustrating  and  printing  them  in  various 
colors,  which  he  said  had  been  revealed  to 
him.  Among  these  quaint  and  now  rare 
editions  are  Book  of  Prophecies,  Gates  of 
Paradise,  Vision  of  the  Daughters  of  Albion 
and  America.  During  his  life,  Blake's  genius 
was  little  recognized,  but  many  now  believe 
that  England  has  not  produced  his  superior 
in  force  and  originality.  He  died  in  London, 
Aug.  12,  1827. 

Blanc  (blan) ,  Jean  Joseph  Louis,  a  noted 
French  socialist  and  historian,  was  born 
at  Madrid  in  1811.  He  studied  at  Paris 
and  wrote  for  several  newspapers,  and  in 
1839  founded  the  Review  of  Progress,  in 
which  he  brought  out  his  chief  work  on 
socialism,  the  Organization  of  Labor.  This 
work,  which  proposed  to  establish  social 
workshops  connected  with  the  government, 
and  with  an  equal  profit  ti  the  laborers, 
was  at  once  widely  popular  among  the 
French  workmen.  His  next  work,  The 
History  of  Ten  Years,  was  aimed  at  the 
royal  government.  It  was  followed  by  his 
History  of  the  French  Revolution.  In  the 
revolution  of  1848  Blanc  took  some  part, 
but  was  soon  after  accused,  without  reason, 
of  participating  in  the  civil  disturbances 
which  took  place  in  Paris,  and  he  escaped 
to  England.  Here  he  remained  many 
years,  engaged  in  writing,  and  on  the  fall 
of  the  empire,  in  1871,  he  returned  to  France. 
He  was  elected  to  the  national  assembly, 
and  later  became  a  member  of  the  chamber 
of  deputies.  He  died  at  Cannes,  Dec.  6, 
1882 

Blanc,  Mont.     See  ALPS. 

Blarney  Stone,  a  famous  stone  in  the 
ruins  of  old  Blarney  castle,  near  Cork, 
which  is  said  to  give  to  one  who  kisses  it 
the  power  of  saying  agreeable  things. 
From  this  story  comes  the  word  Blarney, 
a  term  for  complimentary  or  flattering 
talk. 

Blast  Furnace,  a  furnace  in  which  the 
burning  of  fuel  is  increased  greatly  by  a 
blast  bl->wn  from  a  bellows  or  by  means 
of  fans  or  other  blowing-engines.  Blast 
furnaces  are  used  mainly  for  smelting  iron, 
copper  and  lead  ores.  See  METALLURGY. 

Blasting,  the  method  of  loosening  or 
breaking  in  pieces  masses  of  rock  by  means 
of  the  explosion  of  gunpowder  or  dynamite. 
It  is  used  in  sinking  shafts,  cutting  tunnels, 
building  roads  and  railroads  and  clear- 
ing channels.  Formerly  a  form  of  slow 
burning  gunpowder  was  used,  but  in  1868 
nitroglycerine  was  used  for  the  first  time 
in  boring  the  Hoosac  tunnel.  Now  simi- 
lar high  explosives  are  universally  used 


for  blasting.  Nitroglycerine  is  an  ex- 
plosive chemical  compound  made  by  treat- 
ing glycerine  with  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acids.  It  is  often  mixed  with  an  absorb- 
ent material,  as  sawdust,  and  dynamite 
is  a  general  term  for  high  explosives  of 
this  kind.  The  explosive  is  placed  in  holes 
which  are  drilled  in  the  rock  by  hand  or 
power  drills,  and  exploded  either  by  slow 
burning  fuses  or  more  generally  by  an  elec- 
tric spark.  The  removal  of  Flood  Rock 
at  Hell  Gate  in  the  East  River,  New  York, 
October,  1885,  was  done  by  this  method, 
and  was  the  largest  blast  ever  made.  The 
rock  covered  about  nine  acres,  21,669  feet 
of  tunnel  were  made,  over  40,000  pounds 
of  high  explosives  were  used,  and  80,232 
cubic  yards  of  rock  excavated. 

Blavatsky  (bid-vat' ski),  Madame  Helena 
Petrovna,  a  Russian  theosophist  and 
founder  of  the  Theosophical  Society,  was 
born  in  Russia  in  1831.  She  was  of  noble 
descent  and  married  a  Russian  councillor 
of  state,  from  whom,  however,  she  sepa- 
rated early  in  her  married  life.  Fond  of 
travel,  she  found  her  way  to  Tibet,  where 
she  claims  she  received  the  theosophical 
doctrines  connected  with  her  name.  From 
1873  t°  J8?9  she  was  a  resident  of  New 
York,  when  she  founded  the  Theosophical 
Society  and  published  Isis  Unveiled.  Her 
other  writings  include  The  Key  to  The- 
osophy,  The  Secret  Doctrine,  The  Voice  of 
Silence,  etc.  She  died  in  London,  May  8, 
1891. 

Bleaching   (from  the  Anglo-Saxon  blaec, 

Eale),  the  process  of  whitening  textile 
ibrics  (cotton,  linen  and  silk,  also  wool) 
by  removing  coloring  matters  and  sub- 
stances naturally  present,  or  adhering  to 
them  in  the  course  of  their  manufacture. 
In  early  days  it  used  to  be  the  custom  to 
send  Scotch  linens  to  be  bleached  in  Hol- 
land, and  the  latter  name  is  still  used  for 
a  kind  of  unbleached  linen.  The  term 
lawn,  which  continues  in  use,  received  its 
name  from  being  spread  on  lawns  or  cul- 
tivated grass  fields  for  bleaching  purposes. 
Besides  linen  and  cotton,  wool,  silk,  jute, 
paper  and  now  even  wood  are  submitted 
to  the  bleaching  process.  The  term  bleach- 
ing is  moreover  applied  to  the  decolorizing 
of  castor-oil,  bees-wax  and  other  fatty 
materials  by  exposure  to  sunlight.  Scour- 
ing and  bleaching  are  now  largely  effected  by 
the  use  of  chemicals  and  volatile  liquids, 
soda  ash,  resin  soaps  and  more  or  less 
caustic  alkalis  being  utilized  in  place  of 
baths  of  lime,  lye  and  sulphuric  acid.  For 
the  bleaching  of  silk,  after  scouring,  sul- 
phur dioxide  is  used,  or,  better  still,  hydro- 
gen peroxide.  As  a  bleaching  agent,  chlor- 
ide of  lime  or  bleaching  powder  is  resorted 
to  for  the  removal  of  metallic  and  other 
colors  in  calico-printing. 

Bleak  House,  a  novel  written  by 
Charles  Dickens  during  1852-3.  This  novel 


BLENHEIM 


227 


BLIGHT 


was  in  part  a  satire  on  the  long  delays  of 
the  Court  of  Chancery;  but  the  story  itself 
is  a  great  favorite.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  dreary  residence  from  which  the  name 
of  the  book  is  taken  was  suggested  to  the 
author  by  a  residence  at  Broadstairs,  Kent, 
where  Dickens  lived  in  summer. 

Blenheim  (blen'im),  a  village  of  Bavaria, 
23  miles  northwest  of  Augsburg,  famous  as 
the  scene  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough's 
great  victory  over  the  French  and  Bava- 
rians, Aug.  13,  1704.  The  two  armies 
numbered  about  50,000  on  either  side. 
The  French  and  Bavarians  lay  in  a  strong 
position,  and  the  attack  was  made  by  the 
English  and  Austrians,  with  their  allies, 
headed  by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  the 
great  English  general,  and  Prince  Eugene. 
The  onset  was  long  resisted,  until  Marl- 
borough,  by  two  desperate  charges,  which 
he  led  in  person,  broke  the  enemy's  line 
and  decided  the  day.  Of  the  defeated 
army  only  20,000  escaped.  Twelve  thou- 
sand, were  killed  and  14,000  captured. 
The  battle  is  also  called  the  battle  of  Hoch- 
stadt,  from  the  name  of  another  small  vil- 
lage near  by.  Near  Blenheim,  also,  the 
French  defeated  the  Austrians  in  1800. 

Blennerhas'  sett,  Harman,  known  in 
connection  with  Aaron  Burr's  conspiracy, 
was  born  in  England  about  1764.  He  was 
of  an  Irish  family,  but,  becoming  dissatisfied 
with  Ireland,  sold  his  Irish  estates  for  a 
sum  exceeding  $100,000  and  came  to 
America.  He  bought  an  island  of  170 
acres  in  the  Ohio  River  near  Parkersburg, 
W.  Va.,  and  built  on  it  a  fine  mansion  and 
adorned  his  home  with  all  the  comforts 
and  refinements  which  culture  could  sug- 
gest and  wealth  supply.  Many  visitors 
enjoyed  his  hospitality,  and  among  them 
Aaron  Burr,  still  bitter  because  of  his 
political  defeat.  He  filled  Blennerhassett's 
mind  with  plans  of  forming  an  empire  in 
Mexico,  tor  which  he  made  extensive  prepa- 
rations. When  Burr  was  arrested  and 
brought  to  trial,  Blennerhassett  was  ar- 
rested, but  on  the  acquittal  of  Burr,  he 
was  released.  His  fine  property  was  sold 
to  creditors,  and  his  later  life  was  clouded 
and  unhappy.  He  died  on  the  Island  of 
Guernsey  in  1831. 

Blight,  a  diseased  condition  of  plants, 
causing  deadening  of  the  stems  or  roots, 
yellowing  and  early  falling  of  the  leaves, 
or  shriveling  and  premature  decay  of  the 
fruit.  In  a  restricted  sense  the  word  re- 
fers to  a  certain  mildew  affection  of  the 
leaves.  Blight  exists  among  plants  in 
their  wild  state,  and  is  often  aggravated 
by  cultivation.  Though  pre-eminently  a 
fungous  disease  (see  FUNGI),  it  may  ap- 
pear, as  often  shown  by  the  foliage  turn- 
ing yellow,  from  the  roots  being  poorly 
supplied  with  food  and  air.  From  the 
standpoint  of  the  producer,  blights  may 
be  roughly  classed  as  the  rusts  and  smuts 


of  grains,  blights  of  orchard  and  shade 
trees,  of  small  fruits  and  grapes  and  of 
garden  products;  though  several  or  all  of 
these  sorts  of  plants  may  be  attacked  by 
fungi  that  are  similar,  botanically,  or  are 
the  same  thing.  Often  a  single  species  of 
blight-producing  fungus  will  pass  through 
several  stages  of  development  on  entirely 
different  plants,  as  in  the  case  of  wheat 
rust.  (See  ^ECIDIOMYCETES.)  Damage  to 
cereals  from  rust  and  smut  in  the  United 
States  amounts  to  from  $25,000,000  to 
$30,000,000  yearly.  While  rust  is  com- 
mon, it  causes  damage  only  when  cool, 
damp  weather  allows  it  to  mature  more 
rapidly  than  the  grain.  While  the  black 
spores  (q.  v.)  of  rust  live  over  the  winter, 
in  the  case  of  those  orchard  blights  affect- 
ing the  wood,  only  those  spores  survive 
where  the  dead  and  healthy  tissues  meet. 
Here  form,  in  the  spring,  the  familiar 
sweet  masses  of  "gum,"  which  attract 
insects  and  so  scatter  their  spores.  Al| 
branches  showing  such  hold-over  blight 
should  be  pruned  out.  Certain  apple 
rusts  pass  one  stage  in  the  jelly-like  masses, 
commonly  noticed  on  cedar  trees  after 
spring  rains,  and  popularly  known  as 
cedar-apples.  Some  typical  fungous  dis- 
eases are  the  blights,  mildews,  scab  and 
rot  of  potatoes  beet-root  rot,  peach-leaf 
curl,  apple  scab,  rye  ergot,  corn  smut, 
loose  and  stinking  smut  of  wheat,  wilt 
disease  of  flax  and  of  cow-peas.  Often 
the  ground  becomes  infected,  as  in  several 
of  the  above,  and  must  be  abandoned  as 
regards  the  susceptible  crop.  Potato  scab 
and  smuts  that  are  transmitted  by  the 
seed  are  prevented  by  treating  the  seed 
with  a  weak  solution  of  4  per  cent,  formal- 
dehyde (one  pint  to  45  gallons  of  water). 
Blight  on  trees  and  small  fruits,  as  well  as 
insect  pests,  is  fought  by  spraying  (see 
SPRAYING  MIXTURES),  which  kills  the 
parasite  without  injuring  the  host.  The 
Department  of  Agriculture  investigated 
a  leaf-blight  that  ruins  nursery  seedlings 
(see  GRAFTING),  and  showed  by  experiment 
on  100,000  young  trees  that  treatment 
costing  but  90  cents  per  1,000  trees  netted 
profits  averaging  $13  per  1,000,  and  going 
as  high  as  $40.  Other  experiments  showed 
that  at  an  expense  of  15  cents  per  fruit- 
bearing  tree,  the  marketable  product  could 
be  increased  25  to  50  per  cent.  Black  rot 
affecting  grapes  was  first  studied  by  the 
Department,  which  discovered  a  treat- 
ment increasing  the  yield  20  to  80  per 
cent.  In  five  years  its  methods  were  used 
by  50,000  grape-growers.  Plant  breeding 
(q.  v.)  is  used  to  increase  the  power  of 
resisting  not  only  insects  and  fungi  but 
blight  induced  by  climatic  conditions  and 
inherent  weakness  which,  in  the  case  of 
the  California  raisin  grape,  sometimes  re- 
sults in  a  loss  of  a  million  dollars  in  a  single 


BLIND  FISHES 


228 


BLOOD 


year.  References:  Bulletins  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  and  of  the  State 
Experime'nt  Stations. 

Blind  Fishes.  The  caves  of  the  United 
States  are  inhabited  by  six  species  of  fish 
with  imperfect  eyes.  Five  of  them  have 
rudimentary  eyes,  and  in  one  the  eyes  are 
very  degenerate.  They  belong  to  the 
family  Amblyopsidae.  They  are  small  fishes 
related  to  minnows.  Their  senses  of  hear- 
ing and  touch  are  highly  developed  and 
enable  them  to  capture  prey.  The  forma- 
tion of  these  blind  animals  is  an  interesting 
problem.  They  respond  negatively  to  the 
stimulation  of  light,  and  doubtless  they 
sought  the  caves  voluntarily  instead  of 
being  carried  in  by  accident.  There  are 
also  blind  fishes  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean 
and  in  dark  places  along  the  shores.  See 
Eigenmann  in  the  Pop.  Science  Monthly, 
vols.  LVI  and  LVII,  1900. 

Block  and  Tackle,  a  combination  of 
fixed  and  movable  pulleys,  employed  to 
secure  what  en- 
TO  gineers  call  a  large 


'mechanical  advan- 
tage." There  are 
various  forms,  of 
which  that  repre- 
sented in  the  figure 
will  serve  as  a  type. 
Here  one  rope 
passes  over  each 
of  the  pulleys.  And 
since  each  movable 
pulley  gives  a  me- 
chanical advantage 
of  two,  it  is  evident 
that  with  the  block 
and  tackle  shown 
in  the  figure  one  is 
able  to  exert  a  force 
nearly  six  times  as 
great  as  without  its 
aid.  If  no  energy 
were  used  up  inside 
the  mechanism,  one 
could  lift  exactly 
six  times  as  much 
with  as  without  the 
tackle.  It  should 

be  carefully  observed  that  one  secures  no 
gain  in  energy  by  this  device.  The  energy 
stored  up  in  a  lifted  mass  is  always  a 
little  less  than  the  energy  required  to  lift 
it,  whether  a  block  and  tackle  be  used  or 
not. 

Block  System,  a  system  of  signals  at 
intervals  along  a  line  of  railroad,  intended 
to  decrease  the  danger  of  accident.  The 
system  of  telegraphing  the  arrival  of  a 
train  from  station  to  station,  used  in  Eng- 
land as  early  as  1839,  may  be  quoted  as  its 
origin.  It  was  first  introduced  into  the  U. 
S.  in  1876  by  the  Pennsylvania  railroad. 
In  general  the  block  system  divides  a  line 
into  sections,  upon  each,  of  which  only  one 


BLOCK  AND  TACKLE 


train  is  admitted  at  a  tim«.  The  system 
of  giving  staffs,  a  staff  being  given  to  a 
train  by  a  station-master  only  when  one 
has  been  returned  by  the  train  previously 
upon  that  section,  is  a  variety  of  block 
system  which  is  adapted  only  to  single 
lines.  The  serious  accidents  which  occur 
upon  American  railroads  have  led  to  an 
agitation  for  the  compulsory  use  of  the 
block  system,  which  is  universal  in  Eng- 
land but  not  in  America.  To  keep  the 
sections  clear  for  any  one  train  it  adds  the 
additional  safeguard  of  an  interval  of  space 
to  the  universal  practice  of  an  interval  of 
time  between  trains.  The  expense  of  the 
block  system  is  sometimes  lessened  by  au- 
tomatic devices  for  block  signals  which 
minimize  the  direct  manipulation  of  levers 
by  signalmen. 

Blockade,  in  naval  warfare  is  the  shut- 
ting up  of  a  port  of  a  country,  cutting  off 
communication  with  the  outside  world. 
It  is  effected  by  stationing  sufficient  num- 
bers of  ships  off  the  ports  to  make  entrance 
impracticable.  Neutral  powers,  because 
the  interference  with  their  commerce  injures 
them,  must  be  fully  notified  of  the  blockade 
by  the  state  that  attempts  it  Then  en- 
deavors to  deal  with  the  ports  blockaded 
become  contrary  to  the  law  of  nations, 
and  attempts  to  trade  with  such  ports 
render  ships  and  cargoes  liable  to  confisca- 
tion. But  if  blockades  are  to  be  binding 
on  neutrals,  they  must  not  merely  be 
blockades  on  paper  or  blockades  by 
proclamation.  They  must  also  be  phys- 
ically effective.  Among  famous  blockades 
are  that  of  the  European  coast  from  Den- 
mark to  Italy  in  1807-8,  when  Napoleon 
was  fighting  England;  the  Crimea  in  1854-6 
by  England,  France  and  Sardinia;  the  coast 
of  the  Confederate  States  by  the  Federal 
Government  during  1861-5;  Cuba  by 
America  in  1898;  and  Venezuela  by  Britain, 
Germany  and  Italy  in  1903. 

Blocmfontein  (bld&m' fan-tin'),  capital  of 
the  late  Orange  Free  State  (now  the  Orange 
River  Colony),  in  South  Africa.  Here,  be- 
fore the  outbreak  of  the  Boer  War  of  1899- 
1901,  was  held  the  conference  between 
President  Kruger  of  the  late  Transvaal 
Republic,  and  the  British  High  Commis- 
sioner of  South  Africa,  Sir  Alfred  (now 
Lord)  Milner.  The  conference  met  May 
30,  but  separated  June  5,  1899,  without 
having  come  to  any  agreement.  The  State 
joined  the  burgher  republic  of  the  Trans- 
vaal in  the  war  with  Britain,  and  the  capital 
(Bloemfontein)  was  entered  and  occupied 
by  the  British  under  Lord  Roberts,  March 
13,  1900.  TheJ  population  is  33,900,  of 
which  more  than  15,000  are  whites  and  the 
rest  natives. 

Blood,  the  circulating  fluid  of  animals. 
It  is  a  nutrient  fluid  of  varied  composition. 
In  the  course  of  its  circulation  it  is  con- 
tinually giving  nourishment  to  the  tissues 


+aiHiiiMnoHuiiiuioiiiiiiiiii!niiiMiiiiiioiuimiiioiiiimiuoiiiiu 


AERATING,  SEPARATING  AND  STORAGE 

SYSTEM 


Here    we    follow    the    blood    through    the    body,    first    through    the    separating    room,    or    liver,       g 
5        which  not  only  acts  as  a  separator,   but  also  stores  up  food  to  keep  the  body  going   between    meals, 
g        Into  the  pipe  leading  from   the   separating  room   is   emptied  used   blood  from  the  lower  parts   of  the 
g        body  and   from  headquarters  through  two   additional  pipes,   and  the   common  stream  flows   on  to   the       = 
=        heart  pump,  which   forces  it  to   both  sides  of  the  aerating   room,  where  it  is  spread  out  and   exposed 
to  the  fresh  air  for  purification.     Then  back  it  gees  to  the  left  side  of  the  pump  and  is  sent  into  the 
body  again  for  use. 

= 

i;:iin true: \\::\\a muiiimiiiiiic: 1111:11:: IIIIIIH iiiiiioimiiiiiioiiii iiaiiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiiia IIIIINCJ* 


BLOODROOT 


BLOOMINGTON 


and  carrying  away  from  them  worn-out 
material.  Therefore,  it  carries  on  a  sort 
of  exchange  with  the  tissues,  in  which 
there  are  certain  sources  of  loss  and  certain 
sources  of  gain  to  the  blood.  For  example, 
it  loses  to  the  tissues  soluble  food  material 
and  oxygen;  in  the  lungs  it  loses  carbon 
dioxid  (CO2);  through  the  skin  it  loses 
water  and  certain  salts  in  solution;  and 
through  the  kidneys  it  loses  the  broken- 
down  protoplasm  that  contains  nitrogen 
and  water.  But  the  gain  keeps  pace  with 
the  loss;  in  the  lungs  it  receives  oxygen; 
from  the  digestive  system  it  receives  soluble 
food  material  and  water;  from  the  tissues 
it  receives  the  broken-down  material  in  the 
form  of  carbon  dioxid,  water  and  nitro- 
genous waste.  From  these  statements  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  blood  is  the  agent  of 
exchange  between  the  tissues  and  the  out- 
side world. 

There  is  a  similar  circulating  fluid  in  in- 
sects, mollusks,  worms  and  other  simple 
animals  as  well  as  in  the  vertebrated  ani- 
mals. Contrary  to  the  usual  statement, 
this  fluid  in  the  simpler  animals,  also,  con- 
tains solid  particles  or  corpuscles,  though 
they  correspond  with  the  white  blood  cor- 
puscles rather  than  with  the  red  ones.  In 
the  fluid  part  of  the  blood  of  the  crayfish, 
also,  for  example,  there  is  a  substance  which 
acts  as  an  oxygen  carrier. 

As  everyone  knows,  the  blood  undergoes 
changes  from  arterial,  bright  red  color  to 
venous  of  dark  blue  tint,  and  back  again 
from  venous  to  arterial;  but  we  should  un- 
derstand clearly  where  these  changes  take 
place.  It  is  not  in  the  ordinary  blood 
vessels  which  have  thick  walls,  but  in  the 
network  of  capillaries — those  small  tubes 
with  very  thin  walls  that  connect  the  ar- 
teries and  veins.  For  example,  the  blood 
is  rendered  arterial  in  the  capillaries  of  the 
lungs  and  venous  in  the  capillaries  of  the 
tissues;  also,  all  the  exchanges  spoken  of 
above  take  place  in  the  capillaries. 

Blood  is  made  up  of  a  fluid  plasma,  in 
which  float  minute  corpuscles.  In  higher 
animals  there  are  two  kinds,  red  and  white. 
The  red  ones  are  much  more  numerous  than 
the  white  (in  the  human  body  about  355 
red  corpuscles  for  one  white).  They  are 
oxygen  carriers  and  their  color  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  the  substance  (hemoglobin) 
which  holds  the  oxygen.  They  have  a 
regular  life-history;  they  live  a  few  weeks 
and  break  down,  disappearing  principally 
in  the  liver  and  the  spleen.  It  follows,  since 
they  disappear,  that  they  must  be  renewed, 
and  new  ones  are  being  continually  formed 
in  the  red  marrow  of  bones.  The  white 
blood  corpuscles  are  larger  in  size;  they 
possess  the  power  of  changing  form  and 
creeping.  They  gather  particles  of  foreign 
substance,  and  creep  with  them  out  of  the 
blood  vessels,  and  even  to  the  surface  of 
the  body.  They  also  feed  upon  bacteria, 


and  help  to  rid  the  body  of  harmful  kinds. 
The  white  blood  corpuscles  are,  in  a  <sense, 
eating  cells.  They  are  renewed  from  the 
spleen  and  the  lymphatic  glands.  Physi- 
ologists now  recognize  several  kinds  of 
white  blood  corpuscles. 

The  clotting  of  blood  prevents  profuse 
bleeding.  After  a  cut  the  blood  tends  to 
form  a  stringy  fibrin  in  which  the  corpuscles 
get  entangled  and  this  forms  a  sort  of  plug 
to  the  smaller  vessels  and  prevents  furthei 
bleeding.  The  cut  ends  of  larger  blood  ves- 
sels cannot  be  stopped  in  this  way. 

Bloodroot,  a  wild-flower  belonging  to 
the  poppy  family,  of  much  beauty  in  the 
open  but  quickly  perishing  when  plucked. 
It  is  sometimes  called  Indian  Paint,  also 
Red  Puccoon.  It  gets  its  name  from  the 
orange-red  juice  that  fills  its  thick  root- 
stock.  This  juice,  to  be  obtained  from 
all  parts  of  the  plant  and  which  stains  the 
hands  in  picking,  was  highly  valued  by  the 
Indian  and  the  pioneer  mother;  the  for- 
mer borrowed  it  for  his  war  paint,  the  lat- 
ter dripped  it  on  sugar  and  gave  it  as 
remedy  in  cases  of  colds.  The  Indians 
to-day  use  the  juice  to  dye  baskets,  quills 
and  moose  hair,  and  use  it,  too,  as  a  medi- 
cine. The  white  man  also  appreciates  its 
medicinal  properties.  Bloodroot  is  widely 
distributed  from  Maine  to  Florida  and 
west  to  Nebraska.  The  blossom  grows 
on  a  naked  stem,  and  there  is  a  single,  large 
round  leaf,  which  encloses  the  bud,  un- 
folds and  grows  with  the  flower.  There 
are  numerous  stamens,  offering  much 
pollen  to  visiting  insects.  At  night  the 
blossom  closes. 

Bloomfield,  N.  J.,  a  town  in  Essex 
County,  on  the  Morris  Canal,  and  on  the 
Erie  and  the  Lackawanna  railway  u  miles 
northwest  of  Jersey  City.  Settled  towards 
the  close  of  the  i7th  century  as  a  part  ot 
Newark  County,  it  was  separated  in  1812 
and  incorporated  a  township,  receiving 
its  name  in  honor  of  Joseph  Bloomfield,  a 
revolutionary  general  officer,  who  was 
governor  of  New  Jersey  between  the  years 
1803-12.  It  has  a  number  of  attractive 
suburban  residences,  together  with  several 
important  manufacturing  establishments, 
including  electric  elevators,  railroad  brake- 
shoes,  paper  mills,  hat,  silk  and  woolen 
cloth  factories,  rubber  goods,  boots  and 
shoes,  pins,  organs,  etc.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  German  Theological  Seminary  of 
Newark  (Presb.),  has  several  notable  Pres- 
byterian churches  and  those  of  other  denom- 
inations, together  with  a  Memorial  Library, 
one  or  four  banks  and  an  attractive  public 
park.  Population,  17,000. 

Bloomington,  a  city  of  Illinois,  county 
seat  of  McLean  County.  It  is  a  handsome 
city,  with  wide  streets,  well  shaded,  with 
fine  residences  and  public  buildings.  It  has 
good  railroad  facilities,  four  trunk  lines 
and  two  interurban  electric  roads.  It  has  a 


BLOOMINGTON 


230 


BLUEBERRY 


large  wholesale  trade  and  numerous  manu- 
facturing industries.  Here  is  the  Illinois 
Wesleyan  University,  which  has  a  faculty 
of  40  and  about  1,000  students.  The 
public  schools  are  of  high  grade,  and  there 
is  a  fine  public  library.  Two  miles  dis- 
tant, and  connected  by  electric  railway,  is 
Normal,  where  are  located  the  State  Nor- 
mal University  and  the  State  Soldiers' 
Home.  Bloomington  was  the  home  of  the 
late  Ex- Vice- President  Adlai  Stevenson.  Pop- 
ulation, 37,000. 

Bloomington,  Ind.,  a  city,  the  county 
seat  of  Monroe  County,  51  miles  south- 
west of  Indianapolis,  on  the  Chicago,  In- 
dianapolis &  Louisville  Railroad.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  Indiana  State  University, 
with  75  instructors  and  1,700  students. 
The  city  dates  from  about  the  year  1818, 
and  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and  municipal 
council.  Its  chief  industries  embrace  fur- 
niture, hub  and  spoke  and  leather- work- 
ing factories,  woolen  mills  and  tanneries. 
There  are  extensive  limestone  quarries 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  city,  which  add 
to  its  industrial  activities.  The  population  is 
now  11,383. 

Blouet  (blob'  <J') ,  Paul,  a  French  author, 
journalist,  and  lecturer,  who  wrote  under 
the  nom  de  plume  of  Max  O'Rell,  was 
born  in  Brittany,  March  2,  1848,  and  edu- 
cated in  Paris.  He  took  part  in  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war  and  was  made  prisoner  at 
Sedan  (Sept.  3,  1870);  he  afterward  fought 
against  the  Commune,  was  wounded  ar>d 
pensioned.  For  a  time  he  taught  French 
at  St.  Paul's  School,  in  London,  and  wrote 
his  first  work,  which  became  instantly 
popular,  John  Bull  and  His  Island.  He 
subsequently  published  John  Bull's  Daugh- 
ters; Jacques  Bonhomme;  and,  after  a  ler.- 
turing  visit  to  this  country,  he  issued 
Jonathan  and  His  Continent.  He  died 
May  24,  1903. 

Blowing  Machines,  machines  for  pro- 
ducing artificial  currents  of  compressed  air, 
their  uses  being  well-nigh  as  manifold  as 
their  forms,  from  the  simple,  early  black- 
smith's bellows  to  the  modern  rotary  jet 
disk  and  fan  blowers  or  exhausters  of 
more  or  less  ingenious  mechanical  types. 
Among  the  uses  to  which  they  are  to-day 
put  are,  as  contrivances  for  producing 
forced  draught  for  boiler  furnaces;  warm 
or  cool  air  in  school  rooms  and  crowded 
public  buildings;  to  remove  dust  and  re- 
fuse from  the  same  or  from  factories  and 
work  rooms;  to  supplant  vitiated  air  by 
pure  air;  and  to  furnish,  by  means  of  elec- 
tric fans  or  the  blowing  engine,  a  drying  cur- 
rent of  air  for  grain  or  other  substances, 
likely  to  spoil  by  being  stored  in  crowded 
and  heated  elevators  or  warehouses.  One 
of  their  chief  and  important  uses  is  for 
supplying  the  airblast  for  Bessemer  con- 
verters and  blast-furnaces,  by  means  of 


high-pressure  steam-cylinders,  which  are 
frequently  compounded. 

For  ventilation  purposes  the  disk-blower 
is  largely  used  and  driven  by  an  electric 
motor  or  by  belting  connected  with  an 
engine;  other  contrivances  are  what  is 
known  as  the  positive  blower,  such  as  the 
Root  type,  which  exerts  a  higher  pressure 
than  the  disk  or  fan  blowers;  also  the 
steam  jet  blower,  which  creates  induced 
currents  of  air  on  the  principle  of  the  in- 
jector, such  as  are  used  in  locomotives 
and  fire  engines  for  creating  a  powerful 
draft. 

Blow'pipe,  a  small  instrument  used  for 
glass  ^  blowing  and  soldering  metals,  and 
also  in  chemistry  to  determine  the  nature 
of  substances.  By  means  of  it  a  jet  of  air 
is  thrown  into  a  flame,  causing  the  flame 
to  burn  with  great  rapidity,  and  increasing 
its  effect  by  making  it  occupy  a  smaller 
space.  The  blow-pipe  consists  of  a  fun- 
nel-shaped tube  of  metal,  about  eight  inches 
long,  closed  at  the  wider  end  and  open  at 
the  upper  end,  which  forms  the  mouth- 
piece. Near  the  lower  end  a  small  tube 
passes  out,  through  which  a  fine  current 
of  air  can  be  blown.  When  directed  against 
a  candle  or  gas  jet,  it  makes  the  heat  of  the 
flame  very  intense,  so  that  hard  substances 
may  be  quickly  melted. 

Blucher  (bloo'ker),  Qebhard  von,  a  dis- 
tinguished Prussian  general,  was  born  at 
Rostock  in  1742.  In  1793  he  fought 
against  the  French  on  the  Rhine,  and 
showed  great  genius  as  a  cavalry  leader. 
War  with  the  French  was  renewed  in  1806, 
and  Blucher,  as  lieutenant-general,  led  the 
vanguard  at  the  battle  of  Auestadt,  and 
soon  after  was  captured.  He  was,  however, 
exchanged,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  ensuing  struggle  with  Napoleon.  To- 
gether with  the  other  powers  allied  against 
Napoleon,  the  Prussians,  with  Blucher  as 
commander-in-chief,  defeated  the  French 
conqueror  at  Leipsic  in  1813.  iHe  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal,  and  the 
next  year  led  the  Prussians  against  France. 
He  was  repeatedly  defeated,  but  finally 
marched  victoriously  into  Paris,  when 
his  king  made  him  Prince  of  Wahlstadt. 
After  Napoleons  return,  in  1815,  Blucher 
again  took  general  command,  and,  though 
defeated  at  Ligny,  his  timely  arrival  at 
the  field  of  Waterloo  decided  that  great 
victory.  He  received  new  honors,  and 
four  years  later  died  on  his  estate  of  Krie- 
blowitz,  in  Silesia,  September  12,  1819. 
He  was  called  Marshal  Forwards,  and  is 
still  a  great  hero  among  the  German  people. 

Blueberry,  the  term  for  a  small  fruit 
commonly  applied  in  New  England  to  a 
berry  of  the  Vaccinium  species.  It  is 
sometimes  confounded  with  the  bilberry 
or  huckleberry,  though  it  is  of  a  distinct 
though  allied  class.  See  HUCKLEBERRY. 


BLUEBIRD 


231 


BOA 


Bluebird,  also  called  Blue  Robin,  an 
early  spring  bird  of  the  United  States, 
belonging  to  the  thrush  family.  Some 
individuals  pass  the  winter  in  sheltered 
places  as  far  north  as  southern  Connecticut. 
It  appears  very  early  in  the  spring,  and  in 
New  England  begins  nesting  in  April.  By 
the  middle  of  the  month  about  five  bluish 
white  eggs  are  laid.  It  is  a  little  longer 
than  the  English  sparrow,  has  feathers  of 
a  rich  bright  blue  above  and  reddish  chest- 
nut on  the  throat  and  breast,  and  white 
below.  The  female  is  duller  in  color  than 
the  male.  It  is  of  a  happy  social  disposi- 
tion, and  builds  its  nest  in  orchards  and 
near  houses,  and  will  take  advantage  of  a 
box,  a  deserted  woodpecker's  nest  or  a 
hole  in  a  fence  post.  A  pair  raise  from 
two  to  three  broods  a  summer,  at  first  the 
young  birds  being  almost  black.  One 
of  the  first  birds  to  come,  they  are  one  of 
the  last  to  leave,  remaining  until  the  frostc 
of  November. 

"Ah,  now  that  you  are  gone,  I  know 
The  summer's  gone!" 

The  voice  is  soft  and  musical,  the  tem- 
per of  the  bird  most  amiable.  Its  beauty 
and  also  its  usefulness  as  an  insect  destroyer 
make  it  a  very  desirable  neighbor;  one 
whom  it  were  well  to  invite  close  by  build- 
ing for  it  a  tiny  house. 

Blue  Books  or  Parliamentary  Papers 
are  the  official  reports,  returns  and  docu- 
ments printed  for  the  British  government, 
and  laid  before  the  houses  of  Parliament 
for  the  use  of  members.  They  are  uni- 
formly stitched  up  in  dark- blue  paper 
wrappers  (in  France  they  are  yellow;  in 
Germany  and  Portugal  they  are  white; 
in  Spain  red;  and  in  Italy  green);  and  are 
called  from  the  color  of  their  covers  Blue 
Books  include,  besides  statistics  of  the 
home  trade  in  England,  consular  reports 
from  abroad;  bills  presented  to  and  acts 
passed  by  parliament;  reports  of  com- 
mittees of  both  houses;  and  all  papers  and 
returns  moved  for  by  members  or  granted 
by  government  on  particular  subjects. 

Blue' fish,  a  salt-water  fish  of  blue  color 
merging  into  greenish,  widely  distributed 
in  temperate  seas.  Its  ordinary  size  is 
from  two  to  three  feet,  weighing  four  to  ten 
pounds,  but  larger  sizes  are  taken  It 
is  highly  prized  as  a  table  fish  and  also  as 
a  game  fish.  It  is  very  destructive,  and 
appears  to  eat  nearly  everything  that  swims 
Bluefish  go  in  large  schools,  like  a  pack 
of  hungry  wolves,  killing  fish  not  much  in- 
ferior to  themselves  in  size,  and  more  than 
is  required  for  their  support. 

Blue  Jay  (Cyanocitta  Aristata).  Of  the 
jay  family,  birds  that  are  common  in  the 
Old  World,  the  American  blue  jay  will  be 
familiar  to  most  bird  lovers.  It  is  smaller 
than  its^  European  kin,  but,  like  its  foreign 
cousin,  it  has  a  fine  crest  and  a  beautiful 


BLUE  JAY 


purple  blue  plumage,  though  its  song  is 
harsher,  and  it  is  a  great  depredator,  and 
sometimes  devours 
the  eggs  and  young  of 
other  birds,  especially 
after  the  breeding 
season.  It  is  also  a 
fighter,  though  its 
courage  is  not  of  a 
high  order,  attacking 
owls  and  squirrels  at 
times;  while  its  food 
consists  of  anything 
it  can  obtain  in  win- 
ter, and  in  summer 
feeding  on  insects, 
nuts,  seeds  and  fruits. 
It  is  found  along  the 
coast  of  North  Amer- 
ica from  Newfound- 
land and  the  Cana- 
dian maritime  prov- 
inces south  to  Flor- 
ida and  the  Gulf,  and 
inland  as  far  as  the 
plains.  The  long-tailed  blue  jay  is  an  in- 
habitant of  Central  and  South  America. 

Blue  Laws,  a  name  sometimes  given  to 
the  early  laws  of  the  New  England  states, 
especially  of  the  New  Haven  colony.  The 
appellation  probably  came  from  the  strict- 
ness and  severity  of  the  early  rules  of  the 
Puritans.  No  such  distinct  system  of 
laws  as  the  blue  laws,  however,  existed  in 
New  Haven. 

Blue  Ridge,  the  range  of  the  Alleghe- 
nies  which  lies  nearest  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  and  extends  in  a  northeast  and 
southwest  direction  through  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina  and 
Georgia.  The  spur  in  Pennsylvania  is 
called  South  Mountain.  From  the  James 
River  to  the  line  of  North  Carolina  the 
ridge  is  called  the  Allegheny  Mountain. 
Blue  Warbler.  See  BLUE  BIRD. 
Boa,  a  name  loosely  applied  to  large 
serpents  that  crush  their  prey  in  coils  of 
their  bodies.  The  name  properly  belongs 
to  the  boa  constrictor  and  the  anaconda, 
both  natives  of  tropical  South  America. 
The  former  lives  in  dry  bushy  regions  and 
the  latter  in  damp  places;  it  is  often  called 
the  water  boa.  The  boa  constrictor  at- 
tains a  length  of  twelve  feet  and  upward, 
but  the  anaconda  is  much  larger.  It  is 
difficult  to  get  trustworthy  measurements, 
but  it  is  doubtful  that  it  exceeds  twenty 
feet  in  length.  They  are  both  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  pythons,  which  are 
residents  of  the  tropical  regions  of  the  old 
world.  The  boas  have  no  poison  fangs, 
but  their  powers  of  crushing  are  great. 
They  are  able  to  swallow  whole  animals 
the  size  of  a  small  dog,  or,  perhaps,  even  a 
goat.  After  feeding  in  this  way,  they  re- 
main torpid  for  several  weeks  to  complete 


BOADICEA 


232 


BOBOLINK 


the  process  of  digestion,  and  during  this 
period  they  may  be  easily  killed.  See 
SNAKES. 

Boadicea  (bo' d-dt-se' a) ,  "the  British  war- 
rior queen,"  was  wife  of  the  king  of  the 
Iceni,  a  tribe  existing  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans,  living  in  the  region  now  occupied 
by  the  English  counties  of  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk.  At  her  husband's  death,  about 
60  A.  D.,  the  Romans  seized  her  land  and 
treated  her  and  her  people  cruelly.  Boadicea, 
enraged,  gathered  a  large  army,  captured 
several  Roman  colonies  and  destroyed  as 
many  as  70,000  Romans.  She  was  in 
turn  defeated  with  loss,  and  in  despair 
killed  herself  by  poison.  The  poets  Cowper 
and  Tennyson  have  told  her  story  in  verse. 

Boar,  the  male  of  swine  or,  when  ap- 
plied to  the  wild  stock  of  swine,  used 
for  either  sex.  Its  native  country  is  the 
Old  World,  where  the  wild  stock  abounds 
in  parts  of  Europe,  in  Asia  and  in  Africa. 
The  domestic  breeds  of  swine  are  all  proba- 
bly descendants  of  the  wild  stock.  The 
wild  boar  is  a  large,  powerful  beast,  meas- 
uring about  four  feet  in  length.  Its  color 
is  dark  brown.  It  comes  from  its  place 
of  concealment  at  night,  feeding  on  roots, 
herbs,  grubs  etc.  Boar-hunting  has  long 
been  considered  one  of  the  most  exciting 
sports  of  the  chase  It  was  once  a  favorite 
sport  in  England,  and  is  still  practiced 
in  parts  of  Europe,  India  and  Syria.  In 
some  places  toils  and  nets  are  used;  in 
others  dogs,  which  bring  the  boar  to  bay, 
when  he  is  killed  with  a  spear  or  a  knife. 
When  at  bay  he  is  very  dangerous,  and  will 
display  remarkable  courage  and  tenacity. 
The  bristles  are  in  demand  for  brushes. 

Board  of  Health.  This  name  is  given 
to  the  body  which  is  created  by  the  govern- 
ment of  a  city,  or  state  or  nation  for  the 
purpose  of  protecting  the  health  of  the 
jeople.  A  national  board  of  health  was 
<et  up  by  the  U.  S.  government  in  1879; 
but  after  four  years  it  was  discontinued, 
and  its  duties  divided  among  other  offices. 
But  most  of  the  states  support  their  own 
boards  of  health  A  board  was  established 
as  early  as  1869  in  Massachusetts,  and  the 
example  was  quickly  followed.  Large  cities 
have  city  boards  of  health.  Boards  of 
health  regulate  the  sale  and  preparation 
of  foods  and  medicines;  and  they  control 
the  erection  of  buildings  and  all  that  con- 
cerns cleanliness  and  sanitation.  They 
enforce  needful  precautions  against  in- 
fectious diseases  and  epidemics. 

Board  of  Trade,  an  organization  whose 
members  more  advantageously  transact 
business  together  than  separately.  Gen- 
erally it  is  an  exchange  where  cotton,  grain, 
produce  or  provisions  are  dealt  in.  It  orig- 
inated at  Marseilles  about  1600.  The 
Chicago  Board,  founded  in  1848,  is  the 
greatest  grain  market  in  the  world.  It  has 


established  a  uniform  system  of  inspection 
and  grading.  It  expressly  provides  for 
actual  delivery  of  everything  bought  and 
sold,  even  when  transferred  by  margin 
deals.  Business  is  transacted  by  making 
contracts.  These  require  delivery  at  a 
specified  date,  and  are  known  as  futures. 
Part-payments,  called  margins,  are  made 
on  the  day  of  the  deal,  and  consist  of  money 
or  securities  deposited  with  the  broker  to 
cover  probable  fluctuations  in  price,  the 
broker  providing  the  balance.  Suppose  a 
member  buys  5,000  bushels  of  wheat. 
He  deposits  $250  as  margin  to  cover 
five  cents'  possible  decline  in  the  price  per 
bushel.  Should  the  price  advance  the 
trader  can  sell,  take  the  profit  and  with- 
draw his  deposit.  If  the  price  decline,  the 
trader  deposits  enough  more  to  cover  the 
decline,  or  sells,  losing  as  much  of  his  mar- 
gin as  the  amount  of  the  decline,  the  broker's 
commissions  and  the  interest  on  the  money 
the  broker  advanced.  Trading  on  margins 
is  the  leading  feature  of  boards  of  trade. 
Almost  every  exchange  has  a  clearing- 
house or  establishment  where  differences 
of  accounts  are  adjusted.  At  the  close  of 
business,  daily,  all  dealings  are  reported. 
Members  who  have  lost  money  send  cer- 
tified checks  for  the  amount,  those  who 
have  made  it  receive  payment.  Though 
business  on  the  floor  is  transacted  with 
noise  and  seeming  confusion,  and  is  vast 
in  volume,  it  is  carried  on  with  speed  and 
ease.  One  of  the  means  that  bring  these 
results  about  is  the  trader's  use  of  a  sign- 
language. 

Board'  man,  George  Dana,  a  Baptist 
American  missionary,  was  born  at  Liver- 
more,  Maine,  in  1810.  In  1825  he  went  to 
Burma,  and  there  threw  himself  into  mission 
work,  especially  among  the  Karens,  becom- 
ing practically  founder  of  the  Karen  mission. 
Worn  out  by  his  labors,  he  died  at  the 
early  age  of  30  (Feb.  n,  1831),  having 
accomplished  what  few  men  attain  in  a 
long  life.  He  left  seventy  members  of 
his  mission  church,  and  within  a  few  years, 
by  means  of  the  seed  he  had  sown,  thou- 
sands of  the  Karens  were  converted. 

Bobolink,  a  beautiful  American  bird. 
Passing  the  winter  in  S.  America,  it  comes 
northward  in  the  early  spring,  and  breeds 
from  New  Jersey  north  to  Nova  Scotia 
and  westward  to  Utah.  Its  length  is  about 
seven  or  eight  inches,  and  its  color  varies 
with  the  season  In  the  early  summer 
the  male  is  black,  buff  and  white,  while 
the  female  is  sparrow-like  in  plumage. 
This  bright  coat  the  male  changes  in  July 
and  August  for  one  like  that  of  its  mate, 
and  journeying  south,  they  are  shot  for 
the  table  under  the  name  of  reed-birds. 
The  birds  cease  singing  at  the  close  of  the 
nesting  season  In  late  autumn  they  ap- 
pear in  the  cultivated  fields  of  rice  in  South 


BOB  WHITE 


233 


BCEOTIA 


BOBOLINK 


Carolina  and  Georgia.  Tkey  are  h«re 
known  as  rice-birds,  and  do  great  damage 
to  the  rice  crops. 

From  here  they  go  to  their  distant 
winter  quarters  in  the  West  Indies  and 
South  America.  The 
Bobolink  is  known  by 
many  names,  being 
called  May  bird,  Mea- 
dow-bird, American  Or- 
tolan, Butter-bird  and 
Skunk  Black-bird.  Un- 
like most  birds,  his  black 
color  is  on  the  breast, 
above  he  is  light,  scarcely 
to  be  distinguished  from 
the  meadow-grass  in 
which  he  makes  his 
home.  The  nest  upon 
the  ground  is  built  large- 
ly of  this  grass,  with 
sometimes  a  few  leaves. 
The  eggs,  three  to  seven 
in  number,  vary  in  size 
and  color.  Insects  are  their  chief  food. 
The  Bobolink  is  a  shy  bird;  seldom  seen, 
but  often  heard,  the  song  of  the  male  is 
musical,  rippling  and  jolly.  John  Burroughs 
calls  him  "the  gladdest  bird  that  sings  and 
flies."  .  .  . 

"Bubbling  throat  and  hovering  flight 
And  jubilant  heart  as  e'er  was  made." 
Bob  White,  a  very  interesting  and  use- 
ful bird,  distributed  throughout  the  United 
States  from  Maine  to  Dakota  and  south 
to  the  Gulf.  He  is  usually  called  quail, 
but  belongs  to  a  different  family  from  the 
quail  of  the  old  world.  He  is  a  true  friend 
to  the  farmer,  making  way  with  seeds  of 
weeds  and  with  destructive  insects,  eats 
the  potato  beetle  and  the  moth  responsible 
for  the  dreaded  cut-worm.  The  male  is 
10  inches  in  length;  above,  wood-brown 
barred  with  black,  near  the  tail  mottled 
gray;  front  of  head  black;  throat  white; 
under  part,  whitish  marked  with  black; 
above  the  eye  on  each  side  of  the  head  a 
long  line  of  white.  His  call  is  most  char- 
acteristic, the  loud,  clear  whistle  a  distinct 
"Bob  White,"  "Bob  White."  It  nests  on 
the  ground ;  in  open  fields,  by  roadside  wall, 
and  in  scrubby  places,  the  loose  nest  made 
of  grass,  leaves,  weeds  and  straw.  The 
numerous  and  conspicuous  eggs  are  white, 
and  as  a  rule  vary  in  number  from  10  to  18, 
though  25  have  been  known.  Two  or 
three  broods  are  raised  by  one  pair.  The 
mating  season  begins  early  in  May,  but  eggs 
are  found  from  late  May  till  late  summer. 
"There  are  few  prettier  sights  than  a  family 
of  old  quail  witn  their  young  walking  about 
fearlessly  in  a  woodland  meadow.  The 
bird's  domestic  life  is  particularly  inter- 
esting from  the  part  the  male  plays  in  the 
family,  helping  to  build  the  nest,  feeding 
his  mate  on  the  eggs,  and,  in  case  of  her 
death,  brooding  in  her  place."  (Dugmore). 


There  is  also  a  Florida  Bob  White, 
smaller  and  darker  than  the  one  to  the 
north.  As  is  well  known,  Bob  White 
is  a  valued  game  bird,  in  the  north  called 
quail,  in  the  south,  partridge.  See  Dug- 
more:  Bird  Homes;  Merriam:  Birds  of  V •Ul- 
lage and  Field. 

Boccaccio  (bok-kd'cho),  Giovanni,  an 
Italian  novelist,  was  born  either  at  Paris 
or  at  Florence  in  1313.  The  early  part 
of  his  life  was  spent  at  Naples,  where  he 
fell  in  love  with  a  princess,  whom,  under 
the  name  of  Fiammetta,  he  has  made 
famous  in  his  poems  and  stories.  His  most 
noted  work  is  The  Decameron.  It  opens 
with  a  description  of  the  plague  at  Florence 
in  1348.  A  party  of  ladies  and  gentlemen 
who  have  left  the  city  for  rest,  while  away 
ten  days  (whence  the  name  Decameron) 
in  telling  stories  in  a  garden  attached  to  a 
country  villa.  In  all,  a  hundred  tales  are 
told.  Boccaccio  took  the  popular  stories 
of  the  day  and  told  them  in  a  beautiful 
and  classic  Italian,  which  has  placed  him 
among  the  great  romancers  of  Europe. 
Many  later  writers  have  drawn  their  plots 
from  his  stories.  Later  in  life,  Boccaccio 
gave  up  the  gay  life  of  society  and  devoted 
himself  to  business  and  study.  He  became 
acquainted  with  Petrarch,  the  great  Italian 
poet,  and  they  were  for  long  close  friends. 
Boccaccio  died  at  Certaldo,  Italy,  in  1375. 

Bodleian  (bod-le'dn)  Library,  the  public 
library  of  Oxford  University,  England, 
named  after  Sir  Thomas  Bodley,  who  gave 
to  it  many  books  and  did  much  to  build 
it  up  in  the  early  part  of  the  r;th  century. 
Many  other  valuable  collections  have  been 
added  to  it,  and  at  present  it  is  entitled 
to  a  copy  of  every  book  published  in  Great 
Britain.  The  library  is  especially  rich  in 
works  connected  with  biblical  literature 
and  in  materials  for  British  history.  It 
contains  about  600,000  volumes  and  about 
30,000  manuscripts. 

Bceotia  (be-o'sht-a),  one  of  the  ancient 
divisions  of  Greece,  lying  between  Attica 
and  Megara  on  the  south  and  Locris  and 
Phocis  on  the  north.  Its  area  was  about 
1,120  square  miles,  a  little  smaller  than 
Rhode  Island.  It  was  largely  inclosed  by 
mountains,  and  when  its  main  river,  the 
Cephissus,  poured  its  swollen  floods  into 
Lake  Copias  in  the  spring,  the  plain  for 
miles  around  became  a  lake.  In  the  days 
of  Alexander  the  Great  a  vast  tunnel  was 
cut  in  the  rock  for  the  discharge  of  the 
water,  but  this  fell  into  ruin  and  the  dis- 
trict remained  marshy  and  unhealthful 
until  it  was]  Drained  in  1886.  The  four- 
teen greater  cities  of  Boeotia  formed  the 
Boeotian  League  with  Thebes  at  its  head, 
and  many  famous  battles  were  fought  here. 
The  people  of  this  district  fell  behind  the 
rest  of  the  Greeks  in  culture,  so  that  Bceotia 
became  a  general  name  for  dullness;  but 
the  district,  nevertheless,  gave  birth  to  the 


BOERHAAVE 


234 


BOER  WAR 


great  genera!  Epaminondas,  to  the  poets 
Hesiod  and  Pindar,  and  to  the  historian 
Plutarch.  Boeotia  and  Attica  together 
now  form  a  province  in  the  kingdom  of 
Greece,  with  an  area  of  2,472  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  407,063.  See  PLAT.«A 
and  THEBES. 

Boerhaave  (bor'hdv  or  bodr'h&-ve),  Her- 
mann, the  most  famous  physician  of  the 
1 8th  century,  was  born  near  Leyden  in  1668. 
After  a  long  and  thorough  course  of  study, 
he  was  appointed  lecturer  on  the  theory  of 
medicine  at  the  University  of  Leyden.  He 
devoted  himself  to  chemistry,  mathematics 
and  botany,  and  besides  his  work  in  his  own 
line  he  was  for  a  time  engrossed  by  these 
studies.  He  published  several  works  on 
medicine  and  a  work  on  chemistry.  He 
became  known  throughout  Europe,  and 
patients  and  students  flocked  to  him  from 
all  countries.  Peter  the  Great  visited  him 
and  received  instruction  from  him,  and  the 
story  is  told  that  a  Chinese  mandarin  sent 
him  a  letter  addressed  "  Boerhaave,  cele- 
brated physician,  Europe."  He  was  a 
brilliant  lecturer,  and  his  personal  char- 
acter was  admirable.  After  his  death,  in 
1738,  the  city  of  Leyden  raised  a  monu- 
ment to  his  memory  in  the  church  of  St. 
Peter,  inscribed  "To  the  Health-giving 
Skill  of  Boerhaave." 

Boers  (boorz),  meaning  "farmers,"  is  the 
name  given  to  the  Dutch  colonists  of  South 
Africa,  who  are  engaged  in  agriculture  and 
cattle-raising.  As  early  as  the  1 7th  century 
their  first  settlement  was  made  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  (1652),  and  they  still  have  the 
old  Dutch  characteristics,  especially  the  love 
of  freedom,  with  an  added  energy  and  reck- 
lessness, although  they  have  mixed  to  some 
extent  with  other  races.  The  Cape  was 
ceded  to  England  in  1814,  and  in  1835)  the 
Boers,  not  liking  the  new  government,  as 
it  prohibited  the  holding  of  slaves,  went 
northward  in  bands  and  occupied  Natal, 
the  Orange  Free  State  and  the  Transvaal. 
They  seized  the  land  of  the  natives,  whom 
they  reduced  to  a  sort  of  servitude.  They 
are  an  interesting  people,  sober,  industrious, 
good  horsemen  and  splendid  marksmen. 
See  NATAL,  ORANGE  RIVER  COLONY  and 
TRANSVAAL. 

Boer  War  (1899-1901).  Dutch  disaffec- 
tion toward  England's  domination  in  South 
Africa  long  existed,  and  in  the  country  there 
was  always  an  atmosphere  of  hostility  and, 
at  periods,  of  actual  strife.  Manifestations 
of  racial  resentment  date  back  as  far  as  the 
era  of  the  closing  rule  01  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company,  at  the  end  of  the  i8th 
century  and  the  occupation  of  the  Cape  by 
the  British.  Still  more  incensed  became 
the  Dutch  population  when  England  abol- 
ished slavery  and  sought  to  discipline  the 
Boers,  owing  to  their  harsh  treatment  and 
enslavement  of  the  Basutos  and  Griquas. 
This  attitude  of  the  dominant  power  led  to 


the  great  "trek"  in  the  thirties,  when  the 
stout  Dutch  burghers  put  the  Orange  River 
and,  subsequently  the  Vaal,  between  them 
and  the  rule  of  Britain.  Nor  were  racial 
antipathies  in  any  way  softened  when,  in 
consequence  of  the  chronic  native  wars, 
England  intervened  in  the  affairs  of  the 
Transvaal  and  annexed  their  territory  in 
1877,  though  four  years  later  (1881)  she 
restored  it  to  self-government,  subject,  how- 
ever, to  the  suzerainty  of  the  British  crown. 
The  convention  of  1884  somewhat  modified 
the  terms  of  this  restoration,  the  control 
which  Britain  desired  to  exercise  leaving  the 
South  African  Republic  (which  the  Trans- 
vaal government  was  now  officially  named) , 
free  to  form  an  alliance  with  their  Dutch 
kin  in  the  Orange  Free  State,  but  insisting 
upon  the  right  to  control  the  external  affairs 
of  the  republic,  if  occasion  arose  to  do  so. 
England's  object  in  insisting  on  this  con- 
trol over  the  external  affairs  of  the  Trans- 
vaal was  influenced  partly  by  her  concern 
for  the  peace  of  the  whole  of  South  Africa, 
where  she  had  many  colonies;  and  partly 
by  the  determination  to  check  the  para- 
mountcy  of  the  Afrikander  influence  in  the 
country.  Nor  was  England  uninfluenced  by 
the  fact  that  the  British  people,  especially 
of  the  aggressive  Tory  type,  bitterly  re- 
sented the  Gladstoman  surrender  of  British 
interests  in  1881,  and  were  humiliated  by 
the  defeat  of  Sir  George  Colley  by  the  Boers 
at  Majuba  Hill.  The  incoming  of  a  foreign 
element,  chiefly  of  British  nationality,  in 
1884,  after  gold  was  discovered  in  the 
Transvaal,  added  to  the  lac'al  friction,  and 
incited  the  Boers  to  tieat  them  unjustly  as 
citizens.  This  treatmei.t  ol  the  newcomers, 
who  were  refused  the  rights  of  representa- 
tion and  indeed  of  liberty  and  free  speech, 
led  to  the  abortive  attempt  of  some  of  the 
restless  spirits  of  the  British  community  to 
overthrow  the  Dutch  crovernment.  This 
was  the  Jameson  raid,  which  had  its  igno- 
minious ending  in  the  surrender  at  Doornkop 
on  Jan.  2,  1895.  The  risinto  resulted  only  in 
increasing  the  oppression  of  the  Outlanders, 
who  now  turned  to  the  mother  country  for 
redress  of  their  grievances,  and  forwarded 
to  the  crown  a  petition  praying  for  rights 
which  they  claimed  were  in  accordance  with 
the  conventions  and  treaties.  Th  s  action 
brought  about  a  conference  held  at  Bloem- 
fontein  in  May,  1899,  betwe-n  the  British 
High  Commissioner  (  ir  Alfred  [now  Lord] 
Milner)  and  President  Kruger,  which  re- 
sulted adversely  to  Britain's  demand  of  the 
franchise  for  her  subjects.  The  following 
months  were  spent  in  diplomatic  overtures, 
which  were  abruptly  ended  in  the  month  of 
October  (1899),  when  the  Transvaal,  with 
its  ally,  the  Orange  Free  State,  in  an  ulti- 
matum, addressed  to  the  British  govern- 
ment, demand,  the  withdrawal  of  the 
British  forces  from  the  Boer  frontier  and 
the  recall  of  the  reinforcements  then  on  the 


BOER  WAR 


235 


BOGOTA 


way  to  Cape  Colony.  On  England  replying 
that  the  demand  was  such  as  "her  majesty's 
government  deemed  it  impossible  to  discuss," 
the  Boers  crossed  the  frontier  in  force  (Oct. 
11-13),  and  precipitated  the  war.  The  Boers 
are  said  to  have  had  75,000  men  in  the  field. 

The  earliest  actions,  on  the  part  of  the 
Boers,  were  to  lay  siege  to  Mafeking,  de- 
fended by  Colonel  Baden-Powell,  and  to 
shut  up  a  small  British  force,  commanded 
by  Colonel  Kekewich,  in  Kimberley,  the 
famous  seat  of  the  diamond  mines.  Both 
of  these  towns  lie  on  the  western  frontier  of 
the  Orange  Free  State  and  the  Transvaal. 
At  the  same  time  Natal  was  invaded,  and 
battles  were  fought  at  Elandslaagte,  Nichol- 
son's Nek  and  Farquhar's  Farm.  These 
resulted  for  the  most  part  in  favor  of  the 
Boers  At  the  beginning  of  November  the 
siege  of  Lady  smith  began,  where  some  10,- 
ooo  British,  under  Sir  George  White,  were 
for  months  held  by  about  20,000  Boers. 
Meanwhile  the  English  army  corps,  under 
General  Sir  Redvers  Buller,  arrived  in  Natal, 
and  advanced  as  far  as  the  Tugela  River, 
while  other  columns  were  formed  in  Cape 
Colony,  designed  to  operate  in  the  Orange 
Free  State  and  to  retake  Colesburg  and 
Stormberg,  south  of  the  Orange  River,  which 
had  been  taken  possession  of  by  the 
Boers.  To  recapture  these  towns,  Generals 
French  and  Gatacre  were  assigned.  Lord 
Methuen,  who  pressed  forward  to  the  relief 
of  Kimberley,  encountered  the  enemy  at 
Belmont  and  at  Eslin  and  Graspan,  and 
after  crossing  the  Modder  River  caused  them 
to  retire  to  Magersfontein.  Here,  however, 
he  was  defeated  by  the  Boers,  while  Gatacre 
met  with  disaster  at  Stormberg,  and  Buller 
was  repulsed  at  Colenso.  These  reverses 
brought  Lord  Roberts  on  the  scene,  in  chief 
command,  with  large  reinforcements,  in- 
cluding Canadian  and  Australian  volunteers 
and  some  irregular  forces  raised  in  Natal 
and  Cape  Colony.  With  Lord  Roberts  came 
Lord  Kitchener  as  chief  of  his  staff.  By 
this  time  the  British  had,  all  told,  about 
90,000  men  in  the  field,  opposed  to  the 
Boer's  total  force,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
60,000.  Subsequently  was  added  to  the 
British  strength  a  new  division,  the  sixth, 
which  was  now  ordered  to  be  mobilized  and 
forwarded  to  the  Cape. 

Early  in  January  (1900)  the  Boers  made  a 
determined  assault  upon  Ladysmith,  which, 
though  repulsed,  entailed  great  loss  to  both 
sides.  Later  in  the  month  occurred  the 
sanguinary  affair  at  Spion  Kop,  where  the 
British,  after  carrying  the  position,  were  in 
turn  driven  back  and  forced  to  retreat  be- 
yond the  Tugela,  with  a  loss  of  some  2,000 
men.  A  fresh  advance  was  made  on  Feb.  5, 
as  far  as  Vaal  Krantz,  but  after  three  days' 
terrible  fighting  a  new  retreat  was  ordered. 
About  this  time  a  large  British  force,  under 
General  French,  advanced  to  the  relief  of 
Kimberley,  and  the  siege  was  raised  Feb. 


15,  1900.  From  this  time  the  tide  turned 
against  the  Boers.  The  British  force,  aug- 
mented to  200,000,  under  the  able  leader- 
ship of  Lord  Roberts,  pressed  forward  on 
strategic  lines,  and  the  Boer  armies,  though 
fighting  with  obstinate  valor,  were  forced  to 
give  way.  After  severe  fighting  at  Kooders- 
rand  and  Dreifontein,  when  the  Boer  army, 
under  General  Cronje,  was  beaten,  General 
Roberts  entered  Bloemfontein,  the  capital 
of  the  Orange  Free  State,  on  Mar.  13,  1900. 
General  Buller,  after  prolonged  fighting, 
raised  the  siege  of  Ladysmith  on  Feb.  28, 
and  relieved  the  long-beleaguered  arm$-  of 
General  White.  A  final  and  determined 
assault  by  the  Boers  upon  Mafeking  was  re- 
pulsed, and  on  May  1 8  it  was  relieved  by  the 
British  under  Lord  Roberts.  The  British 
now  invaded  the  Transvaal,  and,  advancing, 
entered  the  great  mining  city  of  Johannes- 
burg on  May  31.  President  Kruger  and  his 
cabinet  now  fled  from  Pretoria,  and  General 
Roberts,  after  releasing  3,200  British  pris- 
oners at  Waterval,  entered  and  took  posses- 
sion of  Pretoria  June  5. 

The  Boer  forces  made  no  further  deter- 
mined stand  against  the  British,  but  under 
the  leadership  of  Generals  Botha  and  De  Wet, 
continued  an  active  desultory  v/arfare,  cut- 
ting the  lines  of  the  enemy  and  attacking 
detached  bodies  of  British  troops  with  great 
bravery  and  varied  success.  Peace  articles 
were  signed  May  31,  1902,  by  which  the 
Boers  made  final  surrender,  and  British 
supremacy  was  established.  The  loss  to  the 
British  in  the  conduct  of  the  wai  was  more 
than  20,000,  including  killed  in  action  and 
died  of  wounds  and  disease,  besides  more 
than  40,000  sent  home  as  invalids,  while  the 
cost  of  the  war  to  Britain  alone  from  1899 
to  1903  was  $937,000,000.  The  Boer  total 
losses,  beside  32,000  taken  prisoners,  in- 
cluded 3,700  killed  or  died  of  wounds.  See 
Sir  A.  Conan  Doyle's  The  Great  Boer  War 
(London,  1902). 

Bogota  (bo' go-to),  the  capital  of  the  Re- 
public of  Colombia  or  New  Granada,  stands 
on  a  tableland  of  450  square  miles  in  area, 
at  an  elevation  of  8,694  fget  above  the  sea 
and  is  surrounded  by  mountains.  The  city 
was  founded  by  the  Spaniards  in  1538,  and 
has  a  population  of  150,000.  Although  the 
surrounding  plain  is  fertile  and  the  moun- 
tains abound  in  valuable  minerals,  such  as 
iron,  coal  and  salt,  and  probably  the 
precious  metals,  yet  as  a  rule  the  people  are 
greatly  impoverished  in  consequence  of  the 
difficulty  of  transportation  across  the  moun- 
tains. There  are  at  present  few  manufac- 
tures. The  city  teems  with  churches  and 
possesses,  besides  a  fine  capitol  and  other 
official  buildings,  a  mint,  a  university,  a 
number  of  schools,  a  free  library,  observa- 
tory, two  theaters  and  several  museums. 
It  also  supports  forty  journals,  so  that  its 
people  claim  for  their  city  the  title  of  the 
|  Athens  of  South  America 


BOHEMIA 


236 


BOILER 


Bohe'mia,  formerly  one  of  the  kingdoms 
of  Europe,  now  the  most  northern  province 
of  the  Austro-Htmgarian  monarchy.  It  has 
an  area  of  20,060  square  miles,  or  consider- 
ably less  than  West  Virginia,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  6,318,697.  It  contains  nearly  400 
cities,  of  which  the  largest  is  Prague,  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  and  third  city  of 
the  empire,  with  a  population  of  201,589. 
The  country  is  enclosed  on  all  sides  by  lofty 
mountains,  which  abound  in  mineral  wealth, 
silver,  tin,  copper,  iron,  porcelain,  clay,  etc., 
while  more  coal  is  mined  in  the  kingdom 
than  in  all  the  other  provinces  of  the  Aus- 
trian empire.  The  Elbe  and  its  numerous 
branches  water  the  soil,  and  grains  and 
fruits  are  extensively  raised.  Its  manu- 
factures are  important;  dyeing  and  calico 
printing,  linen  making  and  flax  spinning, 
glass  works  (which  afford  work  to  27,000 
persons)  being  among  the  principal  indus- 
tries. The  Elbe  and  Moldau,  an  extensive 
canal,  good  roads  and  a  system  of  railroads 
of  nearly  3,000  miles  in  extent  supply  the 
means  of  carrying  on  a  large 
transit  trade.  The  people  are 
mainly  Czechs,  Germans  and 
Jews.  Among  them  education 
is  much  more  wide-spread  than 
in  any  of  the  other  provinces 
of  Austria.  The  University  of 
Prague  has  over  3,000  stu- 
dents, and  there  are  a  large 
number  of  other  schools.  Bo- 
hemia sends  no  members  to 
the  lower  house  of  the  Aus- 
trian reichsrath  or  parliament 
of  the  western  part  of  the  em- 
pire. It  has  a  provincial  diet 
of  242  members,  competent  to 
legislate  on  all  matters  not 
reserved  to  the  reichsrath. 
The  Czechs,  a  Slavic  race, 
•came  into  the  country  as  early 
as  the  sth  century,  A.  D.,  driv- 
ing out  the  earlier  inhabitants. 
From  that  time  Bohemia  came 
under  the  power  of  various  nations,  and  was 
at  one  time  an  elective  kingdom;  but  in 
1526  it  became  a  part  of  Austria,  and  its 
history  since  that  time  has  merged  with 
that  of  Austria.  There  has  been  for  some 
years  a  continual  struggle  between  the 
Germans  and  the  Czechs  for  supremacy. 
The  Czech  language  is  one  of  the  most  cul- 
tivated of  the  Slavonic  dialects,  and  recently 
there  has  been  a  revival  in  its  study  as  well 
as  in  Bohemian  literature.  The  martyr 
John  Hus  was  a  Bohemian. 

Boileau  (bwd'lo'),  Nicholas,  a  French 
poet  and  critic,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1636, 
and  after  a  thorough  education  took  up 
writing  as  a  profession.  His  first  work  was 
a  satire,  Adieu  of  a  Poet  to  the  City  of  Paris. 
He  became  a  friend  of  Moliere,  La  Fontaine 
and  Racine,  and  was  pensioned  by  the  king. 
His  Art  of  Poetry  is  considered  very  fine. 


He  did  much  as  a  critic  to  purify  and  refine 
the  French  language,  and  has  had  a  great 
influence  on  French  literature.  He  was 
made  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
He  died  at  Paris  in  1711. 

Boiler,  an  apparatus  for  generating 
steam  by  heating  water.  In  its  ordinary 
form  it  consists  of  the  following  parts:  a 
furnace  in  which  the  fuel  is  burnt ;  a  chimney 
or  other  means  of  producing  a  draught  and 
of  removing  the  products  of  combustion;  a 
vessel  containing  the  water,  this  vessel  so 
arranged  that  the  heat  from  the  furnaces 
reaches  the  water;  a  steam  space  connected 
by  pipes  with  the  engine  or  other  device  in 
which  the  steam  is  used;  a  pump  or  injector 
for  supplying  the  boiler  with  water;  various 
devices  for  safety  and  convenience  of  opera- 
tion, such  as  steam-gauge  to  indicate  the 
pressure  of  the  steam,  a  water-gauge  to 
indicate  the  amount  of  water  in  the  boiler 
and  a  safety  valve  to  release  the  steam  if 
it  is  beyond  a  safe  pressure. 

Boilers    have    various   forms,    depending 


BABCOCK   AND   WILCOX   BOILER 


upon  the  purposes  and  the  conditions  of 
their  use.  The  object  in  each  case  is  to 
produce  with  safety  the  greatest  amount  of 
steam  at  the  least  cost  of  fuel,  of  operation 
and  of  maintenance.  In  the  earlier  days 
pressures  of  only  three  or  four  pounds  per 
square  inch  were  used,  but  to-day  100  and 
150  pounds  are  the  common  pressures  for 
engines,  and  double  these  pressures  can 
hardly  be  said  to  be  uncommon.  These 
higher  pressures  demand  increased  strength 
in  the  construction  of  the  boilers.  A  few 
years  ago  cast  and  wrought  iron  were  much 
used,  but  only  steel  is  used  in  the  best 
boilers  today.  The  cylindrical  form  is  uni- 
versally used,  as  that  is  the  strongest  and 
most  convenient  form  to  stand  internal 
pressure. 

Boilers  may  be  divided  into  two  general 
types:  (i)  those  in  which  the   furnace  and 


BOILING-POINT 


237 


BOLDREWOOD 


heating  flues  are  inside  the  water-vessel  and 
(2)  those  in  which  the  furnace  is  external  to 
the  water  vessel.  The  first  type  is  not  much 
used  in  this  country  for  stationary  boilers, 
but  it  is  commonly  used  for  locomotive  and 
marine  boilers.  The  locomotive  boiler  con- 
sists of  a  fire-box  of  rectangular  form  which 
is  more  or  less  surrounded  by  the  long 
cylindrical  water-vessel.  A  large  number 
of  tubes  run  from  the  fire-box  to  the  smoke- 
stack through  the  water-vessel,  and  thus 
allow  the  heat  from  the  hot  furnace  gases 
to  reach  the  water.  The  common  stationary 
boiler  in  this  country  belongs  to  the  second 
class.  In  its  simplest  form  it  is  a  single 
cylindrical  vessel  placed  over  the  furnace 
and  its  hot  flues.  As  more  commonly  used 
now,  it  consists  of  a  large  number  of  water 
tubes,  the  furnace  gases  passing  around 
these  tubes  and  thus  heating  the  water. 
The  Babcock  and  Wilcox  boiler  is  one  of 
the  best  of  this  type.  The  water  is  con- 
tained in  a  large  number  of  straight  tubes 
which  are  inclined  at  an  angle  of  about  15° 
from  the  horizontal  and  connected  with  a 
drum  above,  which  contains  part  of  the 
water  and  the  steam.  The  furnace  is  below 
the  tubes,  and  the  hot  gases  pass  up  and 
along  the  water  tubes.  These  are  compact, 
efficient  and  safe,  if  properly  constructed. 
When  the  tubes  are  straight,  they  have  the 
great  additional  advantage  of  being  easily 
inspected  and  cleaned. 

Boilers  are  generally  rated  in  horse- 
power, and  as  applied  to  boilers  this  is  a 
conventional  term.  A  boiler  of  i  H.  P.  is 
one  which  evaporates  30  pounds  of  water 
per  hour  from  feed-water  of  100°  F.  into 
steam  at  70  pounds  gauge  pressure. 

Boiling-Point,  the  temperature  at  which 
a  liquid  is  transformed  into  vapor.  The 
boiling-point  varies  with  different  liquids, 
while  it  changes  with  the  amount  of  at- 
mospheric pressure  to  which  it  may  be 
exposed.  When  the  boiling-point  is  normal 
at  the  sea-level,  in  high  altitudes,  where  the 
air-pressure  is  light,  liquids  boil  more  slowly. 
So  well-known  is  this  that  the  heights  of 
mountains  are  approximately  measured  by 
ascertaining  the  degree  of  temperature  at 
which  water  boils.  In  highly  elevated 
regions  many  substances  cannot  be  cooked 
by  boiling.  A  further  fact  is  that  when 
water  contains  foreign  substances  in  solu- 
tion the  boiling-point  is  raised;  in  other 
words,  the  greater  the  amount  of  these 
substances  a  liquid  contains,  the  higher 
within  certain  limits  is  the  boiling-point 
of  the  liquid.  Under  normal  atmospheric 
pressure,  ether  boils  at  35°  C.,  pure  alco- 
hol at  78°,  while  aniline  boils  at  183°  C. 
Water  boils  at  100°  Centigrade  or  212° 
Fahrenheit. 

Bois    de  Boulogne.     See  BOULOGNE. 

Boise  (boi'zd),  Idaho,  the  capital  of  the 
state,  and  the  county  seat  of  Ada  County, 
on  the  Boise  River,  about  48  miles  east  of 


its  jtmction  with  the  Snake  River.  It  is 
reached  by  the  Oregon  Short  Line  Railroad 
(now  part  of  the  Union  Pacific  system.)  It 
lies  in  an  important  mining  district  and 
besides  a  military  post  it  has  a  federal 
assay  office,  U.  S.  Court  and  land  offices, 
together  with  a  solder's  home,  a  peniten- 
tiary and  the  state  capitol.  Its  civic 
institutions,  besides  the  city  hall,  include 
a  public  library,  several  schools  and  acad- 
emies, a  business  college  and  a  natatorium. 
The  Boise  River  is  utilized  considerably  in 
the  region  for  irrigation  purposes,  as  well 
as  for  water  power  for  the  city's  manu- 
factures. The  latter  embrace  saw  mills, 
wood-working  factories,  foundries  and  ma- 
chine shops.  In  the  vicinity  there  is  much 
farming  carried  on,  as  well  as  stock-raising, 
while  Boise  has  become  noted  as  a  wool 
market.  Population,  25,000. 

Bo'ker,  George  Henry,  an  American 
poet,  was  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1823,  and 
died  there  in  1890.  He  wrote  several  plays, 
which  were  successful  on  the  stage,  among 
them  Calaynos,  a  Tragedy,  and  Francesco,  da 
Rimini.  His  war  poems,  written  during  the 
Civil  War,  were  published  in  a  volume  en- 
titled Poems  of  the  War.  He  was  appointed 
minister  to  Constantinople,  and  after  four 
years  was  transferred  to  St.  Petersburg.  In 
1882  he  published  a  volume  of  verse,  The 
Book  of  the  Dead. 

Bokhara  (bd-kd'ra),  meaning  "treasury 
of  sciences,"  a  city  of  central  Asia,  the  cap- 
ital of  the  khanate  or  province  of  Bokhara, 
a  vassal  state  of  Russia,  is  situated  on  a 
plain  near  the  river  Zerafshan.  It  is  more 
than  eight  miles  in  circumference,  and  is 
surrounded  by  mud  walls  twenty- four  feet 
high,  pierced  by  eleven  gates.  The  palace 
of  the  khan,  built  on  a  hill  at  an  elevation 
of  300  feet  in  the  center  of  the  city,  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  brick  wall  nearly  seventy  feet 
high.  Bokhara  is  the  center  of  religious  life 
in  central  Asia,  and  is  said  to  have  365 
mosques.  The  finest  occupies  a  square  of 
300  feet,  and  has  a  cupola  100  feet  in 
height.  Joined  to  it  is  a  tower  of  about 
twice  the  height,  from  which  criminals  are 
hurled.  The  city  has  long  been  noted  as  a 
seat  of  learning,  and  besides  a  vast  number 
of  schools  has  about  eighty  colleges.  The 
River  Zerafshan  is  utilized  for  irrigating,  and 
the  drain  of  water  is  said  to  have  lessened 
the  population  by  one  half,  but  there  are 
still  about  75,000  people.  Silks,  woolens 
and  swords  are  manufactured,  slave  markets 
are  held,  and  the  bazaars  are  rich  with  the 
wares  of  Europe  and  Asia.  The  Trans- 
caspian  railroad  opens  communication  with 
the  ports  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  but  the  trade 
is  almost  wholly  in  Russian  hands.  The 
area  of  the  state  of  Bokhara  is  about 
80,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
about  1,250,000. 

Boldrewood,  Rolf.  See  BROWN,  THOMAS 
ALEXANDER. 


BOLEYN 


238 


BOLIVIA 


ANNE    BOLEYN 


Boleyn,  Anne  (bSol'&n),  queen  of  Eng- 
land and  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Boleyn, 

subsequently 
Earl  of  Wiltshire 
and  O  r  m  o  n  d. 
She  was  born 
about  1507  and 
was  brought  up 
at  the  French 
court.  She  be- 
came  maid 
of  honor  to 
Queen  Catherine 
of  England.  The 
iking,  Henry 
j  VIII,  was  at- 
Itracted  by  her 
i  beauty,  had  his 
'marriage  with 
Catherine  de- 
clared void,  and 
was  married 
privately  to  Anne.  She  soon  lost  his  favor, 
and  on  a  charge  of  unfaithfulness  was 
tried,  condemned,  and  beheaded  May  19, 
1 5  3  6 .  She  was  the  mother  of  Queen  Elizabeth . 
Bolingbroke  (bol'in-brook) ,  Henry  St. 
John,  Viscount,  called  the  Alcibiades  of  his 
time,  was  one  of  the  most  gifted  of  English 
statesmen  and  orators.  He  was  born  at 
Battersea,  near  London,  in  1678.  He  en- 
tered political  life  about  the  beginning  of 
the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  on  the  side  of  the 
Tories,  and  by  his  abilities  and  eloquence 
soon  became  prominent.  He  was  secretary 
of  war  and  foreign  secretary,  and  negotiated 
the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  When  George 
I  came  to  the  throne  in  1714,  Bolingbroke, 
who  favored  the  Stuarts,  fled  to  France. 
Some  years  later  he  returned  to  England 
and  became  associated  with  Swift  and  Pope 
and  other  men  of  letters.  He  tried  in  vain 
to  get  back  into  politics,  and  then  spent 
another  period  of  years  in  France,  and  died 
at  the  place  of  his  birth  in  1751.  Besides 
his  political  writings,  he  wrote  Letters  on 
the  Study  of  History,  and  the  method  here 
outlined  is  said  to  have  been  followed  by 
Macaulay. 

Bolivar,  Simon,  called  the  Liberator, 
was  born  at  Caracas  in  what  is  now  Vene- 
zuela, July  24,  1783.  He  studied  law  at 
Madrid,  and  traveled  extensively,  witness- 
mg  in  Paris  the  closing  scenes  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. After  a  visit  to  the  United  States,  he 
returned  to  Caracas,  determined  to  free  his 
country  from  the  yoke  of  Spain.  Venezuela 
made  her  declaration  of  independence  July 
5.  1811,  and  the  war  began.  Bolivar  was 
soon  forced  to  flee,  but  in  1812  he  joined 
the  insurgents  in  New  Granada,  and  within 
a  few  months  was  able  to  enter  Caracas 
as  a  conqueror,  and  proclaimed  himself 
dictator  of  western  Venezuela.  But  fortune 
now  deserted  him,  and  after  a  severe  defeat 
he  fled  to  Jamaica,  where  a  hired  assassin 
tracked  his  steps,  but  by  mistake  murdered 


his  secretary.  Gathering  the  insurgents  at 
Hayti,  he  landed  twice  in  Venezuela,  and 
after  defeating  the  Spaniards  a  number  ol 
times,  a  congress  was  opened  at  Angostura 
in  1819  and  Bolivar  was  chosen  president. 
Leading  his  army  across  the  almost  im- 
passable Cordilleras  into  New  Granada,  a 
series  of  brilliant  victories  ended  in  the 
union  of  New  Granada  and  Venezuela  under 
the  name  of  Colombia,  and  Bolivar  was 
chosen  president,  Aug.  30,  1821.  In  1822 
he  led  an  army  into  Peru,  which  he  freed 
from  the  Spaniards.  He  became  dictator  of 
Peru  in  1823,  and  made  a  tour  through  that 
country,  in  which  he  was  received  with  en- 
thusiasm. In  his  honor  the  southern  part 
of  Peru  was  named  Bolivia  and  made  a 
separate  state,  of  which  he  was  elected 
president.  In  1826  he  went  back  to  Vene- 
zuela to  quell  a  disturbance,  and  against  his 
will  was  re-elected  president.  Many,  in  the 
meantime,  had  become  jealous  of  his  power; 
and  when  Venezuela  separated  from  Co- 
lombia, in  1829,  Bolivar  in  consequence  laid 
down  his  authority.  The  congress  of 
Bogotd,  now  largely  made  up  of  his  enemies, 
however,  voted  him  a  pension  of  $3,000  on 
condition  of  his  residing  abroad.  He  died 
at  San  Pedro,  Dec.  17,  1830.  In  1842  his 
remains  were  removed  to  Caracas}  where  a 
monument  has  been  raised  to  his  memory. 
Statues  have  also  been  raised  at  Lima,  at 
Bogotd  and  at  New  York,  and  his  hundredth 
birthday  was  celebrated  at  Caracas  in  1883, 
with  exercises  lasting  over  forty  days,  when 
sixteen  foreign  states  were  represented. 
Bolivar  has  been  called  the  Washington  of 
South  America. 

Boliv'ia.  A  republic  on  the  west  side  of 
South  America,  having  Brazil  on  the  north, 
Brazil  and  Paraguay  on  the  east,  the  Argen- 
tine Republic  on  the  south  and  Chile  on  the 
west.  Its  area  is  708,195  square  miles,  and 
its  population  is  estimated  at  2,267,935.  It 
is  eleven  times  as  large  as  Illinois,  and  its 
population  is  much  less  than  that  of  Chicago. 

Surface.  The  western  part  of  Bolivia  is 
mountainous,  containing  some  of  the  high- 
est peaks  of  the  Andean  range.  Among 
these  are  Illampu  22,500  feet,  Ilhmani  22,- 
500  feet.  On  the  last  named  is  Lake  Iilimani 
at  an  altitude  of  15,950  feet  above  the  sea. 
In  this  region  is  the  lofty  plateau  of  Oruro, 
with  an  average  elevation  of  13,000  feet,  a 
length  of  500  miles  and  a  width  of  100  miles. 
In  the  northern  part  are  rich  tropical 
valleys.  The  eastern  section  is  level  and 
heavily  timbered.  The  great  Lake  Titicaca 
on  the  western  border,  with  an  area  of  3,200 
square  miles  and  a  depth  of  120  fathoms, 
makes  the  northern  plateau  fertile.  One  of 
the  islands  in  this  lake  was  the  home  of  the 
Incas  or  early  rulers  of  Peru. 

Rivers  and  Railways.  The  rivers  of 
Bolivia  feed  the  Amazon  and  La  Plata.  The 
Turna  and  the  Purus  flow  from  Peru  through 
Bolivia  into  Brazil  on  their  way  to  the 


BOLOGNA 


239 


BOMBAY 


Amazon.  The  most  important  rivers  of 
Bolivia  are  the  Bern  and  the  Mamon,  which 
with  their  tributaries  drain  the  eastern 
section  of  the  country  and  at  the  Brazilian 
boundary  join  to  form  the  Madeira.  Bolivia 
is  poorly  supplied  with  railways.  A  line 
runs  from  La  Paz,  the  capital,  west  56  miles 
to  Ynaquai  on  Lake  Titicaca,  and  an  exten- 
sion to  Puno,  Peru,  which  will  give  con- 
nection with  the  Peruvian  port  of  Utollendo 
is  projected.  There  is  a  railway  from  Oruro 
southwest  303  miles  to  Ollague,  where  con- 
nection is  made  with  the  Chilean  railway  to 
the  port  of  Antofagasta. 

Climate  and  Resources.  Although  lying 
entirely  within  the  tropics,  the  varied  eleva- 
tion results  in  a  wide  range  of  climate  and 
production,  from  the  cold  regions  over  1 1,000 
feet  high,  where  crops  are  scant,  through  the 
temperate  regions  in  the  upper  portions  of 
the  descending  valley,  which  grow  large  sup- 
plies of  grain,  to  the  rich  plains  under  5,000 
feet,  which  abound  in  all  the  wealth  of  trop- 
ical vegetation,  including  cotton,  coffee,  rice, 
cocoa,  pineapples,  bananas,  tobacco  and 
cinchona.  Varieties  of  animals  are  found, 
among  them  the  guanaco,  llama,  alapaca, 
jaguar,  tapir,  etc.  In  Bolivia,  June,  July 
and  August  are  the  winter  months,  Decem- 
ber, January  and  February  the  summer 
months.  The  wet  season  extends  from  De- 
cember to  May. 

Minerals.  The  mines  of  Bolivia  have  long 
been  famous,  especially  those  of  silver,  which 
yield  annually  about  $10,000,000  and  have 
yielded  up  to  the  present  time  over  $3,000,- 
000,000.  Gold,  copper  and  tin  are  mined  to 
some  extent.  But  while  the  mineral  re- 
sources of  Bolivia  are  exceedingly  rich,  in- 
cluding silver,  gold, tin,  copper, bismuth,  iron 
ore,  lead,  marble,  asphaltum,  nitrate,  anthra- 
cite coal  and  salt,  yet  the  development  of 
these  resources  has  been  greatly  hindered  by 
lack  of  transportation  facilities.  The  decline 
in  the  price  of  silver,  with  the  high  cost  of 
transportation,  has  led  to  the  abandonment 
of  many  of  the  less  productive  mines.  The 
manufactures  of  Bolivia  are  unimportant ;  no 
goods  are  made  for  export. 

Cities.  The  chief  cities  of  Bolivia  are 
La  Paz,  the  capital  and  the  most  important 
commercial  city,  population  78,856;  Cocha- 
bamba,  population  24,512;  Potosi,  popula- 
tion 23,450;  Sucre,  population  23,416; 
Santa  Cruz,  population  20,535 ;  Oruro,  popu- 
lation 20,670;  Huanchaca,  population  10,000. 

Government.  The  form  of  government  is 
much  like  that  of  the  United  States,  with  a 
president,  two  vice-presidents,  a  cabinet  and 
two  houses  of  Congress.  The  presidential 
term  of  four  years  is  rarely  observed,  and  for 
some  years  the  history  of  Bolivia  has  been  a 
record  of  military  insurrections,  the  supreme 
power  being  held  by  successful  generals. 
There  are  eight  departments  and  one  terri- 
tory, the  government  of  each  being  under 
national  control. 


History.  Bolivia  came  under  Spanish  rule 
in  1538;  settlement  began  in  1578.  Inde- 
pendence was  declared  in  1825  and  the  state 
was  named  in  honor  of  the  great  liberator, 
Simon  Bolivar.  Its  later  history  has  been 
marked  by  insurrection  and  war.  A  war 
with  Chile  in  1879-83,  although  she  was  allied 
with^Peru,  ended  in  the  loss  of  her  coast 
district,  including  her  rich  deposits  of  ni- 
trates. Her  boundary  disputes  with  Brazil 
and  Peru  were  settled  in  1 903-04.  The  consti- 
tution of  the  republic  was  adopted  in  1880. 

Bologna  (bo-ldn'yd),  one  of  the  most  an- 
cient cities  of  Italy,  lies  on  a  fertile  plain  at 
the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  eighty-two  miles 
north  of  Florence.  The  population  is  about 
172,639.  A  high  brick  wall,  with  twelve 
gates,  five  or  six  miles  in  extent,  surrounds 
the  city;  a  canal  flows  through  it,  and  the 
Rivers  Reno  and  Savena  flow  past  its  walls. 
Many  fine  palaces  adorn  the  town,  rich  in 
fresco-paintings  by  the  great  masters;  but 
the  most  striking  feature  is  the  number  of 
churches,  there  being  over  one  hundred, 
beautiful  in  architecture  and  filled  with 
treasures  of  art.  Among  them  are  San 
Stephano,  rich  in  relics  of  the  nth  and  i2th 
centuries;  San  Petronio,  the  largest  church 
in  the  city;  San  Domenico,  where  the  founder 
of  that  order  lived  and  died  and  where  his 
tomb  has  been  richly  ornamented  by  Michael 
Angelo ;  and  the  cathedral  dedicated  to  St. 
Peter.  Two  leaning  towers  stand  in  the 
middle  of  the  city:  Asinella,  274  feet  in 
height,  and  Garisenda,  137  feet.  Here  also 
is  the  famous  University  of  Bologna,  claim- 
ing to  have  been  founded  in  1200,  the  oldest 
in  Europe,  whither  students  long  flocked 
from  all  parts  of  the  Old  World.  In  the  1 3th 
century  there  were  said  to  be  10,000  stu- 
dents; now  there  are  about  1,700;  and  the 
Horary  has  160,000  volumes,  while  the  city 
library  has  120,000  volumes.  There  are  also 
an  academy  of  music  and  one  of  arts, 
abounding  in  the  works  of  those  native  art- 
ists who  founded  the  great  Bolognese  school 
of  painting.  Bologna  is  older  than  Rome, 
and  has  been  under  the  sway  of  several  Euro- 
pean powers.  The  city  took  an  active  part 
in  the  founding  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

Bolton  or  Bolton-Le-Moors,  a  city  of 
England  in  southern  Lancashire,  not  far  from 
Manchester,  divided  by  the  River  Croal  into 
Gjreat  and  Little  Bolton.  It  has  long  been 
celebrated  as  a  manufacturing  town,  even  as 
far  back  as  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  Its  cot- 
ton manufactures  are  especially  important, 
there  being  more  than  100  cotton  mills,  with 
about  4,000,000  spindles.  There  ~re  also 
foundries  and  iron  works,  paper  mills  and 
dye  works.  It  is  an  important  railroad  cen- 
ter. In  the  Bolton  Evening  News  this  city 
was  the  birthplace  of  the  daily  evening  press. 
It  sends  two  members  to  Parliament.  Popu- 
lation, 168,215. 

Bombay  (bom-bd'),  an  important  city  ot 
British  India,  occupies  the  entire  breadth  of 


BONAPARTE 


240 


BONAPARTE 


the  southeast  end  of  Bombay  Island  or  pen- 
insula and  bordering  on  the  harbor  within 
and  on  Back  Bay  without.  Its  harbor  is  one 
of  the  finest  in  the  world,  having  a  space, 


which  is  used  for  shipping,  eleven  miles  long 
by  four  broad.  Among  the  cities  of  India  it 
is  the  most  European  in  appearance.  Be- 
sides the  business  blocks  and  the  suburban 
homes  of  many  of  the  European  residents, 
there  are  on  the  esplanade  facing  Back  Bay, 
the  university,  senate  hall,  high  court,  offices 
of  public  works  and  a  sailors'  home;  while 
east  of  Back  Bay,  near  the  fort,  are  the  town 
hall,  mint,  cathedral  and  custom-house.  The 
terminus  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsular  Rail- 
way is  the  finest  building  in  Bombay.  Bom- 
bay is  also  the  terminus  of  the  Baroda  Rail- 
way. An  extensive  system  of  wharves  and 
docks  provides  for  its  enormous  foreign  trade, 
which  now  surpasses  that  of  Calcutta. 
Wheat,  shawls,  opium,  coffee,  pepper,  ivory 
and  gems  are  the  products  exported.  There 
are  sixty  large  steam  mills,  while  added  to 
the  chief  industries  are  dyeing,  tanning  and 
working  in  metals.  The  island  was  owned 
by  the  Portuguese  in  the  i6th  century  and 
was  ceded  to  England  in  1661  as  part  of  the 
dowry  of  Catherine,  bride  of  Charles  II. 
The  population  is  972,892.  The  British 
presidency  of  Bombay  has  an  area  of  123,- 
064  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  18,- 
555^561,  including  Sind  and  Aden. 

Bonaparte,  Charles  Joseph,  lawyer  and 
reformer,  was  born  in  Baltimore,  June  9, 
1 86 1.  He  is  the  grandson  of  Jerome  Bona- 
parte, King  of  Westphalia,  whose  romantic 
marriage  to  EKzabeth  Patterson  was  prac- 
tically annulled  by  Napoleon.  Mr.  Bona- 
parte was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1874,  and 
soon  became  prominent  as  a  political  re- 
former. He  was  chairman  of  the  council  of 


the  National  Civil  Reform  League  and  presi- 
dent of  the  National  Municipal  League.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Indian  Com- 
missioners, 1902-04;  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
July,  1905-December,  1906;  and  from  De- 
cember 17,  1906,  to  March  5,  1909,  was  attor- 
ney-general of  the  United  States. 

Bonaparte,  Elizabeth  Patterson,  the 
first  wife  of  Jerome  Bonapart,  was  born  at 
Baltimore,  Md.,  Feb.  6,  1785,  and  died 
there  April  4,  1879.  As  Napoleon  I  re- 
fused for  reasons  of  state  to  recognize  the 
marriage  with  his  brother  Jerome,  which  had 
taken  place  in  December,  1803,  and  pre- 
vented the  lady  from  landing  in  France, 
when  she  accompanied  her  husband  to  Eu- 
rope, Mme.  Jerome  Bonaparte  was  com- 
pelled to  seek  an  asylum  in  England,  during 
which,  at  the  instigation  of  the  great  em- 
peror, she  was  divorced  from  Jerome  and 
afterward  returned  to  the  United  States. 

Bonaparte,  Jerome,  youngest  brother  of 
Napoleon  I  and  at  one  time  king  of  West- 
phalia, was  born  at  Ajaccio  in  November, 
1784,  and  died  near  Paris  in  June,  1860. 
Early  in  life  he  became  a  midshipman  in  the 
French  navy,  and  in  1801,  when  on  an  ex- 
pedition to  the  West  Indies,  his  ship  was 
chased  by  English  cruisers  and  Jerome  Bona- 
parte had  to  take  refuge  in  New  York. 
Toward  the  close  of  1803,  while  still  so- 
journing in  America  and  not  yet  twenty, 
he  married  Elizabeth  Patterson,  daughter 
of  the  president  of  a  Baltimore  bank,  a  mar- 
riage which  his  brother,  the  emperor, 
refused,  however,  to  recognize,  and  it  was 
declared  null  and  void.  In  1807  his  brother 
created  him  king  of  Westphalia,  and  he  then 
married  Catherine  Sophia,  princess  of  Wiirt- 
temberg.  The  battle  of  Leipsic  /October, 
1813),  which  virtually  secured  the  Iberation 
of  Germany,  cost  Jerome  his  kingdom  and 
made  him  an  European  wanderer  until  the 
advent  of  his  nephew,  Louis  Napoleon. 
After  the  coup  d'  etat.  Napoleon  III  made 
him  a  marshal  of  France,  president  of  the 
senate  and  governor-general  of  Les  In- 
valides. 

Bonaparte,  Joseph,  King  of  Spain, 
member  of  a  famous  family  and  eldest 
brother  of  Napoleon,  was  born  at  Corte,  in 
Corsica,  in  1768.  He  proved  his  ability  in 
a  number  of  important  offices,  among  other 
services  negotiating  a  treaty  of  friendship 
with  the  United  States  in  1800.  After  the 
coronation  of  Napoleon,  Joseph  was  made 
commander-in-chief  of  the  _  army  of  Naples, 
then  ruler  of  the  two  Sicilies  and  in  1806 
king  of  Naples.  Two  years  later  he  was 
transferred  to  the  throne  of  Spain,  but  found 
himself  unable  to  suppress  the  Spanish  in- 
surgents, and  after  the  defeat  of  the  French, 
in  1813,  returned  to  France.  After  the  battle 
of  Waterloo,  he  came  to  America,  became 
a  citizen  of  Bordentown,  N.  J.,  and  followed 
the  pursuit  of  agriculture.  He  returned  to 


BONAPARTE 


241 


BOND 


Europe  in  1832,  and  died  at  Florence  in  1844. 
He  was  the  only  one  of  the  Bonaparte 
brothers  for  whom  Napoleon  professed  to 
care  anything,  though  he  was  too  humane 
in  his  ideas  of  government  for  his  imperious 
brother. 

Bonaparte,  Louis  (1778-1846),  one  time 
King  of  Holland,  father  of  Napoleon  III 
and  brother  of  Napoleon  I,  his  other  broth- 
ers being  Lucien,  Joseph  and  Jerome.  All 
were  sons,  together  with  four  daughters,  of 
Charles  or  Carlo  Bonaparte  of  Corsica  and 
his  wife  Letitia,  the  latter  a  patrician  lady 
of  strong-minded  and  accomplished  charac- 
teristics. Born  at  Ajaccio,  he  was  educated 
at  the  artillery  school  at  Chalons,  and  early 
entering  the  French  army  he  took  part  in 
his  famous  brother's  successes  over  the 
Austrians  at  Arcola  and  Rivoli,  in  1796-97. 
Under  pressure  from  Napoleon  I  he  married 
in  1802  Hortense  de  Beauharnais,  but  in 
consequence  of  incompatibility  they  sepa- 
rated five  years  later;  while  Prince  Louis 
became  King  of  Holland  in  1806,  though 
declining  to  sacrifice  Dutch  interests  to  his 
brother's  imperial  designs,  and  he  abdicated 
in  1 8 1  o  and  retired  to  Italy.  Meanwhile,  Hol- 
land was  annexed  to  France,  but  remained 
French  for  only  three  years,  when  the  latter 
were  expelled  and  the  House  of  Orange  was 
restored.  Louis's  separated  wife,  Hortense, 
was  a  rather  notable  authoress  in  her  day, 
as  well  as  a  song  writer,  being  the  author 
of  the  one-time  French  national  air,  Partant 
four  ks  Syrie.  Her  third  and  putative  son 
was  Napoleon  III;  she  died  in  1837.  Louis 
Bonaparte  is  also  known  as  a  writer  of  some 
note,  among  his  works  being  a  History  (in 
French)  of  the  English  Parliament  and  a 
collection  of  Documents  on  the  Government  of 
Holland.  In  later  years  he  became  an  in- 
valid, and  after  the  escape  of  his  son,  Louis 
Napoleon,  from  Ham,  he  removed  to  Leg- 
horn, Tuscany,  where  he  died. 

Bonaparte,  Lucien,  Prince  of  Canino, 
and  brother  of  Napoleon,  was  born  at  Ajaccio 
in  1775.  He  was  well  educated  and  filled  a 
number  of  important  offices.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  when 
Napoleon  entered  Paris,  and  by  his  energy 
greatly  distinguished  himself.  As  minister 
of  the  interior,  he  encouraged  education,  art 
and  science,  and  as  ambassador  to  Madrid  he 
performed  valuable  services.  He  was  a  re- 
publican in  belief,  and  opposed  the  absolute 
rule  of  his  brother  and  refused  the  thrones 
of  Italy  and  of  Spain.  The  pope  made  him 
prince  of  Canino  and  Musignano.  In  1810 
he  sailed  for  America,  but  was  captured  by 
the  British.  He  alone  showed  presence  of 
mind  after  the  defeat  of  Waterloo.  In  later 
life  he  resided  near  Rome,  and  died  at 
Viterbo  in  1840.  He  had  a  good  deal  of  tal- 
ent, and  was  fond  of  science  and  the  arts. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon.  See  NAPOLEON  I 
and  NAPOLEQN  III. 


Bond,  an  obligation,  is  a  written   instru- 
ment, signed  and  sealed,  in  which  one  party 
to  the  negotiation — the  borrower,  styled  the 
obliger— agrees  to  pay  money  to  another, 
the   obligee,   generally  on  certain  precisely 
defined  and  set  forth  conditions,  and  at  a 
definite  period.    The  amount  of  the  liability 
to  be  incurred  upon  a  breach  of  the  condi- 
tions in  the  bond  is  usually  set  forth  in  the 
instrument,  and  in  the  case  of  default  or 
failure  to  fulfill  the  terms  and  conditions 
of  the  instrument,  the  bond  is  said  to  be 
forfeit,  and  suit  can  be  instituted  for  re- 
covery, and  that  commonly  with  penalty, 
or  claim  for  damages  added.     A  bond,  in 
other  words,  sets  forth  (i)  an  engagement 
to  pay  money  in  return  for  certain  privi- 
leges granted  or  payments  made,  and   (2) 
the  conditions  on  which  the  engagement  to 
pay  back  will  become  good  and  operative, 
or,  otherwise,  void  and  inoperative.     When 
the  bond  is  given  for  the  performance  of 
an  act,  recovery  can  be  sued  for  in  court 
for   non-performance   of   the   act,   plus   an 
amount    in    the    way    of    damages    to    the 
obligee  for  what  loss  or  losses  he  may  have 
sustained  in  consequence  of  such  non-per- 
formance.    A  bond  may  be  made  either  by 
or   to   a    single    individual    or    by   certain 
parties  jointly  to  other  interested   parties, 
jointly  and  severally  stated.    In  some  cases, 
moreover,  with  the  bond  is  handed  over  to 
the  obligee  some  security,  or  it  may  be  a 
mortgage,  upon  the  property  and  effects  of 
the  debtor  or  obligor.     Bonds  can  be  made 
and  are  often  issued  by  corporations,  which 
in  the  interests  of  their  trusts  or  concerns 
have  to  borrow  money  to  exploit  and  ad- 
vance them;  and  in  default  of  meeting  and 
satisfying  these  bonds  at  maturity  the  cor- 
porations can  be   proceeded   against,   sued 
and  recovered  from,  as  such  in  the  courts. 
Governments,   national   and   state,  as  well 
as  cities  and  towns,  are  often  at  times  under 
the  necessity  to  issue  bonds  as  negotiable 
security  for  considerations  named  or  money 
loaned   them;     similarly,   when  in  default, 
such  can  be  sued  and  recovered  from,  just 
as  in  the  case  of  private  individuals  or  cor- 
porations.   The  bonds  of  single  individuals, 
as  well  as  bonds  jointly  made,  commonly 
bind  their  maker's  heirs,  executors  and  ad- 
ministrators, in  the  instruments  conveyed, 
and  in  the  last  resort  these  latter  can  be 
proceeded    against   as   in    the   case   of  the 
primary  and  single  defaulter. 

Bond,  Sir  Robert.  The  Right  Honor- 
able Sir  Robert  Bond,  P.  C.,  K.  C.  M.  G., 
LL.D.,  has  been  Premier  and  Colonial  Sec- 
retary of  the  Colony  of  Newfoundland  since 
1900.  He  entered  the  Legislature  in  1882, 
and  was  elected  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Assembly  in  Newfoundland  in  1884,  and  be- 
came Colonial  Secretary  with  a  seat  in  the 
cabinet  in  1889.  He  was  authorized  by  the 
Home  Government  to  assist  Lord  Paunce- 


BONE 


242 


BONIFACE,  SAINT 


foote  in  1890  in  negotiating  a  reciprocity 
treaty  with  the  United  States,  and  was 
instrumental  in  carrying  through  the  Bond- 
Blaine  convention.  In  1892  he  was  a  dele- 
gate to  Canada  on  the  North  American  fish- 
ery question.  In  the  great  financial  crisis 
which  overtook  Newfoundland  in  1894  his 
strong  action  and  able  championship  of  the 
cause  of  the  colony  in  financial  circles  in 
London  preserved  the  autonomy  of  the  col- 
ony, and  established  a  claim  on  Newfound- 
landers ot  personal  loyalty  towards  him 
which  has  steadily  strengthened  In  1895  he 
was  chairmati  of  the  delegation  that  pro- 
ceeded to  Canada  on  the  question  of  confed- 
eration. In  1900  he  waj  specially  invited  by 
H  M  Government  to  attend  a  conference 
at  the  Colonial  Office  on  the  French  Treaties 
Question  In  1902  he  was  a  member  of  the 
conference  cf  colonial  prime  ministers  held  in 
London  In  the  same  year  he  was  authorized 
by  K  M.  Government  to  negotiate  a  treaty 
of  reciprocity  with  the  United  States  on 
behalf  ct  the  Colony  of  Newfoundland,  and 
succeeded  in  negotiating  the  Hay-Bond 
treaty  In  1904  he  was  invited  by  H.  M. 
Government  to  assist  in  drafting  regula- 
tions for  the  carrying  out  of  the  Anglo- 
French  convention,  lie  represented  New- 
foundland at  the  Imperial  Conference  in  1907. 
Bone  is  the  hard  material  of  the  skeleton 
of  most  animals.  The  office  of  bones  is  to 
furnish  a  building-structure  or  framework 
for  the  body,  to  support  the  soft  parts,  and 
protect  delicate  organs  from  injury,  and  by 
means  of  joints,  to  form  a  series  of  levers. 
Bone  is  white  in  color,  but  in  the  living  body 
has  also  a  pink  and  bluish  tint.  It  is  elastic 
and  very  tough,  twice  as  strong  as  oak. 
Arab  children  are  said  to  make  good  bows 
of  the  ribs  of  camels.  Bone  is  made  up  of 
two  parts,  an  earthy  substance  and  an  animal 
substance.  By  long  burning  the  animal 
matter  may  be  got  rid  of  and  the  rest  falls 
apart  in  a  powder.  By  soaking  in  an  acid 
the  earthy  salts,  as  they  are  called,  may  be 
dissolved  out,  leaving  a  tough  and  bending 
substance.  Bones  are  of  three  shapes  •  long, 
as  the  armbone;  flat,  as  the  shoulder  blade; 
and  short  and  irregular,  as  those  of  the 
wrist.  The  bcny  substance  is  also  formed 
into  compact  and  spongy  bone,  the  com- 
pact or  dense  forming  a  shell  around  the 
spongy  or  loose  texture.  The  spongy  tex- 
ture is  made  up  of  numerous  bars  which 
unite  together  in  the  form  of  a  lattice-work, 
light,  but  very  strong.  The  compact  texture 
is  also  full  of  holes,  which  are  so  small  that 
they  can  be  examined  only  by  a  microscope. 
These  holes  are  the  mouths  of  canals,  which 
form  a  complete  network  of  tubes,  containing 
blood  vessels  which  supply  the  bone  with 
tiourishment  For  bones  grow  and  must  be 
kept,  alive  like  other  tissues  of  the  body; 
they  start  as  a  mass  of  cells,  and  only  be- 
come true  bones  afta  a  long  process  Bone 


is  also  covered  outside  with  a  coating  of 
membrane,  in  which  blood  vessels  and  nerves 
branch  in  all  directions  and  join  the  interior 
net-work.  The  shaft  of  long  bones  is  hollow; 
in  some  birds  and  other  animals  this  space 
is  filled  with  air,  but  in  animals  like  man  it 
is  filled  with  a  matter  called  marrow.  This 
shaft  is  also  lined  with  a  membrane  pierced 
with  vessels.  Besides  all  the  small  blood 
vessels  that  have  been  named,  there  is  also 
a  larger  one  which  runs  diagonally  into  the 
centei  of  the  bone  Bone  is  useful  in  medi- 
cine and  cooking  and  in  many  other  ways. 
(See  SKELETON, etc.) 

Bonheur  (bd'nZr'),  Rosalie,  a  celebrated 
French  animal  painter,  was  born  at  Bor- 
deaux in  1822.  She  made  a  study  of  animal 
life  and  in  that 
department 
achieved  great 
distinction. 
Ploughing  with 
Oxen  Ploughing 
tn  Nivernais 
and  Horses  in  a 
Meadow  are 
among  her  well- 
known  paintings. 
The  Horse  Fairt 
was  bought  for 
over  $50,000  by  i 
Mr.C.Vanderbilt 
and  placed  in  the 
Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art 
at  New  York. 
She  long  directed  a  school  of  design 
for  girls.  She  received  several  medals 
also  the  decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
During  the  siege  of  Paris  her  studio  and 
residence  at  Fontainebleau  were  spared  and 
respected  by  special  order  of  the  then  crown 
prince  of  Prussia.  She  died  May  25.  1899 

Bon' if  ace,  the  name  of  nine  popes  most 
of  whom  are  of  no  historic  importance. 
Boniface  VII J  a  native  of  Anagni,  was 
elected  pope  in  1294  He  was  inaugurated 
with  great  pomp,  the  kings  of  Hungary  and 
Sicily  holding  the  reins  of  his  horse,  and. 
with  their  crowns  upon  their  heads,  serving 
him  at  table.  He  failed  in  many  of  his 
attempts  to  assert  the  papal  power  in  tem- 
poral affairs,  and  was  made  prisoner  at 
Anagni  by  Philip  the  Fair  of  France.  He 
was  freed  by  the  people  of  Anagni,  and  died 
at  Rome  soon  afterward  in  1303.  He  is 
mentioned  by  Dante  in  The  Inferno. 

Bon 'if  ace,  Saint,  "The  Apostle  of  Ger- 
many," was  born  in  England  about  A.  D. 
680.  Becoming  a  priest  when  thirty  years 
old,  he  was  sent  by  the  pope  to  preach 
the  Gospel  to  all  the  tribes  of  Germany, 
who  as  yet  were  pagans.  Traveling  through 
the  country,  he  baptized  multitudes  and 
changed  their  idolatrous  groves  into  churches. 
He  was  made  a  bishop,  then  archbishop  and 


ROSA   BONHEUR 


BONN 


443 


BOOK-KEcPING 


finally  papal  legate  of  all  Germany.  He 
foundea  churches  and  convents,  and,  scatter- 
ing English  priests,  monks  and  nuns  through- 
out the  land,  established  many  of  the 
bishoprics  which  still  exist.  While  working 
among  the  Frisians,  an  armed  band-  of 
heathen  fell  upon  him  and  killed  him,  with 
the  converts  who  were  with  him  (755).  His 
remains  were  buried  in  the  abbey  at  F'ulda, 
which  he  had  founded,  and  where  there  is 
still  shown,  a  copy  of  the  Gospels  written  by 
him,  with  a  leaf  stained  by  his  blood. 

Bonn,  a  city  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  lying  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  It  is  chiefly 
famed  for  its  university,  This  great  institu- 
tion has  about  185  professors  and  lecturers 
and  3,275  students,  a  library  of  250,000  vol- 
umes, a  splendid  laboratory,  an  art  mu- 
seum, an  observatory,  a  botanic  garden  and 
various  other  valuable  collections.  There  is 
also  a  celebrated  agricultural  academy. 
Among  the  famous  professors  of  the  univer- 
sity were  the  great  historian  Niebuhr  and 
the  philosopher  Schlegel.  Niebuhr,  Eunsen 
and  Schumann  lie  buried  in  the  minster  of 
Bonn,  which  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
the  Empress  Helena  in  320;  and  near  it  is  a 
monument  to  Beethoven.  Population  about 
87,967- 

Bonython,  Sir  John  Langdcn,  editor  and 
proprietor  of  the  Adelaide  Advertiser,  was 
born  in  London,  Oct.  15,  1848.  and  educated 
at  the  Brougham  School  in  Adelaide.  He  is 
also  the  owner  of  the  Adelaide  Chronicle  and 
the  Evening  Express.  He  holds  many  posi- 
tions of  distinction  in  connection  with  edu- 
cational institutions  and  was  elected  as  rep- 
resentative of  the  state  of  South  Australia 
to  the  first  parliament  of  the  Commonwealth. 

Book  (Saxon  hoc,  meaning  beech).  In 
early  times  many  different  things  were  used 
as  the  materials  of  writing.  The  Babyloni- 
ans and  Assyrians  preserved  their  writings 
either  on  papyrus,  made  of  reeds,  which 
grow  in  warm  countries,  or  more  commonly 
on  brick  clay,  baked  into  square  or  cylin- 
drical shapes.  The  Egyptians  used  papyrus 
(see  PAPER)  as  early  as  2000  B.  C.,  and  its 
use  spread  to  Greece  and  Rome.  It  was 
rolled  up  on  a  stick,  forming  what  is  now 
called  in  Latin  a  volumen  (roll) ,  from  which 
we  get  our  word  volume.  One  of  these 
rolls  has  been  found  forty  yards  in  length. 
Later  on.  carefully  prepared  skins  or  parch- 
ment became  more  common;  while  the 
Romans  used  a  flat  wooden  board  or  sheet 
of  metal  covered  with  wax,  upon  which  they 
scratched  with  a  sharp  pointed  instrument 
called  a  stylus  in  the  middle  ages,  when 
books  were  written  by  hand  on  parchment 
and  later  on  paper,  four,  five  or  six  sheets 
were  commonly  used,  folded  in  the  middle, 
making  twice  as  many  leaves.  When  print- 
ing was  introduced,  the  same  plan  was  at 
first  used,  only  one  page  being  printed  at  a 
cime.  It  later  bee^ne  common  to  print  sev- 


eral pages  at  once,  the  paper  being  folded 
and  cut  into  pages  afterward;  the  number 
of  times  it  had  to  be  folded  showing  the  size 
the  book  was  to  be.  Even  to-day  the  same 
words  are  used  to  describe  the  size  of  a  book; 
one  where  sheets  are  folded  once  down  the 
middle,  making  two  leaves,  being  called  a 
folio;  if  the  sheets  are  folded  twice,  making 
four  leaves,  it  is  called  a  quarto,  etc.  But  as 
the  size  of  the  original  sheet  now  varies  con- 
siderably, these  terms  do  not  tell  accurately 
the  size  of  the  book.  Books  vary  in  size  from 
the  Thumb  Bible,  which  is  a  little  larger  than 
a  postage  stamp,  to  certain  church  books 
which  are  described  as  six  feet  high  and  four 
feet  broad.  Titles  of  books  used  to  be  very 
long,  sometimes  covering  nearly  the  whole 
title-page;  and  the  preface  and  dedication 
were  formerly  much  more  elaborate  than 
now.  Illustrations  have  been  used  in  books 
for  a  long  time.  When  books  were  written 
on  parchment  by  hand,  the  ornamenting  of 
the  margins  and  the  lettering  were  often 
very  elaborate. 

BOOK  BINDING  before  the  days  of  print- 
ing and  for  a  long  time  after  was  done  by 
hand,  the  cover  usually  being  made  out  of 
prepared  skin  and  often  ornamented  with 
gold  and  jewels.  At  the  present  day  books 
are  usually  sent  to  the  binder  as  unfolded 
sheets  of  thirty-two  pages  each,  the  pages 
being  already  numbered.  The  folding  is 
usually  done  by  a  machine,  though  some- 
times by  hand.  One  from  each  bundle  of 
folded  sheets  is  taken  and  they  are  laid 
together  according  to  the  number  of  the 
sheets,  then  pressed  solidly  together  in  a 
machine  and  sewed.  After  this  the  edges  are 
cut  and  the  book  rounded  on  the  back  to 
make  projections  or  joints  to  hold  the  cover 
firm.  The  cover  has  already  been  prepared 
by  pasting  a  special  kind  of  cloth  over  two 
pieces  of  pasteboard,  keeping  them  as  far 
apart  as  the  width  of  the  book,  and  by 
stamping  the  ornamental  design  on  the  out- 
side. The  outside  paper  of  the  book,  to- 
gether with  the  threads  on  which  it  is  sewed, 
is  then  pasted  to  the  inside  of  the  covers 
and  the  book  is  put  into  a  hydraulic  press 
until  it  is  dry.  The  binding  of  books  in 
leather  is  a  slightly  different  process. 

Book-Keeping,  a  method  of  recording 
the  transactions  of  business  houses  by  a  sys- 
tem which  shall  show  with  ease  and  exact- 
ness on  inspection,  the  extent  and  soundness 
of  the  business  done  by  a  merchant,  trading 
firm  or  corporate  company  engaged  in  busi- 
ness operations,  while  setting  forth  the  ex 
tent  of  the  resources  and  liabilities,  losses- 
or  gains,  together  with  the  capital  and  stock 
in  trade,  of  such  merchant,  firm  or  company 
doing  business.  In  the  case  of  partnership 
firms — and  indeed  the  case  of  all — the  nec- 
essity of  keeping  books  of  account  and  o* 
having  recourse  to  a  system  of  book-keep 
ing,  either  by  Single  or  by  Double  Entry 


BOOMERANG 


244 


BOONE 


will  be    apparent    and    obvious;    while    it 
is    vital    to    the    exigencies    of   any   mer- 
chant or  firm  doing  a  more  or  less  large  busi- 
ness and  desiring  to  do  with  precision  and 
exactness  a  financially  correct  and    sound 
business.       The    two     systems     of    book- 
keeping  are    (  i  )   that    by    Single    Entry, 
the  simpler  of  the  two,  and   (2)   that  by 
Double   Entry,   both  being  in   use  as   the 
volume    of    traae   calls    for.      Under    the 
former,  the  books  in   use  are  a  Cash  book, 
Day  book  and  Ledger;  under  the  latter,  a 
Journal  is  called  for  in  addition.     By  both 
systems  the  transactions  recorded  in  either 
set  of  books  should  for  accuracy  be  checked 
over  at  least  monthly,  and  an  abstract  or 
resum6  made,  and  more  especially  so  if  the 
business  done  is  on  a  large  scale.     The  Sin- 
gle Entry  system  is  mainly  used  where  trans- 
actions can  be  simplified,  if  on  a  small  scale, 
as  in  the  case  of  retail  merchants  where  it  is 
necessary  to  record  only  the  purchases  and 
sales  for  cash  or  credit.    The  more  satisfac- 
tory,   though    more    intricate,    system    of 
Double  Entry  is  resorted  to  where  business 
is  done  on  an  extensive  scale,  calling  for  the 
record  of  a  transaction  cr  sale  first  on  the 
debtor  or  creditor  side  of  an  account,  and 
again  on  the  contrary  side  of  some  other 
account.    By  the  latter  system  the  merchant 
can  more  readily  inform  himself  of  the  exact 
state  of  eacfc  account,  and  not  alone  of  the 
goods  sold,  but  of  what  he  has  on  hand, 
without  the  necessity  of  first  taking  account 
of  stock.    Transactions  in  which  cash  plays 
a  part  are  entered  first  in  the  Cash  book, 
after  the  same  manner  as  entries  are  made 
in  the  Day  book,  i.e.,  after  setting  forth  the 
customer's  name  and  date  of  the  entry,  with 
the  term  Dr.  or  Cr.  annexed,  according  to 
the   nature  of  the  transaction — Dr.   when 
goods   are   sold,   and   Cr.   when  goods   are 
bought  or  received.    Goods  bought  on  credit 
are    entered    under    ''Cr."     and    the   entry 
should  be  preceded  by  the  word  "By;"  when 
they  are  sold  on  credit,  add  "  Dr.  '  to   the 
purchaser's  name  and  residence,  and  precede 
the  entry  with  "To."     The  Ledger  in  both 
systems  is  the  most  important  of  the  books, 
and  under  the  Double  Entry  system  into  it 
are  transferred  the  entries  under  their  sepa- 
rate   heads    from    the    Journal — each   item 
being  entered  twice,  once  on  the  Dr.  side 
of  an  account  and  once  on  the  Cr.  side  of 
another  account.     Many  firms  have  subsidi- 
ary books,  such  as  a  Petty  Cash  book,  which 
is  usually  balanced  monthly  or  oftener  and 
its  total  expenditures  are  transferred  to  the 
Cash  Book  proper,  under  the  head  of  Petty 
Cash.     The   other  books  embrace   a   Sales 
book,  an  Invoice  and  an  Inventory  book, 
and  a  Bills   Receivable  and  Bills  Payable 
book  and  Bank  book,  besides  the  balance 
sheets  statedly  utilized.     The   Bank  book 
should,  of  course,  show  on  the  debit  side  the 
sums    periodically    deposited,    and    on    the 


credit  side  the  sums  withdrawn — the  remain- 
ing amount,  unless  the  account  should 
happen  to  be  overdrawn,  being  closed  "By 
Balance,"  to  be  carried  forward  to  the  new 
month's  business.  In  the  Double  Entry 
system,  where  there  is  but  one  owner  (with- 
out partner),  a  stock  account  should  be 
opened,  in  which  the  owner  is  credited  with 
his  investment  or  capital,  together  with  the 
gai  s  of  the  business,  and  debited  with  all 
sums  withdrawn  and  liability  assumed,  as 
well  as  with  the  losses  incurred,  if  there  be 
any.  Similarly,  the  Merchandise  account 
should  be  debited  with  the  original  sum  in- 
vested as  the  purchase  money  of  the  con- 
cern, and  credited  with  the  sales  and  the 
amount  of  stock  on  hand,  when  ascertained. 
When  the  stock  has  all  been  sold,  or  the 
amount  on  hand  figured  out,  the  account 
will,  of  course,  show  the  resultant  gain,  or 
loss,  whichever  may  happen  to  preponder- 
ate. In  like  manner,  Bills  Receivable  are 
debited  with  the  notes  given  or  drafts  ac- 
cepted for  purchases  of  stock,  and  credited 
when  these  mature  and  are  paid.  Bills  Pay- 
able are  similarly  credited  when  the  notes 
of  the  house,  if  any,  are  issued,  and  debited 
when  they  are  redeemed  and  paid. 

Boom'erang,  an  instrument  used  by  the 
natives  of  Australia  in  hunting  and  war. 
It  is  about  two  feet  long,  flat  on  one  side 
and  rounded  on  the  other,  with  a  sharp 
edge.  It  is  made  of  hard  wood  bent  into 
a  curve.  The  method  of  using  this  re- 
markable weapon  is  as  follows:  taking  it  by 
one  end  with  the  bulged  side  downward, 
the  Australian  throws  it  forward  as  if  to 
hit  an  object  some  yards  in  front.  Instead 
of  going  straight  forward,  it  slowly  rises 
in  the  air,  whirling  round  and  round  in  a 
curved  line,  until  it  reaches  quite  a  height, 
when  it  begins  to  fly  back  again,  and, 
sweeping  over  the  head  of  the  thrower, 
falls  behind  him.  This  surprising  motion 
is  produced  by  the  action  of  the  air  on  the 
bulging  side  of  the  boomerang.  The  Aus- 
tralians have  a  remarkable  skill  in  the  use 
of  this  weapon,  and  it  is  said  that  with  it 
they  can  almost  cut  an  animal  in  two. 

Boone,  a  city  and  county-seat  of  Bpone 
County,  Iowa,  36  miles  from  Des  Moines. 
In  the  vicinity  are  deposits  of  coal,  also 
fire  and  pottery  clay,  and  the  city  is  en- 
gaged in  the  mining  and  shipping  of  coal 
and  the  manufacture  of  pottery,  tiles, 
brick,  flour,  etc.  Boone  has  a  public  library, 
a  hospital  and  the  service  of  three  railroads. 
Population,  12,253. 

Boone,  Daniel.  For  more  than  a 
century  this  famous  hunter  and  Indian 
fighter  and  pioneer,  has  fired  the  imagina- 
tions of  the  American  boy  and  inspired 
biographer,  orator  and  poet.  Of  the  hun- 
dreds of  backwoodsmen  who,  in  Revolu- 
tionary days,  broke  across  the  Alleghenies, 
his  personality  is  the  most  picturesque, 


£[:iiiiiii:iiii::iiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiii!iiiiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiiic:iiiiw 

GYMNASTICS  OF  THE  BOOMERANG 


i!ic3iiiiiiiiiiii:3iiiiiiiiiiiir:ii:niii!iiii:!iiii!!iiiii[3iiiiiiiiiiM"iiiiiiMMiic:* 


000TH 


245 


BOOTH 


DANIEL   BOONE 


his  character  the  most  admirable  and  his 
life  the  longest.  Born  on  the  frontier  in 
Pennsylvania  in  1735,  he  lived  on  the  fron- 
tier in  North  Carolina,  blazed  a  way  through 
the  Kentucky 
wilderness  for 
settlers,  and  died 
at  an  outpost  of 
civilization  in 
Missouri  in  1820. 
The  spirit  of  the 
red  man  was  no 
more  alien  to  the 
settlement  than 
was  Daniel 
Boone's.  In  the1 
eighty-five  years 
of  his  life  he 
never  lacked 
"elbow-room," 
free  land,  stirring  adventure,  game  for  his 
unerring  rifle  or  courage  and  resource  to 
meet  danger. 

The  boy  who  fancies  this  the  ideal  career 
does  not  realize  the  rough  schooling  that 
was  the  necessary  preparation  for  it.  Ex- 
cept for  the  scattered  clearings,  the  valley 
of  the  Schuylkill,  where  he  was  born,  was 
wild  pasture  and  untamed  forests.  His 
parents  were  Quakers,  arid  they  and  their 
Quaker  and  Dutch  neighbors  were  depend- 
ent for  a  living  more  upon  hunting  than 
upon  crops.  So  the  boy  grew  up  in  the  wild, 
strong,  brave,  inured  to  hardship  and  as 
skilled  in  woodcraft  as  an  Indian.  Scarcity 
of  game  forced  the  family  to  emigrate  to 
the  high  western  valley  of  North  Carolina. 
There,  at  the  age  of  21,  Boone  married. 
When  he  was  24,  he  joined  a  party  under 
the  guidance  f  John  Finley,  and  by  way 
of  the  old  Indian  trail  across  Cumberland 
Gap  broke  into  the  hunter's  paradise  of 
Kentucky.  Contrary  to  popular  belief, 
Boone  was  not  the  first  white  man  in  Ken- 
tucky, and,  as  a  permanent  settlement, 
Harrodsburg  antedated  Boonsboro  by  a 
year.  His  son  Enoch  was,  however,  the 
first  white  child  born  in  the  state  (1777), 
and  Boone,  as  justice  of  the  peace,  cele- 
brated the  first  marriage  ceremony  (1776). 
The  hero  of  border  warfare,  he  is,  as  a 
military  figure,  insignificant  beside  George 
Rogers  Clark.  But  in  the  mischances  of 
frontier  life,  with  daring  men  constantly 
making  early  and  violent  exits  from  the 
stage,  Boone  seemed  to  bear  a  charmed 
life.  For  half  a  century  he  slept  with  his 
food-pouch  filled  and  his  moccassins  tied 
to  his  gun-stock.  His  adventures  are  more 
stirring  than  those  of  the  most  lurid  dime 
novel. 

Such  was  his  fame  that,  when  he  emigrated 
to  Missouri  in  1792,  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment gave  him  8,000  acres  of  land  and 
made  him  commandant  of  the  Osage  dis- 
trict. There  he  dwelt  in  patriarchal  state, 


his  sons  and  daughters  around  him,  for 
nearly  thirty  years,  hunters,  explorers  and 
emigrants  taking  counsel  of  his  wisdom. 
For  artists  he  seems  to  have  had  great 
fascination  as  a  subject,  and  several  went 
out  to  paint  his  portrait.  One  has  described 
him  in  old  age  as  of  medium  height  but 
erect  and  athletic.  His  head  was  of  noble 
shape,  with  a  high,  bold  forehead,  his 
mouth  wide  and  thin-lipped,  his  eye  a  clear 
blue  and  of  direct  gaze.  Courage  and 
honesty  were  his  patent  traits;  his  expres- 
sion was  mild,  his  manner  amiable.  He 
was  unspoiled  by  his  great  reputation,  and 
remained  the  simple,  unlettered  child  of 
nature  to  the  last.  At  eighty-two  years 
of  age  he  looked  ten  years  younger,  and 
went  off  on  a  long  hunting  trip  to  the  Kan- 
sas River.  He  died  suddenly  in  his  86th 
year,  and  his  bones  were  removed  to  Frank- 
fort, Kentucky.  His  adventures,  as  told 
by  himself,  are  edited  by  John  Filson. 
The  latest  and  best  biography  is  by  Reu- 
ben Gold  Thwaites. 

Booth,  Edwin  Thomas,  one  of  the  great- 
est of  actors,  a  son  of  Junius  Brutus  Booth, 
was  born  at  Belair,  Maryland,  in  November, 
1833.  He  was  educated  for  the  stage,  and 
early  appeared  in  several  minor  parts  with 
his  father;  and  on  one  occasion  filled  suc- 
cessfully his  father's  place  as  Richard  III. 
He  made  a  trip  to  California,  then  to  Aus- 
tralia, and  on  his  return  to  New  York  ap- 
peared as  Richard  III,  and  soon  gained 
a  high  reputation  for  his  playing  of  Shakes- 
peare's leading  characters,  especially  lago 
and  Hamlet.  In  1861  he  went  to  Europe, 
playing  in  England  and  studying  his  art 
on  the  continent.  Returning  to  New  York, 
he  produced  the  play  of  Hamlet  at  the  Win- 
ter Garden  for  100  nights.  In  1869  he 
opened  a  splendid  theater  in  New  York, 
devoted  to  the  classic  drama,  at  a  cost  of 
over  $1,000,000.  In  1880  and  1882  he 
visited  England  again  and  also  Germany, 
and  was  received  everywhere  with  enthu- 
siasm. His  career  was  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  in  the  annals  .of  the  drama.  Be- 
sides the  characters  of  Shakespeare  he  rep- 
resented, his  rendering  of  Richelieu,  in 
Bulwer's  drama  of  that  name,  won  him 
fame.  He  died  at  New  York,  June  7,  1893. 

Booth,  John  Wilkes,  an  American 
actor,  notorious  as  the  assassinator  of 
Abraham  Lincoln,  was  born  in  Maryland 
in  1838,  and  was  shot  on  April  26,  1865, 
near  Bowling  Green,  Va.,  while  resisting  ar- 
rest, by  Sergeant  Boston  Corbett.  His 
father  was  Junius  Brutus  Booth,  from 
whom  he  inherited  a  touch  of  insanity. 
On  April  14,  1865,  while  President  Lincoln 
was  attending  a  play  in  Ford's  theater, 
in  Washington,  he  was  fatally  shot  by 
Booth,  who  exclaimed,  as  he  did  the  foul 
deed,  Sic  semper  tyrannis  (ever  thus  to 
tyrants).  The  motive  for  the  infamous 


BOOTH 


246 


BORDEAUX  MIXTURE 


act  was  Booth's  sympathy  irfth  the  south 
in  the  Civil  War. 

Booth,  Junius  Brutiu,  a  noted  trage- 
dian, was  born  at  Londo^  in  1796.  After 
essaying  different  professions,  he  made  his 
first  appearance  on  the  stage  in  1813.  He 
was  engaged  for  some  time  at  Covent  Gar- 
den theater  and  at  Drury  Lane  theater, 
where  he  played  with  Edmund  Kean,  each 
taking  alternately  the  characters  of  Othello 
and  lago.  After  traveling  on  the  con- 
tinent, he  emigrated  to  America  in  1821, 
and  for  thirty  years  played  in  nearly  every 
theater  in  the  country.  His  favorite  char- 
acters were  Richard  III,  lago  and  Sir  Giles 
Overreach;  but  he  also  excelled  in  Othello, 
Lear,  Shylock  and  Hamlet.  He  stands  in 
the  first  rank  of  tragedians.  He  died  on 
board  a  Mississippi  steamer  in  1852. 

Booth,  Rev.  William,  the  founder  and 
"general  of  the  Salvation  Army,"  was  born 
at  Nottingham,  England,  in  1829.  The 
work  which  led  to  the  creation  of  the  Salva- 
tion Army  was  begun  in  1865,  in  the  east 
end  of  London,  and  has  been  known  by 
that  name  since  1878.  The  general  was  ever 
the  mainspring  and  controlling  power  of  the 
movement,  directing  its  operations  both  at 
home  and  abroad  from  his  headquarters  at 
London.  In  1890  he  wrote  a  book  called  In 
Darkest  England,  in  which  he  showed  the 
wretched  condition  of  the  poor  of  London,  and 
described  the  work  the  Salvation  Army  was 
doing  for  them,  and  the  plans  for  future  work. 
Many  of  these  plans  have  been  put  in  operation 
since  the  publication  of  the  book.  He  died  in 
London,  Aug.  20,  1912.  See  SALVATION 
ARMY. 

Boothby,  Guy  Newell,  the  novelist, 
was  born  at  Adelaide,  South  Australia, 
Oct.  13,  i  £6  7.  He  crossed  Australia  from 
north  to  south  in  1891,  and  has  traveled 
extensively  in  the  Orient.  His  works  of 
fiction,  which  number  more  than  a  score, 
have  attracted  readers  throughout  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking world,  being  published  simul- 
taneously in  England,  Australia  and  the 
United  States. 

Boots  and  Shoes.  In  the  United  States 
the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  in 
almost  all  their  detailed  processes  and 
operations  has  set  aside  the  former  slow 
method  of  entire  hand-work,  and  for  many 
years  has  been  extensively  performed  by 
machinery.  If  there  is  a  hand  process 
still  clinging  to  their  manufacture,  it  is 
that  of  cutting  and  shaping  the  leather 
for  the  uppers.  With  perhaps  only  that 
exception,  the  varied  processes  gone  through, 
including  skiving,  welting,  lasting,  sewing 
and  tacking,  heeling,  rounding,  insoling, 
coloring  and  finishing  are  those  of  elaborately 
and  ingeniously  applied  machinery.  In 
the  Old  World  machinery  is  not  by  any 
means  so  largely  used,  even  in  the  case  of 
jjoilitary  and  hunting  boots,  those  of  grooms 


and  jockeys  and  the  elaborate  Hessian, 
Wellington  and  other  styles  of  jack-boots; 
nor  is  machinery  used  to  any  great  ex- 
tent, even  in  the  turning  out  of  ankle- 
boots  and  women's  low  shoes.  Exten- 
sive also  in  this  country  is  the  manu- 
facture of  cloth  and  rubber  boots  and 
shoes,  the  trade  in  the  latter  being  now  an 
enormous  industry  in  the  New  World, 
while  the  extent  to  which  they  are  now 
exported  is  increasing. 

Borax,  a  compound  of  boracic  acid  and 
soda,  found  as  a  saline  incrustation  in  cer- 
tain lagoons  and  lake  shores  chiefly  in 
Persia,  Tibet,  Chile  and  Peru.  It  is  also 
extensively  procured  in  its  crude  forms  in 
the  dry  lakes  or  in  their  muddy  bottoms 
of  California  and  Nevada,  the  production 
from  the  Pacific  coast  being  valued  an- 
nually at  about  $750,000.  It  is  soluble 
in  boiling  water  and  has  a  slight  alkaline 
taste.  It  is  put  to  a  variety  of  uses,  but 
chiefly  in  a  flux  state  in  aiding  the  fusion 
of  metallic  mixtures,  and  in  producing 
silicates  in  welding  iron,  in  soldering  metals 
and  other  brazing  operations,  as  well  as 
in  making  enamels  and  in  fixing  the  col- 
ors on  porcelain.  It  is,  moreover,  used 
as  a  food  preservative  and  as  a  detergent 
in  the  laundry.  In  combination  with 
glycerine  it  is  also  used  as  a  disinfectant 
and  antiseptic  for  sore  throats  and  in  the 
treatment  of  thrush  in  children's  mouths. 
The  crude  native  borax  imported  from 
Tibet,  and  once  the  chief  source  of  boracic 
compounds,  is  known  as  tincal. 

Bordeaux  (bor'do'),  the  third  seaport  of 
France,  lies  in  the  department  of  the 
Gironde,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Garonne, 
about  sixty  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the 
Atlantic,  but  easily  accessible  to  ships. 
Trade  by  railroad  and  by  the  Garonne  is 
very  large.  The  principal  industries  are 
the  making  of  sugar,  cigars,  calicos,  woolen 
goods,  paper,  etc.  In  1898,  the  volume 
of  trade  passing  in  and  out  of  Bordeaux 
was  in  value  676  millions  of  francs.  The 
wines  of  Bordeaux  are  noted,  both  the 
red  wines,  which  are  often  called  claret, 
and  the  white  wines.  The  river  is  crossed 
by  a  noble  bridge  of  seventeen  arches, 
with  a  length  of  532  yards.  The  city  can 
boast  of  some  of  the  finest  examples  of 
architecture  in  Europe,  among  them  a  large 
number  of  cathedrals  and  churches,  and 
the  Grand  theater.  Here  also  are  schools 
of  theology,  medicine,  art  and  science,  an 
imperial  college,  a  gallery  of  paintings, 
a  museum  and  an  observatory.  Bordeaux 
is  a  very  old  city  and  has  some  Roman  re- 
mains. When  under  English  occupation, 
it  was  for  awhile  the  seat  of  the  splendid 
court  of  the  Black  Prince.  Population, 
260,000. 

Bordeaux  Mixture,  the  most  generally 
used  remedy  for  blights  and  other  fungous 


BORE 


247 


BORNEO 


diseases  of  plants.  It  is  applied  as  a  dry 
powder  by  dusting  or  in  liquid  form  by 
spraying  (q.  v.).  Its  advantage  over  other 
fungicides  is  its  cheapness  and  its  safety, 
as  respects  both  operator  and  plant.  Form- 
ula of  the  liquid  form:  water  50  gallons, 
quicklime  three  to  six  pounds,  copper 
sulphate  three  to  six  pounds,  depending 
on  the  plant  treated.  The  dry  mixture 
is  made  so  that  the  copper  sulphate  will 
be  the  same  chemical  state  as  in  the  liquid; 
it  is  somewhat  harder  to  prepare,  but  is 
lighter  and  often  more  convenient  to  apply. 
The  chemical  condition  and  therefore  the  effi- 
ciency of  either  form  depend  on  the  proper 
preparation.  Consult  Bulletin  No.  60,  Mis- 
souri Agricultural  Experiment  Station  and 
Farmers  Bulletin  No.  38,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

Borden,  Robert  Laird,  became  premier 
of  Canada  after  the  defeat  of  the  Laurier 
ministry  on  the  reciprocity  issue  in  1911. 
He  was  born  in  Grand  Pre,  Nova  Scotia, 
June  26,  1854,  and  educated  at  Acadia 
Villa  Academy,  Horton.  He  studied  law 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1878.  He 
soon  rose  to  a  high  place  in  his  profession. 
In  1896  he  became  a  member  of  parliament 
and  was  elected  leader  of  the  conservative 
party  in  1901. 

Bore,  also  called  Eagre,  a  peculiar  tidal 
effect  at  the  mouth  of  certain  rivers.  When 
a  river's  mouth  widens  rapidly,  and  it  is  sub- 
ject to  high  tides,  the  spring  flood-tide 
drives  an  immense  volume  of  water  from 
the  sea  into  the  river.  The  water  collects 
in  the  mouth  faster  than  it  can  flow  up  into 
the  river,  and  so  there  is  gradually  formed 
a  kind  of  watery  ridge  stretching  across 
and  rushing  up  the  opening  with  great 
violence  and  noise.  It  sometimes  rises 
many  feet.  The  most  notable  Old  World 
bores  are  those  of  the  Ganges,  Brahma- 
putra and  Indus.  In  one  branch  of  the 
Ganges  the  bore  travels  seventy  miles  in 
four  hours,  and  often  it  appears  suddenly 
as  a  wall  seven  feet  high. 

Boreas,  the  north  wind,  was  one  of  the 
nature  gods  in  the  Greek  myths.  He  was 
depicted  as  an  old  man,  with  hair  and  beard 
flaked  with  snow  and  having  wings.  The 
Athenians  built  him  a  temple  for  assisting  to 
wreck  the  fleet  of  the  Persian  monarch  Xerxes. 

Borgia  (bor'jd),  Caesar,  whose  father 
afterwards  became  Pope  Alexander  VI, 
was  born  in  Italy  in  1475,  and  at  an  early 
age  entered  upon  a  career  of  crime  and 
ambition.  A  cardinal  at  17  (A.  D.  1492) 
and  soon  after  captain-general  of  the 
church,  he  sought  to  push  his  way  to  power 
by  the  destruction  of  all  who  stood  in  his 
path.  He  planned  a  new  kingdom  of  cen- 
tral Italy,  and  it  required  a  league  of  all 
Italy  and  of  the  most  powerful  sovereigns 
of  Europe  to  thwart  his  energy  and  ambi- 
tion. The  death  of  his  father,  who  was 


his  ally,  and  his  own  capture  by  his  enemies 
put  an  end  to  his  plans.  He  escaped  and 
fled  to  the  court  of  Navarre,  but  was  soon 
after  killed  (1507),  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
two. 

Borgia,  Lucretia,  sister  of  Caesar  Bor- 
gia, a  beautiful  and  accomplished  woman, 
was  born  at  Rome  in  1480.  During  the 
lives  of  her  father  and  brother,  she  was 
several  times  married  to  further  their 
plans,  but  in  later  life,  as  the  duchess  of 
Ferrara,  she  was  celebrated  for  her  piety 
and  love  of  art  and  learning.  She  died 
in  1519. 

Bor'neo  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  and  the  largest  island  in 
the  world,  lies  in  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
south  of  the  China  Sea.  Its  length  is  about 
800  miles,  its  breadth  700,  and  its  area, 
British  and  Dutch,  244,000,  nearly  as  large 
as  Texas.  The  population  is  about  1,129,889. 

Surface  and  Rivers.  The  island  is  moun- 
tainous, reaching  its  greatest  height  in 
Kini-Balu,  which  is  about  9,500  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  Unlike  the  other  is- 
lands of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  Borneo 
has  no  active  volcanoes.  It  has  an  ex- 
tensive river  system  and  many  lakes, 
swarming  with  crocodiles,  and  many  of 
the  rivers  are  navigable  far  inland  for  boats 
of  considerable  size.  The  climate  of  the 
lowlands  is  unhealthy  for  Europeans,  but 
the  highlands  have  a  more  moderate  tem- 
perature. 

Natural  Resources.  The  forests  produce 
many  valuable  woods,  oils  and  gums; 
the  mohor  tree,  used  for  making  boats, 
reaching  a  height  of  eighty  feet,  and  the 
kaladang,  suited  for  large  masts,  growing 
200  feet  high.  The  forests  abound  in  wild 
animals;  among  them  are  the  orang-outang, 
rhinoceros  and  elephant;  and  various  birds, 
as  the  swift,  which  constructs  the  edible 
nests  prized  by  the  Chinese  for  soup.  Among 
the  abundant  mineral  resources  of  Borneo 
are  valuable  diamond  mines. 

People  and  Products.  The  inhabitants  are 
Malays,  Dyaks,  Negritos  and  Chinese. 
The  chief  Dutch  settlements  are  Sambas, 
Pontiana,  Banjarmassin  and  Koti.  Vegeta- 
tion is  luxuriant.  Spices,  rice,  millet, 
sweet  potatoes,  cotton,  indigo,  tobacco, 
etc.,  are  among  the  island  products. 

Political  Divisions.  The  country  is  di- 
vided into  districts,  ruled  by  sultans;  but 
foreign  powers  have  obtained  control  of 
large  portions.  The  largest  portion  of  the 
island  belongs  to  the  Netherlands.  British 
North  Borneo,  including  Brunei,  Sarawak 
and  Labuan — all  under  British  influence — 
has  an  area  of  nearly  42,000  square  miles, 
with  a  coast-line  of  over  900  miles. 

The  Dutch  have  the  control,  directly  or 
indirectly,  of  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the 
island,  and  have  divided  the  southern  part 
into  the  residency  of  the  western  division, 


BOSNIA 


248 


BOSTON 


with  the  capital  at  Kuching  (population, 
9,000),  and  that  of  the  southern  ana  eastern, 
with  its  capital  at  Banjermassin  (popula- 
tion, 30,000).  Borneo  was  discovered  by 
the  Portuguese  in  1518,  and  the  Dutch 
visited  the  island  in  1598,  and  in  the  iyth 
century  made  a  settlement  there.  Popu- 
lation estimated  at  500,000. 

Bos'nia,  Herzegovina  and  Novi-Bazar 
are  provinces  in  the  northwest  of  the  Balkan 
Peninsula,  formerly  under  Turkish  rule, 
but  now,  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin  in  1878, 
turned  over  to  the  Austro-Hungarian  mon- 
archy, of  which  it  now  forms  a  part.  The 
joint  area  of  the  three  is  23,570  square 
miles,  about  the  size  of  West  yirginia, 
and  the  population  is  over  a.  million  and 
a  half.  Bosnia  is  mountainous,  covered 
with  forests,  and  interspersed  with  beauti- 
ful valleys.  Numerous  rivers  flow  north- 
ward and  join  the  Save,  which  forms  the 
northern  boundary.  The  capital  is  Bosna 
Serai  or  Serajevo,  with  a  population  of 
38,000.  The  people  are  mainly  Slavs, 
divided  by  religion  into  Mohammedans, 
Roman  Catholics  and  Orthodox  Greeks. 

Bosporus  or  Bosphorus  meaning  ox- 
ford, from  the  legend  that  lo  swam  across 
it  in  the  form  of  a  cow,  is  the  channel  that 
separates  Europe  from  Asia  and  connects 
the  Black  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Marmora. 
It  was  more  particularly  called  the  Thracian 
Bosporus  to  distinguish  it  from  other 
straits  to  which  the  same  name  had  been 
given.  Throughout  its  length  the  strait 
has  on  either  side  seven  bays  or  gulfs,  with 
corresponding  promontories  on  the  other 
side.  One  of  these  gulfs,  often  called  the 
Golden  Horn,  forms  the  harbor  of  Con- 
stantinople. The  Bosporus  is  about  seven- 
teen miles  long  and  from  a  third  of  a  mile 
to  two  miles  broad,  with  an  average  depth 
of  about  1 80  feet.  The  banks  are  richly 
dotted  with  cypress,  laurels  and  ancient 
plane  trees,  and  covered  with  palaces,  vil- 
lages, villas  and  gardens.  It  was  at  the 
middle  of  this  strait  that  Darius  made  his 
bridge  of  boats  when  he  marched  against 
the  Scythians.  The  Bosporus  has  long 
been  under  the  control  of  Turkey,  and 
by  common  consent  of  the  European 
powers,  is  closed  to  all  but  her  own  war 
vessels,  though  the  sultan  may  open  them 
to  his  allies  in  time  of  war. 

Boston,  the  capital  of  Massachusetts, 
the  chief  city  of  New  England  and  the 
fifth  largest  city  of  the  United  States, 
stands  at  the  western  end  of  Massachusetts 
Bay,  at  the  mouths  of  the  Charles  and 
Mystic  Rivers.  Founded  in  1630,  it  was 
first  called  Trimountain  from  the  three 
hills  which  then  formed  a  marked  feature 
of  the  landscape.  Since  that  time  it  has 
taken  a  prominent  part  in  the  history  of 
America.  Here  was  published  the  first 
regular  newspaper  (1704),  and  the  same 


Puritan  spirit  which  led  to  the  punishment 
here  of  heretics,  Quakers  and  witches,  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  determined  opposi- 
tion to  the  oppressive  measures  of  England 
which  resulted  in  the  Revolution.  The 
Boston  Massacre  and  the  destruction  of 


the  British  taxed  tea  in  the  harbor  are 
famous.  Otis,  Hancock,  Samuel  Adams 
and  Warren  were  all  Boston  men.  Boston 
has  also  done  much  for  the  literature  and 
culture  of  America.  Longfellow  and  Lowell, 
Whittier  and  Emerson,  Hawthorne  and 
Holmes,  Thoreau  and  Parkman,  Motley 
and  Prescott  dwelt  in  or  near  the  Puritan 
City. 

Boston  has  a  fine  system  of  parks,  Frank- 
lin park  (the  largest)  has  an  area  of  527  acres. 
These  parks  are  connected  by  miles  of  wide 
and  handsome  boulevards.  Boston  Com- 
mon (48  acres)  and  the  public  gardens 
are  greatly  enjoyed  by  the  people,  because  sit- 
uated in  the  center  of  the  business  section 
of  the  city.  The  metropolitan  park  com- 
mission has  secured  and  opened  to  the  pub- 
lic a  system  of  parks  around  Boston,  includ- 
ing the  Blue  Hills  Reservation,  Middlesex 
Fells,  Revere  and  Nantasket  Beaches, 
tracts  along  several  rivers,  ponds  and  brooks, 
to  the  extent  of  over  12,000  acres  and 
costing  over  five  million  dollars.  The 
estimated  area  of  the  city  is  42  square 
miles.  In  1872  the  city  was  visited  by  a 
destructive  fire,  which  destroyed  over 
75  million  dollars  worth  of  property  in  the 
business  section;  but  the  evidences  of  this 
destruction  have  long  since  disappeared, 
and  a  new  face  was  soon  put  upon  the  city's 
aspect.  Among  the  historic  buildings  of 
the  city  are  the  State  House,  Christ  Church, 
the  old  South  Church,  Faneuil  Hall,  called 
the  Cradle  of  Liberty,  and  King's  Chapel. 
The  later  noted  buildings  include  Trinity 
Church,  the  Custom  House  Tower  the 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  the  Museum  of 


BOSTON  UNIVERSITY 


249 


BOTANY 


Natural  History,  the  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, the  new  Symphony  Hall,  Opera 
House,  the  Massachusetts  General  Hospital, 
the  Christian  Science  and  the  Spiritualist 
Church  and  the  fine  home  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Historical  Society,  the  govern- 
ment postoffice,  building  built  of  granite,  and 
various  asylums,  handsome  club  houses,  beau- 
tiful homes  in  the  residence  district,  etc.  The 
city  is  adorned  with  statues  and  monu- 
ments: the  great  Bunker  Hill  monument 
and  statues  of  Washington,  Hamilton, 
Winthrop,  Webster,  Edward  Everett, 
Charles  Sumner,  Josiah  Quincy,  Ben- 
jamin Franklin,  Horace  Mann  and  a  score 


BOSTON    PUBLIC    LIBRARY 

of  other  noted  Americans.  Boston  Uni- 
versity, the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  and  Boston  College  are  ex- 
cellent institutions  of  learning.  Educa- 
tionally, Boston  is  noted  for  its  great  free 
library  with  numerous  branches  (containing 
over  1,000,000  volumes),  its  Boston  Athe- 
naeum, with  a  library  of  over  200,000 
volumes,  its  fine  school-houses,  many 
special  and  suburban  high  schools,  the 
large  per  cent,  of  pupils  in  the  latter  and 
its  remarkable  school  attendance.  Very 
few  children  of  school  age  are  on  the  street. 
Several  of  the  great  publishing  firms  are 
located  in  this  city.  Boston  has  large 
manufacturing  interests,  and  is  the  prin- 
cipal mart  for  the  sale  of  wool,  shoes  and 
leather.  The  surface  and  elevated  electric 
cars  pass  under  the  Common  and  Tremont 
and  Winter  Streets,  through  magnificent  sub- 
ways built  by  the  city. 

In  foreign  trade  the  city  holds  the  third 
place  with  New  York  first  (the  extent  of  its 
foreign  commerce,  exports  and  imports, 
reaching  two  hundred  and  sixty  million  dollars 
in  amount),  and  20  lines  of  ocean  steamers 
ply  regularly  between  this  city  and  foreign 
ports.  The  railroad  system  of  New  Eng- 
land centers  chiefly  in  Boston.  There 
are  two  great  union  stations,  the  North 
Union  and  the  South  Terminal;  the  latter 
handles  the  world's  largest  number  of  passen- 
gers. The  chief  railways  entering  the  city  are 


the  Boston  &  Albany,  Boston  &  Maine, 
New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford.  The 
population  of  the  city  proper  is  726,000  while 
the  Metropolitan  district — that  is  to  say, 
taking  in  the  city  and  its  suburbs,  has  i  ,600,000 
inhabitants. 

Boston  University,  located  in  the  city 
of  Boston,  Mass.,  was  chartered  by  the 
state  in  1869.  It  has  150  instructors 
and  over  1,400  students.  It  is  a  thoroughly 
equipped  institution,  and  is  noted  for  the 
facilities  which  it  affords  for  advanced 
work  in  its  graduate  and  professional  schools. 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  College  at  Am- 
herst  is  a  branch  of  the  university. 

Boswell.  See  JOHNSON,  SAM- 
UEL. 

Bos'  worth,  a  market  town  of 
England,  twelve  miles  from  Leices- 
ter, near  which  was  fought  the 
famous  battle  of  Bosworth,  August, 
1485.  In  this  battle,  the  death 
of  Richard  III,  who,  deserted  by 
his  forces,  had  rushed  into  the  thick 
of  the  enemy,  crying  "Treason, 
treason,"  ended  the  long  civil  wars 
of  the  Roses.  At  the  close  of  the 
fight,  the  crown  was  found  near  a 
hawthorn  bush,  and  was  placed 
by  Lord  Stanley  on  the  head  of  the 
new  king,  Henry  VII,  on  an  emi- 
nence which  is  still  called  Crown 
Hill. 

Bot'any.  The  science  which  deals  with 
plants.  It  should  be  understood  in  the 
outset  that  botany  is  one  division  of  biology, 
and  that  it  simply  means  a  study  of  biology 
with  plants  as  illustrative  material.  The 
history  of  botany  is  a  very  long  one,  but 
the  real  development  of  the  science  has 
taken  place  during  the  last  century.  Nat- 
urally, the  first  attention  given  to  plants 
was  to  discover  those  which  are  useful  to 
man  for  food,  in  the  arts  or  in  medicine. 
In  fact,  the  medicinal  use  of  plants  was  for 
centuries  the  only  representative  of  a 
botanical  science.  A  true  science  of  botany, 
however,  began  with  attempts  to  classify 
plants.  Aristotle  and  Theophrastus  had 
classified  all  plants  as  trees,  shrubs  and 
herbs,  and  there  was  no  further  attempt 
to  develop  a  scientific  knowledge  of 
plants  until  the  i6th  century.  It  was 
then  that  students  again  began  to  arrange 
plants  into  groups,  but  these  groups  were 
very  artificial.  These  attempts  finally  cul- 
minated in  the  famous  artificial  system 
of  Linnaeus,  which  was  published  in  the 
middle  of  the  i8th  century  and  was  in  use 
to  the  middle  of  the  igth  century.  Since 
that  time  a  great  advance  has  been  made 
in  constructing  what  are  known  as  natural 
systems  of  classification,  which  attempt 
to  put  those  plants  together  which  are 
really  related.  As  a  consequence,  the 
subject  of  classification  or  taxonomy,  as 


BOTANY  BAY 


250 


BOTHNIA,  GULF  OF 


it  is  called,  is  upon  a  very  substantial  basis. 
Taxonomy  is  the  oldest  phase  of  botany, 
but  it  continues  to  represent  to  many  the 
whole  subject.  It  is  not  unusual  to  meet 
people  who  think  of  botany  as  the  an- 
alysis of  flowers.  Of  course,  taxonomy 
includes  the  classification  of  flowering 
plants,  but  it  includes  a  classification  of 
all  other  plants  as  well. 

During  the  last  part  of  the  i8th  century 
a  new  phase  of  botany  began  to  be  developed, 
which  deals  with  the  structure  and  develop- 
ment of  plants  and  their  organs.  This 
became  possible  through  the  invention  and 
gradual  improvement  of  the  microscope, 
so  that  the  minute  structures  of  plants 
could  be  investigated.  At  first  botanists 
interested  themselves  merely  in  the  struct- 
ure of  mature  plant  bodies,  and  as  the 
knowledge  of  the  cell  gradually  developed 
the  field  of  anatomy  came  into  view,  which 
has  to  do  with  the  various  cell  aggregates 
known  as  tissues  which  enter  into  the 
plant  body.  Later,  however,  botanists 
began  to  be  more  interested  in  the  way 
in  which  the  tissues  are  related  to  one 
another  to  form  the  plant  body  and  its 
organs,  and  the  science  of  morphology 
began  to  exist.  This  last  subject  for  a 
time  contented  itself  with  the  study  of  the 
forms  of  plants  and  their  organs,  but 
presently  passed  into  the  more  important 
phase  of  studying  the  gradual  develop- 
ment of  plants  and  of  their  organs,  sub- 
jects which  are  often  called  embryology 
and  organography.  Morphology  not  merely 
studies  the  development  of  structures, 
but  it  studies  the  relationships  of  plants 
which  are  thus  revealed,  and  hence  is 
interested  in  what  is  known  as  phylogeny, 
that  is,  the  ancestral  history  of  plant  groups. 

During  the  time  morphology  was  grow- 
ing another  view  of  plants  was  being  de- 
veloped, namely,  that  which  deals  with 
their  life  processes,  or  the  plants  at  work. 
A  good  many  botanists  cared  not  so  much 
for  the  structures  of  plants  as  for  the 
activities  of  plants,  and  plant  physiology 
began  to  assume  importance.  This  sub- 
ject developed  with  exceeding  rapidity 
during  the  ipth  century,  and  is  certainly 
one  of  the  most  important  views  which  can 
be  taken  of  plants. 

During  recent  years  still  another  field 
of  botany  has  come  prominently  forward, 
which  deals  with  plants  in  relation  to  their 
environment,  and  is  known  as  ecology. 
Under  this  phase  the  necessary  relations 
of  plants  and  their  organs  to  light,  heat, 
soil,  temperature,  etc.  are  studied,  and 
also  those  exceedingly  interesting  com- 
munities which  are  known  as  plant-socie- 
ties. 

These  may  be  taken  to  represent  the 
principal  fields  of  botanical  activity  to- 
day, but  there  are  other  botanical  subjects 


which  are  of  more  special  development. 
For  example,  pathology  deals  with  the 
diseases  of  plants,  paleobotany  with  fossil 
plants,  economic  botany  with  plants  in 
relation  to  the  interests  of  man,  forestry 
with  the  problems  of  the  proper  cultiva- 
tion and  use  of  forests.  Still  further  sub- 
divisions of  the  general  subject  are  com- 
mon. For  example,  a  bacteriologist  is 
one  whose  attention  is  devoted  to  the  bac- 
teria; the  phycologist  studies  the  alga?; 
the  mycologist  studies  the  fungi;  the  bry- 
ologist  is  a  student  of  mosses,  etc. 

Any  elementary  knowledge  of  botany 
should  include  something  from  all  the  prin« 
cipal  divisions  of  the  subject.  For  ex- 
ample, a  beginning  student  should  knov* 
how  plants  must  relate  themselves  to  they: 
surroundings  in  order  to  live  (ecology), 
He  should  know  how  plants  make  food 
and  use  it,  how  they  are  irritable  and  re- 
spond to  stimuli,  and  how  they  reproduce 
(physiology).  He  should  also  learn  some- 
thing of  the  essential  structures  of  the 
great  groups,  so  that  he  may  know  the 
make-up  of  a  toadstool,  moss,  fern,  flower- 
ing plant,  etc.  (morphology).  He  should 
also  have  some  general  knowledge  as  to 
how  plants  are  put  into  great  natural 
groups  or  families,  and  he  should  be  able 
to  discover  the  names  of  the  important 
plants  of  his  vicinity  (taxonomy). 

JOHN  M.  COULTER. 

Bot'any  Bay,  a  harbor  in  New  South 
Wales,  on  the  east  coast  of  Australia,  five 
miles  south  of  Sydney.  It  was  discovered 
by  Captain  Cook  in  1770,  and  named  from 
the  large  number  of  beautiful  flowers  and 
shrubs  in  its  vicinity,  though  in  other  re- 
spects it  is  rather  barren.  In  1787  it  re- 
ceived England's  first  penal  colony  in  the 
east,  and  although  the  colony  was  removed 
the  next  year  to  Port  Jackson,  yet  Botany 
Bay  long  continued  to  be  the  popular  name, 
not  only  for  this  colony,  but  for  all  convict 
settlements.  The  spot  where  Captain  Cook 
first  landed  is  now  marked  by  a  monument. 

Botha,  Louis,  Dutch  burgher  general 
in  the  Boer  War  with  England  (1899-1902), 
was  a  native  of  Natal,  where  he  was  born 
about  the  year  1861.  In  the  war  he  de- 
fended the  line  of  the  Tugela  River  against 
Sir  Redvers  Buller,  recaptured  Spion  Kop, 
and  on  the  death  of  Joubert  succeeded 
him  as  commandant-general  of  the  Boer 
army.  He  has  the  reputation  of  being 
an  able  and  attractive  man,  instinctively 
humane  and  even  peace-loving  and  an  ideal 
soldier. 

Both'nla,  Gulf  of,  the  northern  part 
of  the  Baltic  Sea,  between  Finland  on  the 
east  and  Sweden  and  Lapland  on  the 
north  and  west.  Its  greatest  length  is 
about  450  miles,  its  average  width  100  miles, 
and  its  depth  from  120  to  300  feet.  Along 
its  shores  as  well  as  out  in  the  ?ult  are 


BOTHWELL 


251 


BOUGUEREAU 


numerous  small  islands,  sand  banks,  rocks 
and  cliffs  called  skoers,  which  make  navi- 
gation difficult.  It  has,  however,  many 
good  harbors,  and  timber  is  exported  from 
several  ports.  A  large  number  of  rivers 
pour  their  waters  into  the  gulf,  and  the 
alluvial  deposit  from  these  is  causing  the 
land  in  the  upper  part  to  extend,  while 
that  in  the  lower  part  is  slowly  sinking. 
The  dwellers  along  the  shore  are  engaged 
in  the  herring  trade.  In  winter  the  gulf 
is  usually  frozen  so  hard  that  it  can  be 
crossed  by  sledges.  The  water  is  but 
slightly  salt. 

Bothwell.  See  MARY,  QUEEN  OF  SCOTS, 
and  STUART. 

Botticelli,  (bot'te-chel'le)  Alessandro  Fili- 
pepi,  known  as  Sandro  Botticelli,  the  latter 
name  being  added  by  his  companions  after  his 
oldest  brother,  was  born  at  Florence,  1447, 
the  youngest  of  five  sons  of  Mariano  Fili- 
pepi,  a  tanner.  He  loathed  the  drudgery 
of  schools  and  gave  little  attention  to  his 
studies  except  those  in  which  he  was  heartily 
interested.  Learning  this,  his  father  ap- 
prenticed him  to  a  goldsmith.  In  that 
day  the  goldsmiths  were  artists  and  closely 
associated  with  the  painters.  Young  San- 
dro longed  to  paint  and  soon  abandoned 
his  trade,  after  the  usual  struggle  with  his 
parents,  who  desired  a  trade  in  preference 
to  an  art,  and  entered  the  atelier  or  studio 
of  Fra  Filippo  Lippi. 

Botticelli  being  a  very  sensitive  youth 
was  easily  influenced  and  in  his  early 
work  we  find  the  influence  of  his  first  mas- 
ter. Being  of  a  serious  nature,  he  soon 
lost  sympathy  with  Lippi's  way  of 
working  and  his  painting  shows  the  bolder 
style  of  Verrochio.  When  he  was  called 
upon  to  make  one  of  a  set  of  six  panels 
whose  subject  was  the  virtues,  for  the 
Mercanzia  in  Florence,  he  easily  adapted 
himself  to  the  style  of  the  brothers  Pol- 
laiuolo,  who  painted  the  other  five.  This 
was  his  famous  Fortitude,  his  first  im- 
portant work.  But  Botticelli  soon  de- 
veloped an  individual  style  which  is  most 
evident  in  his  Madonnas.  In  these  he 
asserts  his  greater  self,  and  we  have  all 
the  charm  and  sympathetic  feeling  of  the 
real  Botticelli.  He  painted  the  spirit  and 
not  the  material;  his  work  was  never  per- 
sonal but  general;  never  the  individual 
but  the  type  and  the  type  always  the 
ideal. 

In  1481  he  was  commissioned  by  Sixtus 
IV  to  assist  in  the  decoration  of  the  Sistine 
Chapel  at  Rome.  Here  he  painted  three 
magnificent  frescoes  of  glorious  conception. 
He  rarely  signed  his  paintings,  which  makes 
it  difficult  to  place  them  in  chronological 
order,  but  his  style  makes  it  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish his  work,  though  some  of  his 
students  in  copying  it  did  it  so  well  that 
their  paintings  have  passed  for  his. 


Lorenzo  dei  Medici,  the  great  patron  of 
art,  invited  Botticelli  to  join  the  circle  of 
artists  that  formed  his  court,  a  great  honor 
to  be  bestowed  upon  a  painter,  for  Lorenzo 
was  a  competent  judge.  It  was  under  his 
patronage  that  Botticelli  painted  most  of 
his  great  canvases  of  mythological  and  his- 
torical _  subjects.  Among  them  are  Pallas 
Subduing  a  Centaur,  Venus  among  the 
Graces  and  the  Birth  of  Venus.  The 
Coronation  of  the  Virgin  at  the  Floren- 
tine _  Academy  and  the  Adoration  of  the 
Magi  are  two  of  his  largest  and  best  works, 
in_which  appear  the  portraits  of  the  Medici 
orinces  and  their  retinues.  But  Savonarola 
and  his  wave  of  religious  reform  swept  the 
country,  and  Sandro  fell  under  his  influence, 
after  which  he  painted  little,  but  these 
paintings  were  masterpieces  with  a  deeper 
religious  significance.  He  illustrated  Boc- 
caccio and  made  eighty-eight  drawings  for 
Dante's  Divine  Comedy  and  eight  for  the 
Inferno.  The  latter  were  engraved  by 
Baccio  Baldini  and  printed  in  Florence  in 
1481.  Botticelli  died  in  May  1510,  alone  and  in 
poverty.  His  great  influence  on  modern 
painting  is  shown  in  the  work  of  the  Pre- 
Raphaelites.  See  Jameson :  Italian  Painters. 

Boucicault  (boo' 'se-ko') ,  Dion,  British 
actor  and  playwright,  was  born  at  Dublin, 
Dec.  26,  1822,  and  died  at  New  York,  Sept. 
1 8.  1890.  He  was  educated  at  London  Uni- 
versity, and  in  1841  he  brought  out,  with 
the  assistance  of  an  actor,  John  Brougham, 
the  play  entitled  London  Assurance.  In 
1853  he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  for 
the  next  seven  years  followed  the  stage  as  a 
profession,  making  a  hit  especially  by  his 
Irish  play,  Colleen  Bawn,  which  had  great 
success  on  the  English  as  well  as  on  the 
Irish  stage.  His  other  favorite  productions 
include  The  Corsican  Brothers,  The  Shaugh- 
raun,  The  Octoroon,  Arrah-na-Pogue  and  a 
dramatic  version  of  Charles  Reade's  story 
Foul  Play.  As  an  actor  he  excelled  in  the 
delineation  of  Irish  character. 

Boudinot  (boo' de-not) ,  Elias,  American 
statesman  and  philanthropist,  and  a  patriot 
of  the  War  of  the  Revolution,  was  born  at 
Philadelphia,  May  2,  1740,  and  died  at 
Burlington,  N.  J.,  Oct.  24,  1821.  In  1777 
he  became  a  member  of  the  continental  Con- 
gress, and  in  1782  was  its  president,  in 
which  capacity,  in  the  following  year,  he 
signed  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Britain. 
From  1795  to  1805  he  was  director  of  the 
United  States  mint  at  Philadelphia.  In 
1813  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
American  Bible  Society,  and  from  1816  to 
1821  was  its  president.  He  gave  much  of 
his  means  to  charity,  and  wrote  a  reply  to 
Thomas  Paine's  Age  of  Reason,  entitled  The 
Age  of  Revelation. 

Bouguereau  (6oogW),  Adolphe  Win., 
a  distinguished  French  painter  and  member 
of  the  French  Institute,  was  born  at  La 


BOULANGER 


252 


BOURGET 


Rochelle,  Nov.  30,  1815.  A  student  at  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  he  won  the  grand 
prix  de  Rome,  in  1850,  with  his  picture  of 
Zenobia  on  the  Banks  of  the  Araxes.  His 
other  canvases  include  Philomela  and 
Procne;  The  Bather;  Harvest  Time;  The 
Scourging  of  Our  Lord;  The  Virgin  with  the 
Angels;  The  Youth  of  Bacchus;  Psyche  and 
Love,  etc.,  together  with  many  fine  frescoes, 
mural  paintings  and  decorative  work  exe- 
cuted for  the  interiors  of  public  buildings 
in  France.  Bouguereau  died  in  1905. 

Boulanger  (bdo'lan'zha'),  George  Ern- 
est Jean  Marie.  Born  in  1837  and  died 
in  1891.  He  was  a  French  general  who  rose 
to  the  position  of  Minister  of  War  (1886- 
1887).  He  became  very  popular  in  France, 
and  his  popularity  turned  his  head.  He 
disobeyed  the  commands  of  his  superior 
officers,  and  became  involved  in  royalist 
plots  to  overturn  the  republican  form  of 
government.  He  was  removed  from  his 
command,  and  thereupon  he  withdrew  from 
France  and  finally  committed  suicide.  He 
was  one  of  the  officers  who  represented  the 
French  government  at  the  centennial  cele- 
bration of  the  battle  of  Yorktown  in  1881. 

Boulogne  (boo-lon1),  a  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  the  Seine,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river  of  that  name;  population, 
57,027.  It  has  numerous  villas  and  over 
400  wash-houses  on  the  river,  which  is  here 
crossed  by  a  fine  stone  bridge  of  twelve 
arches.  Paris  is  five  miles  southwest  of  the 
town,  and  separated  from  it  by  the  famous 
Bois-de-Boulogne,  a  fine  park  crossed  by 
many  drives  and  paths.  Here  the  fashion- 
able world  of  Paris  may  be  seen  in  the  after- 
noons, and  on  the  broadest  of  the  walks  in 
Easter  week  they  travel  to  the  Abbey  of 
Longchamp.  At  the  entrance  of  the  park 
or  wood  lies  Auteuil,  famous  as  the  resi- 
dence of  many  literary  men.  Many  of  the 
trees  were  cut  down  during  the  Revolution, 
and  some  injuries  were  done  during  the 
siege  of  1870-71 ;  but  all  traces  of  these  have 
since  disappeared. 

Bour'bon  (boor' bun),  a  French  family 
which  for  several  generations  occupied  the 
thrones  of  France  and  Naples,  and  which 
still  rules  in  Spain.  It  derived  its  name 
from  the  castle  and  state  of  Bourbon  in  the 
center  of  France.  It  dates  back  to  the  loth 
century.  The  first  French  king  among  the 
members  of  this  family  was  the  famous 
Henry  of  Navarre,  who  became  Henry  IV 
in  1589,  and  whose  descendants  reigned 
until  1792  and  again,  after  the  downfall  of 
Napoleon,  from  1815  to  1848.  The  house  of 
Orleans  is  a  branch  of  this  family,  through 
Philip  of  Orleans,  brother  of  Louis  XIV. 
The  present  Louis  Philippe,  Due  d'  Orleans, 
1869,  son  of  the  late  Count  of  Paris,  an 
Orleanist,  is  the  acknowledged  head  of  the 
French  house  of  Bourbon.  The  Spanish 
branch  of  the  house  of  Bourbon  was  founded 


by  Philip,  Duke  of  Anjou,  who  was  placed 
on  the  throne  of  Spain  in  1700.  This 
dynasty  reigned  until  Queen  Isabella  was 
dethroned  m  1868,  but  it  regained  the 
crown  in  1875.  Through  the  same  Duke  of 
Anjou  was  founded  the  Neapolitan  branch, 
which  ruled  in  Naples  until  it  became  a 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1860.  An- 
other branch  ruled  in  Parma  and  Piacenza 
most  of  the  time  from  1748,  until  they  also 
became  part  of  the  Italian  kingdom.  (The 
important  members  of  this  family  will 
be  found  mentioned  in  separate  articles. 
See  also  FRANCE,  SPAIN,  NAPLES  and 
PARMA.) 

Bouv'bon,  Charles,  duke  of  Bourbon- 
nais,  called  Constable  de  Bourbon,  was  born 
in  1490,  and  died  at  Rome  in  1527.  His 
great  ability,  bravery  and  large  possessions 
soon  made  him  the  first  subject  in  France. 
For  his  exploits  at  the  famous  battle  of 
Marignano  in  1515,  called  the  battle  of 
the  giants,  he  was  made  constable  of 
France  and  governor  of  Milan.  But  at  the 
French  court  he  had  many  enemies,  who 
undermined  him  in  the  favor  of  the  king, 
Francis  I.  He  made  an  alliance  with 
Charles  V  of  Spain  and  Henry  VIII  of 
England,  and  fled  in  disguise  from  France. 
He  gathered  round  him  a  body  of  German 
soldiers,  who  became  devoted  to  him. 
Fighting  against  his  own  country,  he  took 
part  in  the  great  battle  of  Pavia,  in  which 
Francis  I  was  prisoner  by  the  Spaniards. 
Bourbon  was  made  Duke  of  Milan  and  com- 
mander of  the  Spanish  army  in  northern 
Italy,  and  was  one  of  the  army  that  plun- 
dered Rome  in  1527,  where  he  was  killed. 
Seizing  a  scaling  ladder,  in  order  to  make 
his  way  over  a  weak  place  in  the  walls,  he 
was  rushing  on  at  the  head  of  his  troops, 
when  he  was  mortally  wounded  by  a  bullet, 
probably  shot,  it  is  said,  by  the  great  Italian 
artist,  Benvenuto  Cellini.  His  soldiers 
carried  his  corpse  to  Gaeta,  and  buried  it 
under  a  magnificent  monument,  which  has 
since  been  destroyed. 

Bourget  (boor1  zha' ) ,  Paul,  French  poet 
and  novelist  of  the  psychological  school 
and  member  of  the  French  Academy,  was 
born  at  Amiens,  Sept.  2,  1852.  In  1873, 
when  he  had  finished  his  education,  he  first 
showed  his  gifts  as  a  critic,  in  an  article  con- 
tributed to  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes, 
followed  by  a  collection  of  poems.  In  this 
volume  and  in  the  later  effusion  of  his 
verse  as  well  as  in  his  prose  Studies,  he 
showed  the  characteristics  of  his  style  and 
thought.  His  works  are  eminently  realistic 
and  analytical,  and  chiefly  consist  of  studies 
of  the  scientific  and  pessimistic  tendencies 
of  the  age.  The  following  works  from  Bour- 
get's  pen  have  been  translated:  Cosmopolis; 
Pastels  of  Men;  Antigone  and  Other  Portraits 
of  Women;  Domestic  Dramas'  Outer-Mer, 
and  Impressions  of  America. 


BOURINOT 


253 


BOWLING  GREEN 


Bourinot      (boo'ri-nd'),     John     George. 

He  held  honorary  degrees  from  several 
universities,  was  president  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Canada  in  1892,  and  member 
of  Council  of  American  Historical  Asso- 
ciation and  of  the  American  Academy 
of  Political  Science.  He  is  favorably 
known  as  the  author  of  Parliamentary  Pro- 
cedure, of  a  Manual  of  the  Constitutional 
History  of  Canada;  of  How  Canada  is 
Governed;  History  of  Canada  (in  the  Story 
of  the  Nations  series);  and  Canada  under 
British  Rule,  1760-1900  (with  maps). 
He  was  a  contributor  to  leading  reviews  and 
journals  such  as  The  Quarterly  Review,  Johns 
Hopkins  University  Political  Studies,  Black- 
wood  and  the  Magazine  of  American  History. 
Born  in  1837,  his  death  occurred  in  1902. 

Bout'well,  George  Sewall,  American 
financier  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Brook- 
line,  Mass.,  Jan.  28,  1818.  After  studying 
law  he  was  for  a  number  of  years  member 
of  the  Massachusetts  state  legislature,  and 
in  1852-53  was  governor  of  the  state.  He 
took  part,  later  on,  in  the  organization  of 
the  Republican  party,  and  was  a  delegate 
to  the  Chicago  convention  that  nominated 
Lincoln  for  the  presidency.  In  1862  he 
organized  the  internal  revenue  department 
of  the  United  States,  and  was  its  first  com- 
missioner. During  the  years  1863-69  he 
represented  his  state  in  congress  and  was 
secretary  of  the  treasury  in  Grant's  cabinet. 
From  1873  to  1877  he  was  a  member  of  the 
United  States  senate.  He  is  the  author  of 
a  number  of  works  on  educational  topics 
and  of  a  volume  of  speeches  and  papers, 
political  and  economical.  He  died  Feb. 
27,  1905. 

Bowdoin  (bo'd'n)  College,  an  institution 
of  learning,  situated  at  Brunswick,  Maine, 
of  which  Longfellow,  Hawthorne,  Chief-Jus- 
tice Fuller  and  Speaker  T.  B.  Reed  were 
graduates.  It  received  its  charter  in  1794, 
and  was  opened  in  1802.  Besides  its  art  de- 
partment, it  has  a  medical  school  in  affil- 
iation with  it,  and  is  well  equipped  with 
library,  gallery  of  paintings  and  chemical 
and  philosophical  apparatus.  Its  present 
president  is  Wm.  DeWitt  Hyde,  D.D.  The 
institution  is  undenominational. 

Bowdoin,  James  (1727-1790),  one  of 
the  early  governors  of  Massachusetts, 
noted  for  his  suppression  of  Shay's  rebellion, 
and  with  his  son  (minister  to  Spain  in 
1804-08)  as  a  benefactor  of  Bowdoin  College. 

Bowell,  Hon.  Sir  MacKenzie,  premier 
of  Canada  from  Dec.  1894  to  April,  1896, 
when  he  was  succeeded  by  Sir  Chas.  Tupper. 
Born  in  England  in  1823,  he  came  to  Can- 
ada when  9  years  old,  and  became  a  print- 
er's apprentice  in  1834.  Connected  with  the 
press  for  half  a  century,  he  was  elected 
to  the  House  of  Commons  in  1867  and 
remained  a  member  continuously  until  1892, 
when  he  was  appointed  to  the  Senate 


He  became  a  member  of  the  Abbott  admin- 
istration  in  1892  and  of  the  Thompson 
administration  in  1893.  As  minister  ot 
trade  and  commerce  he  visited  Australia 
in  1893  with  the  object  of  creating  trade 
between  Canada  and  Australia.  He  was 
chairman  of  the  colonial  conference  in  1894. 

Bowen  (bo' en),  Francis,  an  eminent 
American  writer  on  political  economy  and 
moral  philosophy,  was  born  at  Charlestown, 
Mass.,  Sept.  8,  1811,  and  died  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  Jan.  21,  1900.  After  graduating  at 
Harvard  in  1833,  he  subsequently  held  there 
the  chair  of  political  economy.  From  1843 
to  1854  he  owned  and  edited  the  North 
American  Review,  and  was  one  of  its  chief 
contributors.  In  1853  he  became  Alford 
professor  of  natural  religion,  moral  philos- 
ophy and  civil  polity  in  Harvard  University, 
His  writings  embrace  Critical  Essays  on 
Speculative  Philosophy;  Moral  Philosophy; 
Political  Economy;  Lives  of  James  Otis  and 
Baron  Steuben,  contributed  to  Sparks's 
American  Biography;  together  with  Glean- 
ings front  a  Literary  Life. 

Bowls  and  Bowling.  Bowls  is  an  out- 
door game,  largely  played  from  an  early 
period  in  Scotland,  as  well  as  in  this  country 
from  colonial  times  on  a  flat  and  smooth 
piece  of  turf.  Bowling  is  a  kindred  game, 
sometimes  called  skittles  or  ten-pins,  played 
on  a  boarded  alleyway  (generally  about  42 
by  72  feet  in  extent).  Lawn  bowls  is  played 
on  a  piece  of  level  turf,  about  40  yards 
square,  divided  into  numbered  rinks,  the 
players  (2,  3  or  4  on  either  side)  playing 
off  a  mat  at  the  starting  point,  each  with 
two  lignum  vitae  bowls.  The  object  played 
at  is  a  distant  smaller  white  porcelain  ball 
— the  game  being  to  place  the  bowls  as  close 
to  it  as  possible.  The  bowls  (commonly  3^ 
Ibs.  each  in  weight)  are  made  weighted 
slightly  on  one  side,  so  that  the  player  may 
reach  the  jack  with  his  bowl  by  a  curved 
rather  than  by  a  straight  course  roll. 
Alley-way  bowling  is  played  with  balls  not 
over  2  7  inches  in  circumference,  each  weigh- 
ing about  15  Ibs.  These  are  played  from 
one  end  of  the  court,  with  a  preliminary 
run  of  12  or  15  feet  by  the  player,  against 
a  series  of  upright  pins,  ten  in  number  and 
15  inches  in  height,  placed  at  the  far  end 
of  the  alley-way  or  court.  The  pins  are  set 
up  in  pyramidal  form,  12  inches  apart,  the 
head  pin  being  in  the  forefront  of  the  series, 
so  that  when  hit  by  a  bowl  the  player  has 
a  chance  of  knocking  down  some  and,  if 
lucky,  all  of  the  pins.  The  game  is  usually 
an  exciting  as  well  as  a  healthful  one,  and 
matches  frequently  attract  many  onlookers. 
The  American  Bowling  Congress  has  peri- 
odic national  tournaments  at  which  skill- 
ful playing  may  be  seen. 

Bowling  Green,  Ky.,  a  city,  the  seat  of 
Warren  County,  at  the  head  of  navigation 
on  Big  Barren  River  and  on  the  Louisville  & 
Nashville  Railroad,  about  115  miles  south- 


BOXER  RISING 


BOYESEN 


west  of  Louisville.  It  lies  in  a  fertile  agri- 
cultural section  of  the  state,  raising  largely 
corn,  hay,  oats,  wheat  and  tobacco,  and  is 
a  noted  center  for  horse  sales  and  trading. 
Among  its  farm  stock  are  also  mules  and 
hogs.  Settled  early  in  the  past  century  and 
incorporated  in  1812,  it  has  considerable  of 
history,  especially  during  the  Civil  War 
era,  when  it  was  deemed  by  the  Confed- 
erates a  place  of  strategic  importance.  It 
is  governed,  under  a  charter  dating  from 
1893,  by  a  mayor  and  city  council,  the 
city  owning  and  operating  its  own  water- 
works and  electric  light  plant.  It  has  two 
fine  public  parks,  besides  several  manu- 
factures, including  besides  its  flour  mills, 
tobacco  factories  and  carriage  works.  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  Ogden  School  for  boys,  of 
St.  Columba's  Academy  and  the  Western 
Kentucky  Normal  School,  in  addition  to 
its  own  fine  public  school  system.  The  pop- 
ulation is  9,173. 

Boxer  Rising  at  Pekin.  An  anti-foreign 
uprising  which  began  in  the  province  of  Chili 
(che-le1),  China,  in  May,  1900,  and  lasted 
until  the  middle  of  the  following  August. 
The  leaders  were  fanatics  known  as  "Boxers" 
from  the  final  syllable  of  the  Chinese  name 
which  they  gave  themselves.  Among  their 
leaders  were  Prince  Tuan,  father  of  the  heir 
apparent,  and  the  uprising  is  believed  to 
have  been  aided,  or  at  least  connived  at,  by 
the  Dowager  Empress  and  the  Chinese  court. 
Baron  Von  Kettler,  the  German  Minister, 
and  the  Japanese  Chancellor  of  the  Legation 
at  Pekin,  were  murdered  during  a  two 
months'  siege  of  that  city  by  the  rebels, 
whose  attacks  were  directed  against  the 
foreign  legations.  A  number  of  marines 
were  landed  from  the  vessels  of  foreign  na- 
tions and  a  large  international  force  was 
organized,  which  broke  through  the  walls  of 
Pekin  on  August  1 4  and  released  the  besieged. 
As  a  result,  China  was  obliged  to  execute  a 
number  of  prominent  Chinese  known  to  have 
taken  part  in  the  uprising  and  to  pay  an 
indemnity  of  $300,000,000. 

Boy  Scouts.  An  organization  of  boys  for 
physical,  mental  and  moral  development  and 
helpfulness  to  others,  which  has  reached 
world  wide  proportions  and  has  many  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  members.  While  the 
name  "Boy  Scouts"  was  first  applied  to  an 
organization  formed  in  England  by  General 
Baden-Powell,  the  General  acknowledged  his 
indebtedness  for  the  idea  to  the  work  of 
Ernest  Thompson- Seton,  Dan  Beard  and 
others  in  this  country  who,  through  various 
organizations,  had  been  interesting  boys  in 
high  ideals  and  practical  service.  The  move- 
ment is  non-military,  and  its  purpose  is 
summed  up  in  the  twelve  points  of  Scout 
law,  which  require  boys  to  be  "trustworthy, 
loyal,  helpful,  friendly,  courteous,  kind,  obe- 
dient, cheerful,  thrifty,  brave,  clean,  reverent 
toward  God  and  to  respect  the  convictions 
of  others  in  matters  of  custom  and  belief." 


A  uniform  of  khaki  is  usually  worn,  but  is 
not  required.  Each  local  organization  is 
called  a  "troop"  and  this,  in  turn,  is  composed 
of  patrols.  Each  patrol  has  a  name  such  as 
"otters"  or  "wild  cats"  with  a  patrol  call  by 
which  members  can  communicate  with  each 
other  at  night  or  when  in  hiding.  Boys 
between  12  and  18  are  eligible  to  membership. 

The  plan  and  practical  conduct  of  the 
organization  by  its  leaders  shows  a  profound 
knowledge  of  boy  nature.  It  develops  the 
.boy  in  every  direction  and  works  hand  in 
hand  with  the  best  ideals  and  most  practical 
aspects  of  the  modern  public  school.  It  is 
essentially  based  on  the  principle  of  "inter- 
est" (q.  v.)  which  was  emphasized  by  the 
great  educational  leaders,  Herbart,  Froebel 
and  Rousseau.  Merit  badges  are  awarded 
for  excellence  in  more  then  fifty  different 
lines  of  study  and  practice  qualifying  boys  for 
success  in  various  businesses  and  professions. 

Among  the  countries  in  which  the  move- 
ment has  established  itself  are  Germany, 
France,  Italy,  Australia,  New  Zealand, 
Canada  and  the  South  American  Republics. 
Everywhere  it  has  shown  ready  adaptation 
to  new  fields  and  nationalities.  In  Germany 
the  boys  have  engaged  in  the  work  in  such 
numbers  and  with  such  enthusiasm  that  the 
Prussian  and  Bavarian  authorities  are  giving 
the  movement  financial  aid.  The  total 
number  enrolled  is  estimated  at  2,000,000. 
The  membership  is  largest  in  the  United 
States  where  eminent  citizens  from  all  walks 
of  public  life  are  members  of  the  National 
Council  and  of  the  Local  Councils. 

In  the  formation  and  conduct  of  local 
organizations,  the  scouts  work  with  the  local 
schools,  churches  and  other  organizations 
having  a  similar  purpose.  One  of  the  best 
features  of  the  movement  is  the  strong  phy- 
sical, mental  and  moral  guidance  it  gives  to 
the  boy  through  his  association  with  adult 
leaders — the  Scout  Masters — a  guidance  which 
developes  character  and  manhood. 

Boycotting,  a  term  coined  from  Cap- 
tain Boycott,  an  Irish  land  agent,  to  denote 
a  system  of  organized  social  and  commercial 
ostracism,  familiar  in  its  methods  in  Ireland, 
in  connection  with  the  land-league  and 
with  measures  seeking  to  nationalize  the 
land.  The  term  has  since  had  a  wider  appli- 
cation, where  it  represents  a  combination  of 
persons  or  political  parties,  or  a  concerted 
action  taken  by  such,  to  restrain  from  or 
prevent  business  dealings  or  social  relations 
with  another. 

Boyesen  (boi'e-sen),  Hjalmar  Hjorth,  a 
Norwegian  poet,  novelist  and  critic,  long 
a  resident  01  ^the  United  States,  was  born 
in  Norway,  in  1848,  and  died  at  New  York, 
Oct.  4,  1895.  After  graduating  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Christiania,  he  came  to  America 
in  1869,  and  for  a  time  edited  a  Scandi- 
navian journal  in  Chicago,  and  began  to 
write  fiction  and  verse,  in  English  for  the 
magazines.  From  1874  to  1880  he  taught 


BOYLE'S  LAW 


255 


BRACT 


German  at  Cornell  University,  and  then  ac- 
cepted the  chair 
of  Germanic  lan- 
guages and  lit- 
erature at  Co- 
lumbia College,  a 
post  which  he 
held  until  his 
death.  Among 
his  chief  works 
are  A  Norse- 
man's Pilgrim- 
age; Gunnar,  a 
Norse  Romance; 
Goethe  and  Schil- 
ler, their  Lives 
and  Works;  Es-  HJALMAR  HJORTH  BOYESEN 
says  on  German 

Literature;  and  a  Commentary  on  the  Writ- 
ings of  Henrik  Ibsen. 

Boyle's  Law  is  an  answer  to  the  follow- 
ing question:  "Just  how  does  the  volume  of 
a  given  mass  of  gas  vary  when  the  pressure  is 
varied  and  the  temperature 
held  constant?"  This  query 
was  first  definitely  answered 
by  Robert  Boyle,  a  dis- 
tinguished English  physi- 
cist, in  his  essay  on  A  De- 
fense of  the  Doctrine  Touch- 
ing the  Spring  and  Weight 
of  the  Air,  published  at  Lon- 
don in  1772. 

He  inclosed  a  definite  mass 
of  air  in  the  closed  arm  of  a 
U-tube,  as  shown  in  the  fig- 
ure. He  varied  the  volume, 
V,  of  this  inclosed  gas  by 
pouring  in  more  and  more 
mercury;  and  measured  the 

Eressures,  P,  corresponding, 
n  this  way  Boyle  found 
that  so  long  as  the  mass  and 
temperature  remain  constant, 
the  product  of  the  pressure  by  the  volume 
is  a  constant.  This  fact  is  known  as  Boyle's 
law,  and  may  be  expressed  algebraically  as 
follows : 

PV=K 

where  K  =a  constant. 

Boyne,  a  river  of  Ireland,  emptying  into 
the  Irish  Channel  after  a  course  of  about  80 
miles.  It  has  been  called  the  Boyne  of 
Science,  because  of  the  many  institutions 
along  its  banks.  It  is  celebrated  for  its 
scenery  no  less  than  for  its  historical  asso- 
ciations. On  its  banks  was  fought,  July  i, 
1690,  the  famous  battle  of  the  Boyne,  in 
which  William  III  utterly  routed  James  II. 
An  obelisk,  150  feet  in  height,  marks  the 
scene  of  the  battle. 

Bozzaris  (bot'sd-rcs  or  boz-zar'is),  Marco, 
a  Greek  patriot,  was  born  about  1788,  at 
Suli,  in  the  mountains  of  Epirus.  His  whole 
life  was  spent  amid  the  din  of  battle. 
Driven  from  Suli,  he  united  with  a  number 
of  other  refugees  in  the  Ionian  Islands 


BOYLE  s 

EXPERIMENT 


against  Turkey,  and  entered  first  the  French 
service.  In  1820  AH  Pasha,  an  Albanian, 
took  arms  against  Turkey,  and  Bozzaris, 
with  several  hundred  followers,  joined  him 
and  won  several  victories.  After  the  death 
of  Ali  Pasha,  Bozzaris  carried  on  the  war 
for  a  while  successfully.  Later  he  became 
a  general  in  the  Greek  army.  When  this 
army  withdrew  to  Missolonghi,  Bozzaris 
skillfully  defended  the  place.  In  1823  a 
Turkish  army  of  13,000  marched  against  the 
Greeks,  and  Bozzaris  led  1,200  men  to  meet 
it.  On  August  20  he  came  upon  the  camp 
of  the  vanguard  of  the  enemy,  4,000  strong. 
At  night,  leading  350  men,  he  burst  upon 
his  startled  foes,  and  routed  them  with 
great  slaughter.  Bozzaris  was  killed  while 
leading  his  men  to  the  final  attack,  in  Aug., 
1823.  The  story  of  this  heroic  fight  has 
been  told  by  Fitz-Greene  Halleck,  in  his 
poem,  Marco  Bozzaris. 

Brabant  (bra'bant),  a  district  in  the 
lowlands  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  and 
now  forming  parts  of  these  two  kingdoms. 
In  the  course  of  its  history  it  has  had 
many  masters.  In  1814,  by  the  treaty 
of  Paris,  it  became  a  part  of  the  Nether- 
lands, and  was  divided  in  1830  into  the 
provinces  of  North  Brabant,  South  Bra- 
bant and  Antwerp.  The  Belgian  revolu- 
tion, in  1830  left  North  Brabant  with  the 
Netherlands,  while  the  other  two  parts 
fell  to  Belgium.  North  Brabant  (area, 
1,980  square  miles),  with  'sHertogenbosch 
as  its  capital  is  a  little  larger  than  Rhode 
Island,  and  has  a  population  of  597,538 
South  Brabant,  somewhat  smaller  in  size 
(area,  1,268  square  miles),  has  over  one 
and  a  quarter  million  people,  speaking 
Flemish,  and  is  one  of  the  most  densely 
inhabited  countries  in  Europe.  It  is  highly 
cultivated,  and  has  important  manufac- 
tures. Its  capital  is  Brussels.  Brabant  or 
Brussels  lace  is  well  known.  See  ANT- 
WERP. 

Brace,  Charles  Loring,  an  American 
author  and  traveler,  noted  for  his  benevo- 
lent labors,  was  born  at  Litchfield,  Conn., 
in  1826,  and  died  in  the  Tyrol,  Switzer- 
land, Aug.  ii,  1890.  He  worked  among 
the  lowest  classes  in  New  York,  and  was 
the  founder  of  the  Children's  Aid  Society 
in  1853,  which  has  provided  country  homes 
for  over  60,000  children.  He  traveled 
considerably  in  Europe,  studying  especially 
reform  schools  and  prisons.  He  published 
several  volumes  of  Travels,  Short  Sermons 
for  Newsboys  and  a  work  on  The  Danger- 
ous Classes  of  New  York. 

Bract,  a  general  name  applied  to  leaves, 
usually  much  reduced,  which  occur  in  a 
flower  cluster.  The  word  is  somewhat 
extended  in  application  by  calling  any 
reduced  leaf-like  body  bract-like.  For 
example,  the  sepals  of  a  flower  are  often 
spoken  of  as  bract-like. 


BRADDOCK 


256 


BRAKE 


Braddock,  General  Edward,  a  British 
soldier,  major-general  commanding  the  Eng- 
lish army  in  the  expedition  against  the 
French  on  the  Ohio  in  1755,  was  born  in 
Perthshire,  Scotland,  in  1695,  and  died 
from  wounds  received  in  an  ambuscade 
of  French  and  Indians,  at  Great  Meadows, 
in  July,  1755,  sixty  miles  from  Fort  Du- 
quesne  (now  Pittsburg).  On  this  expedi- 
tion Braddock  was  accompanied  by  a 
levy  of  Virginians  under  Colonel  (afterward 
General)  Gates  and  Washington  was  his 
aid-de-camp,  who,  after  the  rout  of  the 
British,  covered  the  retreat. 

Braddock,  Pa.,  a  thriving  manufactur- 
ing town  in  southwestern  Pennsylvania, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Monongahela, 
ten  miles  southeast  of  Pittsburg.  It  is 
noted  as  the  site  of  the  disastrous  battle, 
under  General  Braddock  (July  9,  1755)1 
between  the  English  and  colonial  levies 
and  the  French  and  Indians.  Its  indus- 
tries include  steel  rail,  wire,  cement,  plaster 
and  railroad  car  manufacture.  Popula- 
tion, 19,357- 

Brad'ford,  an  important  English  manu- 
facturing town  in  Yorkshire.  It  sends 
three  members  to  Parliament.  It  is  the 
chief  seat  in  England  of  the  manufacture 
of  worsted  yarn.  It  has  now  over  300 
mills.  Fine  buildings,  monuments  and 
parks  are  abundant,  and  it  is  the  seat 
of  Airedale  College.  The  first  English 
temperance  society  was  formed  here.  Popu- 
lation, about  290,000. 

Brad'  ford,  Pa.,  a  city  in  McKean  County 
on  several  railroads,  near  the  southern 
boundary  of  New  York  and  70  miles 
south  of  Buffalo.  It  is  in  the  heart  of  the 
oil  and  natural-gas  region.  Has  exten- 
sive manufacturies,  oil  well  supplies,  ma- 
chine shops,  tile  and  terra  cotta  works, 
chemical  works,  three  national  banks, 
three  daily  papers,  large  hospital,  libraries. 
Population,  14,544. 

Brad'ford,  William,  one  of  the  Pil- 
grims, was  born  in  England,  in  1590.  In 
the  cause  of  religious  liberty  he  went  to 
Holland.  Here  he  joined  the  English  con- 
gregation at  Leyden,  and  sailed  for  America 
in  the  Mayflower  (1620).  The  next  year 
he  was  elected  governor  of  Plymouth 
colony,  and,  with  the  exception  of  five 
years  when  he  refused  re-election,  he 
held  that  office  for  thirty-one  years,  till  his 
death  in  1657.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the 
colony  from  1620  to  1647. 

Bradley,  Joseph  P.,  was  born  at  Berne, 
N.  Y.,  in  1813.  He  practiced  law  in  New- 
ark, N.  J.  In  1870,  he  was  appointed  an 
associate  justice  of  the  supreme  court  by 
President  Grant.  He  was  circuit  judge  for 
the  southern  states,  but  in  1880  was  as- 
signed to  the  third  circuit.  He  died  in  1892. 

Bragan'za,  House  of,  the  name  of  the 
ruling  dynasty  of  Portugal  and  of  the 


recent  imperial  family  of  Brazil.  The 
family  takes  its  name  from  the  town  of 
Braganza,  and  came  to  the  throne  of  Por- 
tugal in  1640,  through  John  IV,  Duke  of 
Braganza,  who  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Spain. 
The  first  emperor  of  Brazil  was  Dom 
Pedro  I,  the  eldest  son  of  King  John  VI. 
He  was  crowned  in  1822.  His  son,  Dom 
Pedro  II,  was  driven  from  the  country 
and  a  republic  formed  in  1889.  The  reign- 
ing king  of  Portugal  to-day,  Manuel  II, 
is  of  the  house  of  Braganza-Coburg. 

Bragg,  Braxton,  a  Confederate  general, 
was  born  in  North  Carolina,  in  1817.  A 
graduate  of  West  Point,  he  served  in  the 
Mexican  War,  and  was  promoted  several 
times  for  gallant  conduct.  He  held  sev- 
eral important  commands  in  the  Confederate 
army  during  the  Civil  War,  and  after  the 
battle  of  Shiloh  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  Army  of  the  Mississippi.  He  de- 
feated General  Rosecrans  at  Chickamauga, 
but  was  in  turn  defeated  by  General  Grant 
at  Chattanooga.  For  a  time  he  acted  as 
military  adviser  to  President  Davis.  He 
died  in  1876. 

Bragg,  Edward  Stuyvesant,  ex-con- 
gressman and  brigadier-general  command- 
ing the  "Iron  Brigade"  in  the  Civil  War, 
was  born  in  New  York  state,  Feb.  20,  1827, 
and  for  a  time  practiced  law  at  Fond  du 
Lac,  Wis.  In  May,  1861,  he  entered  the 
Union  army,  and  through  hard  fighting 
won  promotion  to  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.  From  1877  to  1885  he  was  a 
member  of  Congress,  member  of  the  Demo- 
cratic national  convention  of  1872,  '84, 
'92  and  '96,  and  in  1884  he  seconded  Cleve- 
land's nomination  for  the  presidency.  In  1 902 
he  became  U.  S.  consul-general  to  Cuba, 
and  later  to  Hong-Kong.  Died  June  20,  1912. 

Brahe  (bra  or  bra),  Tycho,  an  illustrious 
Danish  astonomer,  distinguished  above 
all  else  for  his  observations  and  for  the 
invention  of  various  astronomical  instru- 
ments. Bessel  has  called  him  Konig  unter 
den  Astronomen,  "king  of  astronomers." 
He  was  born  at  Knudstrup,  near  Helsing- 
borg,  on  the  island  of  Schonen,  Dec.  14, 
1546,  and  died  at  Prague,  Oct.  24,  1601. 
He  was  educated  partly  at  the  University 
of  Copenhagen,  whither  he  went  in  1559, 
and  partly  at  Leipsic.  The  aggressiveness 
which  characterized  his  entire  life  is  illus- 
trated by  -he  fact  that  at  the  age  of  twenty 
he  found  himself  in  a  quarrel  which  later 
led  to  a  duel  that  cost  him  a  part  of  his 
nose.  His  tastes  led  him  quite  as  strongly 
in  the  direction  of  chemistry — or  pyron- 
omy,  as  he  called  this  science — as  in  the 
direction  of  astronomy. 

The  remarkably  brilliant  new  star  which 
made  its  appearance  on  Nov.  n,  1572, 
seems  to  have  had  some  influence  in  giving 
bent  to  his  energies,  although  he  had  always 
been  keenly  interested  in  astronomy;  for 


BRAHMA 


257 


BRAIN 


while  yet  a  lad  he  had  saved  enough  pocket 
money  to  purchase  a  copy  of  Ptolemy's 
works,  published  at  Basel  in  1551. 

At  the  age  of  37,  Brahe  was  placed  in 
possession  of  a  superb  astronomical  observa- 
tory, which  had  been  built  for  him  by 
King  Frederick  II  of  Denmark  on  the 
island  Hven.  Besides  two  towers  75  feet 
high,  this  observatory  included  a  library, 
a  residence,  a  chemical  laboratory,  a  me- 
chanical workshop,  a  printing  office,  a 
paper  mill  and  the  necessary  farm  build- 
ings. To  the  entire  outfit  he  gave  the 
name  of  Uranienborg.  Here  he  spent 
seventeen  years  in  active  observation. 
This  observatory  was  completely  destroyed 
in  1652.  A  change  of  rulers  in  Denmark 
brought  disaster  to  Brahe  and  caused  him 
to  remove  to  Prague,  where  he  was  again 
established  in  a  good  observatory  by  Kaiser 
Rudolph  II,  and  was  assisted  by  his  distin- 
guished pupil,  John  Kepler. 

To  Brahe  we  owe  the  method  of  deter- 
mining latitude  by  measuring  the  upper 
and  lower  culmination  of  a  star,  a  vastly 
more  accurate  method  than  that  used  by 
Copernicus,  viz.,  observations  on  the  sun 
in  meridian 

We  owe  to  him  also  a  star  map  and  the 
discovery  of  several  new  features  in  the 
moon's  motion. 

Brahe  was  not,  as  has  sometimes  been 
reported,  an  opponent  of  the  Copernican 
system;  but  he  saw  that  the  ideas  of  Co- 
pernicus needed  modification  before  they 
could  be  made  to  fit  the  then  present  state 
of  knowledge.  In  estimating  his  work 
we  must  remember  that  it  was  all  done 
before  the  invention  of  the  telescope,  be- 
fore Kepler's  laws  were  discovered,  and 
before  any  physical  connection  (which  we 
now  call  gravitation)  between  the  sun 
and  planets  was  dreamed  of,  much  less 
studied  and  accurately  described,  as  was 
done  later  by  Newton. 

Brahma  and   Brahmanism.     See  INDIA. 

Brahmaputra  (brd'md-poo'trd),  meaning 
"son  of  Brahma,"  one  of  the  largest  rivers 
of  India,  rises  in  Tibet.  After  a  course  of 
probably  1,800  miles,  together  with  the 
Ganges,  it  empties  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
through  a  vast  delta.  During  the  rainy 
season  it  floods  an  area  of  hundreds  of 
quare  miles,  and  makes  fertile  vast  plains, 
which  yield  an  abundance  of  rice,  jute  and 
mustard.  Boats  can  ply  upon  its  waters 
for  800  miles,  and  a  vast  traffic  is  carried 
both  up  and  down  the  river.  Europeans 
became  acquainted  with  the  river  in  1765. 

Brahms  (brdmz),  Johannes,  a  notable 
German  pianist  and  composer,  was  born 
at  Hamburg,  in  1833,  an4  ^ied  a^  Vienna, 
April  3,  1897.  His  musical  compositions 
are  chiefly  orchestral,  though  to  the  educa- 
ted lover  of  music  his  choral  compositions 
take  by  far  the  higher  place.  He  has  been 
styled  the  modern  Beethoven,  and  by 


others  is  deemed  the  great  rival  of  Wag- 
ner. He  is  more  popularly  known,  how- 
ever, by  his  many  songs,  ballads  and 
choruses. 

Brain,  the  seat^of  mental  life  and  volun- 
tary action.  It  is  therefore  the  most  in- 
teresting organ  of  the  body.  The  brain 
and  spinal  cord,  taken  together,  are  called 
the  central  nervous  system,  for  they  form 
a  sort  of  central  axis,  from  which  nerves 
pass  to  the  various  parts  of  the  body  and 
to  which  nerves  lead  from  the  surface. 
The  brain  of  the  higher  animals  is  so  much 
changed  by  growth  and  development  that 
it  is  very  difficult  to  understand.  It  has 
undergone  so  many  changes  in  the  course 
of  evolution,  that  we  must  examine  the 
brains  of  the  simpler  vertebrates  in  order 
to  see  what  they  were  like  before  they 
became  so  modified.  A  glance  at  the  ac- 
companying sketches  will  tell  more  than 
words.  It  shows  the  general  nature  of  the 
changes  to  be  growth  in  size  and  com- 
plexity of  the  cerebral  hemispheres,  and 
we  can  see  also  that  a  series  of  brains  merge 
by  small  changes  into  one  another,  so  that 
the  simplest  and  most  complex  are  con- 
nected by  intermediate  forms. 

The  sketches  represent  the  brains  of 
various  animals  seen  from  above  after 
removal  from  the  cranium.  In  the  brain 
of  the  perch  (Fig.  i),  the  parts  are  all  ar- 
ranged in  a  row  or  line.  The  part  marked 
F.  B.  is,  in  all  the  figures,  that  part  of  the 
fore-brain  called  cerebral  lobes.  In  Fig. 
i,  they  are  smaller  than  the  lobes  of  the 
mid-brain  (M.  B.).  The  latter  are  also 
called  optic  lobes.  Behind  these  is  a  sin- 
gle lobe  marked  H.  B.,  which  is  the  cere- 
bellum or  main  part  of  the  hind-brain. 
(The  complete  hind-brain  embraces  the 
cerebellum  and  the  medulla  oblongata.) 
In  the  frog  (Fig.  2),  the  relative  size  of 
parts  has  changed.  The  cerebral  lobes 
(F.  B.)  are  now  larger  than  those  of  the 
mid-brain.  The  lobes  in  front  of  the 
cerebral  lobes  are  in  all  the  sketches,  the 
olfactory  lobes,  connected  with  the  nerves 
of  smell.  The  difference  in  size  between 
the  central  lobes  and  those  of  the  mid- 
brain,  is  more  marked  in  the  brain  of  the 
alligator  (Fig.  3).  In  the  pigeon  (Fig.  4), 
the  increase,  relatively,  in  size  of  the  cere- 
bral lobes  is  much  greater;  they  have  ex- 
panded till  they  are  now  in  contact  with 
the  cerebellum,  and  the  lobes  of  the  mid- 
brain  are  partly  covered.  The  same  line 
of  modification  is  carried  further  in  the 
brain  of  the  rabbit  (Fig.  5).  Here  the 
cerebral  lobes  are  very  large  when  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  mid-brain,  and 
the  cerebellum  is  ringed  or  divided  into 
segments.  Note,  now,  that  the  surface 
of  the  cerebral  lobes  is  smooth  in  the  rab- 
bit and  the  bird,  but  in  the  dog  (Fig.  6), 
we  have  a  new  development;  the  surface 
of  the  fore-brain  is  thrown  into  convolu- 


BRAIN 


258 


BRAIN 


tions.  It  is  easy  to  go  from  this  condi- 
tion to  that  in  the  human  brain,  in  which 
the  cerebral  lobes  are  so  large  that  they 
cover  the  cerebellum.  When,  the  human 
brain  is  looked  at  directly  from  above,  we  can 
see  only  the  cerebral  lobes ;  all  the  other  parts 
are  covered,  and  the  surface  is  much  more 
convoluted  than  in  the  case  of  the  dog's 
brain.  Therefore,  the  line  of  change  in  brain, 


I BRAIN  OF  PERCH 

2 BRAIN  OF  FROG 

3 BRAIN  OF  ALLIGATOR 

4 BRAIN  OF  PIGEON 

5 — BRAIN  OF  RABBIT 
6 BRAIN  OF  DOG 

\iorn  simpler  to  higher  forms,  has  been  the 
great  expansion  of  the  cerebral  lobes,  and 
there  have  also  been  internal  changes. 

The  outer  layer  of  the  central  lobes  is 
called  the  cortex.  It  consists  of  gray 
matter  which  under  the  microscope  is 


made  up  of  an_  immense  number  of  nerve- 
cells,  arranged  in  layers.  Nerve  fibres  lead 
away  from  the  nerve-cells,  and  serve  to 
carry  the  impulses  that  arise  within  the 
latter.  Just  as  electricity  generated  in  a 
battery  cell  may  be  carried  away  by  wires, 
so  the  nervous  energy  that  arises  in  the 
nerve-cell  is  carried  away  by  the  nerve 
fibre.  The  many  fibres  leaving  the  cortex 
serve  to  connect  it  with  other  parts  of  the 
brain,  and  also  with  the  tissues  of  the  body. 
Bundles  of  fibres  form  fibre-tracts,  which 
pass  into  the  spinal  cord,  and  from  which 
smaller  bundles  of  fibres  run  in  the  nerve 
trunks  and  are  distributed  to  muscles  and 
all  other  tissues  of  the  body.  These  are 
motor,  secretory  nerves,  etc.  Similar  groups 
of  fibres  run  in  the  opposite  direction  from 
the  surface  of  the  body  inward.  These 
are  sensory  fibres. 

It  is  extremely  interesting  to  know  that 
certain  groups  of  nerve-cells  in  the  cor- 
tex preside  over  particular  movements 
and  particular  activities  of  the  body.  The 
entire  outer  surface  of  the  brain  has  been 
explored  by  use  of  the  electrical  current 
and  divided  into  territories  called  areas. 
The  stimulation  of  a  particular  area,  for 
example,  will  cause  movements  of  muscles 
of  the  leg  (see  sketch),  that  of  an  adjacent 
area,  movements  of  the  arm,  etc.  The 
diagram  shows  the  parts  of  the  cortex  con- 
nected with  the  leg,  arm,  face,  tongue, 
larynx,  with  hearing,  sight,  speech,  word- 
blindness  and  sensation.  Any  disorder 
or  deficiency  in  the  cortex  of  these  areas 
makes  disturbances  or  disorders  of  the 
muscular  movement,  or  the  sensations  con- 
nected with  them. 

The  cerebellum,  likewise,  contains  clus- 
ters of  nerve-cells,  which  connect  with 
fibres,  and  regulate  a  large  number  of 
muscular  movements.  The  medulla  ob- 

longata  c  o  n  - 
tains  clusters 
of  cells  called 
centers,  which 
control  and 
regulate 
breathing,  ac- 
tion of  the 
heart,  swal- 
lowing, move- 
ments of  the 
stomach,  the 
blood  supply 
to  different  parts,  etc.  Any  injury  to  the 
medulla  is,  therefore,  very  serious. 

Some  of  the  most  interesting  recent  ex- 
periments show  that  the  nerve-cells  un- 
dergo changes,  that  can  be  detected  by  the 
microscope,  similar  to  the  changes  in  the 
cells  of  glands  and  other  tissues,  when  they 
are  active.  This  brings  the  activity  of 
the  central  nervous  system  into  line  with 
that  of  other  physiological  processes. 


Diagram  of    the  human  brain, 
showing  area  of    the  cortex 


•ICJMIIINIIIIOIIIIIIIIIIOIIIII an iiuiiiiiiiiiinn nnc: imo uiiiiiimiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiioi m 11111:21 nioii 11114. 

A  LOOK  INTO  THE  EXECUTIVE  OFFICES 

g 

MnUSSKSEU^SSBUSBKSI^KM  I 

S 


Here   we    are    in   the    executive    offices    of   the    mechanical    man.      Notice   how   the    central    office, 
the  cerebrum,  is  connected  with  the  offices  of  the  various  assistant  managers.     From  the  head  office       3 
5       is  supervised  everything  except  the  digestive  and   pumping  departments,  which  are  taken   care  of  by 
=      the   managers   of  automatic   action.      One   of   the   most   curious  things   about   this  mechanical   man  is 
D       that  he  looks,   so  to  speak,  with  the  back  of   his  head.     The   pictures   are   taken   through  the  eye,   to 
^       be   sure,   but   we    do   not   know  that   we   are    seeing   anything  until    the    report    reaches   the    office    of       = 
5      the   receiver.      In   a   similar   way    the   imaginary    little    people  in   the   departments   of   taste   and   smell       = 
=       receive    these   sensations   and    like   the   pictures,    they    are   placed   on  file;    that   is   to    say,    we   cannot 
H       only  taste  and  see  things   at  the  time,   but  can   remember  how  things  taste  and  smell  and  how  they 

look.     The  department  of  hearing  could  not  be  shown  in  this  picture  because  it  is  just  on  the  other       ss 
side   of  the  department   of   taste. 

+'«'" ii" niiiioiiiiiMiiioiiiiiiiiiiic: iniiin iiii:n:Mn;i!iiiioiii! IIH iiimiuiiiiiiniiiici ninu IIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIOIIIIIIIIIIOIIIIIIIIIIIH* 


BRAINERD 


259 


BRANDENBURG 


See  Edinger :  Anatomy  of  the  Central  Nervous 
System,  etc.  (1899);  Ferrier:  Functions  of 
the  Brain;  and  Barker:  The  Central  Nervous 
System  (1900).  WM.  A.  LOCY. 

Brai'nerd,  David,  one  of  the  earliest 
missionaries  to  the  American  Indians,  was 
born  in  Connecticut  in  1718.  He  labored 
among  the  Indians  of  Massachusetts,  Penn- 
sylvania and  New  Jersey  with  much  suc- 
cess. He  died  in  1747,  while  still  a  young 
man,  at  the  house  of  Jonathan  Edwards, 
who  has  written  an  account  of  his  life. 

Brainerd,  Minn.,  a  city,  the  seat  of 
Crow  Wing  Co.,  on  the  east  or  left  bank 
of  the  Mississippi  River,  136  miles  north- 
west of  Saint  Paul  and  about  100  miles  west 
of  Duluth.  It  is  on  the  Northern  Pacific 
and  the  Brainerd  &  Northern  Minnesota 
Railroad.  Water  power  for  its  main 
industries  is  mainly  from  the  Mississippi, 
and  its  chief  manufactures  comprise, 
besides  the  car-works  and  machine  shops 
of  the  Northern  Pacific  R.  R.,  lumber  and 
flour  mills,  foundries,  breweries  and  cigar 
factories.  A  United  States  signal  station 
is  located  here,  and  the  city  has  besides  a 
public  park  and  athletic  grounds,  a  lum- 
berman's hospital,  court-house  and  the 
buildings  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  The  city  was 
chartered  in  1883,  and  is  governed  by  a 
mayor  and  city  council.  It  has  a  population 
of  10,000. 

Brake  (car),  a  device  for  stopping  a 
car.  All  practical  brakes  act  by  friction, 
blocks  of  metal  called  shoes  being  pressed 
against  the  rims  of  the  wheels.  They  differ 
in  the  method  of  forcing  these  shoes  against 
the  wheels.  The  older  method  was  by 
hand  power,  the  force  being  transmitted 
from  a  wheel  through  a  chain  and  system 
of  levers,  but  as  the  speed  of  trains  in- 
creased, quicker  and  more  powerful  brakes 
were  required.  For  high  speed  trains,  the 
brake  must  act  practically  at  the  same 
time  on  every  wheel  on  the  train,  that  is, 
it  must  be  continuous,  and  also  be  capable 
of  being  controlled  by  the  loeomotive  en- 
gineer, so  that  the  train  can  be  controlled 
quickly  from  one  point.  A  point  of  safety 
is  that  the  brakes  must  act  automatically 
in  case  of  accident,  such  as  in  case  of  the 
breaking  of  the  connections  of  the  train. 
Four  kinds  of  power  have  been  used  for 
such  continuous  brakes:  mechanical,  hy- 
draulic, electromagnetic  and  air.  Air 
brakes  have  proven  themselves  to  be  so 
superior  to  all  others  that  they  are  the  only 
brakes  having  extensive  use  to-day.  Air 
brakes  are  of  two  kinds:  vacuum  and  com- 
pressed air  brakes.  The  vacuum  is  pro- 
duced by  a  form  of  injector  placed  on  the 
locomotive,  which  partially  exhausts  cyl- 
inders or  bellows  placed  under  car.  The 
atmospheric  pressure  then  compresses  the 
bellows  or  forces  in  the  piston  of  the  cylinder, 
and  this  acts  on  a  mechanism  which  puts 


on  or  off  the  brakes.  In  some  systems, 
as  in  the  Saunder's  vacuum  brake,  the 
brakes  are  on  normally,  and  they  are  held 
off  by  the  atmospheric  pressure  as  long  as 
the  vacuum  is  maintained.  In  other 
brakes,  exhausting  the  air  throws  on  the 
brakes.  The  air  brake  used  more  exten- 
sively than  any  other  is  the  Westinghouse 
quick-action  automatic  air-brake.  This 
acts  by  compressed  air  produced  by  a  com- 
pressor on  the  locomotive.  The  com- 
pressed air  is  stored  in  a  tank  on  the  ten- 
der of  the  locomotive,  and  from  thence 
distributed  by  flexible  connections  and 
pipes  to  the  brake  cylinders  placed  under 
each  car  of  the  train.  The  action  of  this 
brake  is  quick  and  powerful.  In  its  im- 
proved form,  the  action  travels  with  a  high 
velocity,  so  that  with  a  train  of  fifty  cars, 
having  a  length  of  1,900  feet,  the  action 
takes  place  at  the  last  car  in  z\  seconds 
after  application  at  the  first  car.  The 
theoretical  velocity  possible  is  that  of  the 
velocity  of  sound  in  air,  and  that  would 
take  ij  seconds  to  travel  the  1,900  feet, 
so  that  the  action  of  the  automatic  brakes 
is  almost  perfect. 

Branching.  A  branch  is  a  repetition 
of  the  axis  from  which  it  springs.  There 
are  two  prominent  forms  of  branching. 
One  is  known  as  dichotomous,  and  is 
chiefly  characteristic  of  the  lower  plants. 
It  consists  in  the  division  of  the  apex  of 
the  axis  into  branches,  usually  two  in  num- 
ber, as  the  name  indicates.  In  cases  of 
dichotomy,  therefore,  an  axis  stops  where 
it  branches.  The  other  type  is  known  as 
monopodial,  and  consists  in  giving  off 
branches  from  the  side  of  the  axis,  which 
itself  continues  to  develop.  This  is  the  type 
more  characteristic  of  the  higher  plants. 

Brandeis,  Louis  D.,  lawyer,  was  born  in 
Louisville,  Ky.,  November  13,  1856,  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1878,  and  until  his  appointment 
as  Associate  Justice  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  in  1916,  practiced  in  Boston. 
Among  the  cases  which  brought  him  a  national 
reputation  was  that  of  the  advanced  freight 
investigation  before  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  in  1911,  in  which  he  appeared  for 
the  shippers;  suits  relating  to  the  constitu- 
tionality of  laws  limiting  hours  of  labor  for 
women,  and  in  opposition  to  the  New  Haven 
monopoly  of  transportation  in  New  England. 
He  has  written  extensively  on  public  franchises, 
wage  earners'  life  insurance,  the  scientific  man- 
agement of  labor  problems,  and  other  social 
economic  subjects. 

Bran'denburg  (brdn'den-boorg),  a  cen- 
tral province  of  Prussia,  which  formed 
the  starting  point  of  the  present  kingdort. 
Its  area  is  15,383  square  miles,  one  and  a 
half  times  the  size  of  Maryland.  The  popu- 
lation is  4,092,616,  largely  Protestant. 
Brandenburg  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  Hohenzollerns,  the  present  ruling  family 
of  Germany,  in  the  isth  century.  Later 


BRANDES 


260 


BRASS 


it  was  joined  to  the  duchy  of  Prussia,  and 
in  1701  the  Hohenzollerns  became  the 
kingly  line  of  Prussia,  and  in  1871  the  im- 
perial family  of  Germany.  Berlin  is  the 
capital  of  Brandenburg,  as  it  is  also  of 
Prussia  and  of  Germany.  The  town 
Brandenburg  is  on  the  River  Havel,  35 
miles  west  of  Berlin.  Population,  51,239. 

Brandes  (bran'des),  Qeorg  Morris  Co- 
hen, Danish  literary  critic  and  man  of 
letters,  was  bom  at  Copenhagen  in  1842 
and  educated  at  its  university.  He  and 
his  brother  Carl  (a  notable  Danish  dramatist) 
are  of  Jewish  extraction.  Prof.  Brandes 
spent  his  early  life  in  France  and  Germany, 
and  published  works  entitled  ^Esthetic 
Studies,  Criticisms  and  Portraits  and  French 
Aesthetics  in  Our  Day.  Returning  to  Den- 
mark, he  delivered  lectures  at  the  University 
of  Copenhagen,  which  were  published  under 
the  title  of  Main  Currents  in  the  Literature 
of  the  igth  Century  This  work,  owing  to 
its  radical  thought,  made  him  enemies  in 
Denmark  and  led  to  his  settlement  once 
more  in  Berlin.  Later  on  there  came  from 
his  pen  a  work  on  The  Danish  Poets,  a 
clever  piece  of  psychological  analysis;  7m- 
pressions  of  Poland;  Impressions  of  Russia; 
A  Study  of  Ibsen;  Lives  of  Ferdinand  Las- 
salle  and  Benj.  Disraeli;  Men  of  the  Modern 
Revival;  and  Wm.  Shakespeare,  the  Man 
and  His  Works,  an  elaborate  study  of  the 
great  poet. 

Brandon,  the  second  city  in  importance 
in  the  province  of  Manitoba.  Population, 
exceeds  10,500,  having  doubled  in  five 
years.  _  It  is  situated  at  the  junction  of 
the  Little  Saskatchewan  and  Assiniboine 
Rivers,  132  miles  west  of  Winnipeg,  and 
on  the  main  line  of  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way. It  was  founded  in  1880,  taking 
its  name  from  the  Brandon  Hills  situated 
about  eight  miles  to  the  south.  It  is 
rapidly  growing  in  commercial  importance. 

Bran'dy  is  the  liquid  obtained  by  dis- 
tilling grape  wine.  It  is  generally  made 
from  white  and  red  wines,  and  the  different 
wines  used  give  their  peculiarities  to  the 
brandy.  Wines  which  have  the  most 
alcohol  yield  the  most  brandy.  The  best 
brandy  (Cognac)  is  made  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Charente,  France,  and  is  known 
as  cognac  and  armagnac,  from  the  names. 
of  the  towns  where  it  is  manufactured. 
Catawba  brandy,  made  from  the  Catawba 
wine  of  Ohio,  is  very  good,  as  are  the 
brandies  made  from  the  California  grape. 
A  liquor  called  brandy  is  sometimes  made 
from  the  juice  of  other  fruits  besides  the 
grape,  known  as  peach  brandy  and  cider 
brandy  or  apple-jack.  Pure  brandy  con- 
sists almost  entirely  of  alcohol  and  water. 
It  has  no  color  when  fresh,  but  burnt  sugar 
is  usually  added  to  give  its  wine-color. 

Bran'dy  wine,  the  name  of  a  creek  in 
Pennsylvania,  flowing  southeast  into  Dela- 
ware, and  emptying  into  Christiana  creek 


at  the  city  of  Wilmington.  It  is  known 
as  the  site  of  the  battle  of  the  Brandywine, 
which  was  fought  on  its  banks,  September 
11,  1777.  The  Americans,  13,000  strong, 
under  Washington,  were  defeated  by  a 
force  of  18,000  British,  under  Lord  Howe. 

Brant,  Joseph,  a  leader  of  an  Indian 
tribe,  friend  and  ally  of  the  British,  was 
born  in  1742.  His  ancestors  lived  in  the 
Mohawk  Valley.  The  name  of  his  foster 
father  was  Brant.  He  visited  England  in 
1775  at  a  time  when  the  Six  Nations  were 
hesitating  as  to  whether  they  would  join 
with  the  colonials  or  the  British  in  the 
Revolutionary  War,  when  he  received 
much  attention.  On  his  return  he  ener- 
getically and  bravely  espoused  the  British 
cause,  winning  distinction  for  his  valor. 
Brant  was  a  humane  Indian,  and  his  ad- 
mirers have  warmly  resented  the  state- 
ments contained  in  Campbell's  Gertrude 
of  Wyoming,  in  effect  accusing  the  Indians 
of  wanton  cruelty.  After  the  war  the 
lands  of  the  Six  Nations  passed  into  other 
hands,  and  they  were  given  by  way  of 
compensation  a  strip  six  miles  wide  on  each 
side  of  the  Grand  River  (Ontario)  from 
its  mouth  to  the  source.  Some  of  them 
settled  in  the  Bay  of  Quint£  district  in 
eastern  Ontario.  In  1785  there  were  700 
of  the  Six  Nations  settled  in  the  County  of 
Brant.  Now  there  are  4,000.  The  old 
Mohawk  church  (Anglican),  the  first  church 
erected  in  upper  Canada,  built  in  1786, 
is  on  their  reserves.  His  great-grandson 
was  one  of  the  speakers  at  the  centennial 
U.  E.  Loyalists  celebration  held  in  Adol- 
phustown  (eastern  Ontario),  in  1884. 
Brant  translated  the  Gospel  of  Mark  and 
the  English  prayerbpok  into  the  Mohawk 
language.  He  died  in  1807,  and  a  monu- 
ment, with  a  large  bronze  statue  above  it, 
has  been  raised  at  Brantford,  Ontario, 
Canada,  in  his  honor. 

Brant' ford.  City  0^21,964,  situated  on 
the  Grand  River,  25  miles  west  of  Hamilton, 
called  after  the  Indian  Joseph  Brant,  whose 
body  is  buried  in  the  old  Mohawk  church, 
two  miles  from  the  city.  It  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  consolidated  Six  Nations. 
The  noted  inventor,  Alexander  Graham 
Bell,  lived  here  for  many  years,  and  a  hand- 
some memorial  has  been  erected  in  his 
honor.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  tele- 
phone city,  and  is  favorably  known  as  a 
manufacturing  center.  It  is  on  the  main 
line  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway,  served 
also  by  the  Toronto,  Hamilton  &  Buffalo 
Railway,  less  than  two  hours  from  Toronto. 
Public  buildings,  schools,  and  churches  are 
very  attractive. 

Brass,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc.  It 
is  made  by  several  processes.  The  most 
common  method  is  to  melt  the  copper  first 
and  then  put  in  the  zinc.  Brass  is  used  in 
many  ways  in  the  arts,  on  account  of  its 
ease  in  working  and  its  color.  It  is  harder 


BRASSEY 


261 


BRAZIL 


than  copper,  but  can  be  easily  worked.  I'c 
is  readily  cast,  rolled,  stamped  and  worked 
in  various  other  ways.  Different  varieties 
are  made  by  varying  the  proportions  of  the 
two  metals.  Ordinary  brass  contains  about 
seventy  parts  of  copper  and  thirty  of  zinc. 
Yellow  metal  contains  more  zinc.  It  is 
rolled  into  sheets  and  used  for  sheathing 
ships.  Tombac,  prince's  metal,  mosaic  gold, 
etc.  are  among  the  numerous  varieties.  By 
adding  tin,  brass  is  made  stronger;  while 
lead  makes  it  harder,  so  that  it  can  be  more 
readily  worked  in  the  lathe.  Brass  can  be 
cleaned  with  nitric  acid. 

Brassey,  Lady  Anne,  wife  of  Lord 
Thomas  and  a  great  traveler,  accompany- 
ing her  husband  in  his  tours  in  the  yacht 
Sunbeam,  was  born  in  1840,  and  died  at  sea, 
Sept.  14,  1887.  She  is  the  author  of  the 
delightful  Voyage  in  the  Sunbeam,  published 
in  1878;  of  a  cruise  to  Cyprus  and  Con- 
stantinople, described  in  Sunshine  and 
Storm  in  the  East;  and  of  a  later  work,  In 
the  Trades,  the  Tropics  and  the  Roaring 
Forties. 

Brassey,  Thomas,  Lord,  an  English 
political  economist  and  authority  on  sea- 
manship, was  born  in  1836  (the  son  of 
Thomas  Brassey,  the  great  contractor, 
whose  Life  was  written  by  Sir  Arthur  Helps) 
and  educated  at  Rugby  and  at  Oxford.  He 
entered  English  political  life  in  1865,  and 
from  1880  to  1885  he  was  civil  lord  of  the 
admiralty  in  Mr.  Gladstone's  administra- 
tion and  afterward  secretary  to  the  admi- 
ralty. Since  1895  he  has  been  governor  of 
Victoria,  Australia.  He  is  known  as  an 
enthusiastic  yachtsman,  interested  in  the 
British  seamen,  a  writer  on  the  British  navy; 
and  in  1893-95  was  president  of  the  Insti- 
tute of  Naval  Architects.  His  chief  writings 
are  a  treatise  on  Works  and  Wages;  The 
Eastern  Question;  English  Work  and  For- 
eign Wages;  and  The  British  Navy  (in  5 
volumes)  • 

Brattleboro,  Vt.,  a  town  in  Windham 
County,  on  the  Connecticut  River,  about 
60  miles  north  of  Springfield,  Mass.,  reached 
by  the  Central  Vermont  and  the  Boston 
and  Maine  Railroad.  The  town  dates  from 
the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  and  has  an 
interesting  early  history,  while  it  occupies  a 
picturesque  site.  Besides  its  civic  buildings 
it  has  a  public  library  and  is  the  seat  of  the 
state  asylum  for  the  insane.  Among  its 
manufactures  is  the  factory  of  the  Estey 
parlor-organs;  its  other  establishments  are 
furniture  and  toy-making  factories  and 
those  producing  children's  carriages,  wagons 
and  canning  machinery.  Maple-sugar  is 
also  a  product  of  the  industries  of 
the  town.  .population  (census  1910), 
7.541. 

Brazil,  Ind.,  a  city,  the  seat  of  Clay 
County,  57  miles  west  southwest  of  Indian- 
apolis and  about  20  miles  east  of  Terre 
Haute,  on  the  Wabash  River.  It  is  reached 


by  the  Chicago  &  Eastern  Illinois  Railroad, 
the  Evansville  &  Terre  Haute  system  and 
other  railroads.  The  city  has  a  public 
library,  and  owns  and  operates  its  own 
water-works.  Its  industries,  aided  by  the 
extensive  deposits  of  block-coal,  clay  and 
shale  of  superior  quality  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, include  sewer-pipe  and  other  clay 
products,  brick  and  tile  works,  the  manu- 
facture of  pig  iron,  boilers,  mining  engines, 
steel  rails  and  a  variety  of  other  machinery. 
Brazil  dates  from  about  the  year  1856,  and 
was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1878.  Popu- 
lation, 10,315. 

Brazil,  The  United  States  of»  The 
largest  state  of  South  America  and  the 
third  largest  political  division  of  the  west- 
ern continent.  It  has  the  Atlantic  on  the 
east  and  northeast,  with  a  coast  line  of 
5,000  miles.  Its  land  frontier  of  10,000 
miles  confronts  all  the  other  South  Amer- 
ican states  except  Chile.  Its  breadth  is  2,705 
miles,  its  length  2,660  miles,  and  its  area 
3,218,991  square  miles.  It  is  larger  than 
the  United  States,  excepting  Alaska.  It 
occupies  nearly  one  half  of  the  South 
American  continent. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  Lying  like  a  vast 
triangle  in  the  eastern  angle  of  the  con- 
tinent, Brazil  falls  naturally  into  two  sec- 
tions. The  eastern  and  southern  portions 
are  high,  containing  two  mountain  ranges, 
with  an  enclosed  elevated  plateau.  The 
northern  and  western  section  consists  of 
plains  and  lowlands,  including  the  valley 
of  the  Amazon. 

Brazil's  unique  feature  consists  of  the 
most  remarkable  system  of  water-ways  on 
our  planet.  Three  great  river  systems  drain 
the  country,  the  Amazon,  the  Plata  and 
the  San  Francisco.  The  mighty  Amazon 
alone,  with  its  branches,  drains  fully  one 
half  of  Brazil.  The  rainfall  of  the  South 
American  continent  is  heaviest  in  the  in- 
terior on  the  head  waters  of  the  Amazon,  so 
that  this  river  is  already  a  stream  two 
miles  wide  and  150  feet  deep  where  it  first 
enters  Brazilian  territory,  2,300  miles  from 
its  mouth.  With  its  tributaries  it  affords 
27,000  miles  of  navigable  water.  The 
Madeira,  the  longest  tributary,  gives  access 
to  Bolivia.  The  Rio  Negro,  the  largest 
northern  affluent,  connects  with  the  Orinoco 
and  thus  furnishes  navigation  into  Colombia 
and  Venezuela.  Another  extensive  and  im- 
portant system  is  the  Paraguay  and  its 
branches,  which  terminate  in  the  Plata. 
The  San  Francisco,  which  flows  directly 
into  the  Atlantic,  gives,  with  its  tributaries, 
4,400  miles  of  navigation. 

Transportation.  The  great  rivers  above 
named  give  abundant  access  to  the  interior 
of  the  country,  and  this  fact  is  the  more 
important  because  large  areas  must  other- 
wise remain  inaccessible,  being  not  adapted 
to  the  building  of  railways.  Brazil  has  14,- 
ooo  miles  of  railways  and  these  have  been 


BRAZOS 


262 


BREAD 


confined  largely  to  the  seaboard  sections, 
but  are  now  being  extended  into  the 
interior. 

Climate.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  area 
of  Brazil  lies  within  the  tropics,  less  than 
ten  per  cent,  being  in  the  temperate  zone. 
With  the  heavy  rainfall,  especially  in  the 
western  portion,  there  is  thus  a  combina- 
tion of  heat  and  moisture  which  results  in 
rank  growth  of  vegetation.  In  the  ex- 
treme southern  sections  the  four  seasons 
are  fairly  marked;  elsewhere  they  consist 
only  of  the  wet  and  the  dry  season. 

Natural  Resources.  Brazil  is  an  agri- 
cultural country.  Vegetation  is  rich  and 
varied.  The  forests,  especially  in  the 
Amazon  valley,  have  an  amazing  growth, 
and  abound  in  animals,  birds  and  plants. 
The  rivers  are  full  of  fish  and  reptiles.  In 
the  valley-region  development  of  the  country 
has  been  hindered  by  the  almost  uncon- 
trollable luxuriance  of  vegetation,  which 
the  meager  population  has  been  unable  to 
subdue  and  hold  in  check.  Brazil  has  more 
varieties  of  plants  than  any  other  country 
in  the  world.  Her  forests  have  a  great 
variety  of  valuable  woods,  including  rose- 
wood, mahogany,  satin  wood,  oak,  pine 
and  many  others. 

Brazil  furnishes  more  than  60%  of  the 
world's  coffee  and  more  than  50%  of  the 
world's  rubber.  Other  important  products 
are  sugar,  tobacco,  cotton,  rice,  mate,  cocoa 
and  nuts.  Among  her  fruits  are  pineapples, 
oranges,  mangoes  and  grapes.  In  southern 
Brazil  the  cattle  industry  is  important. 
The  mineral  resources  of  Brazil  have  not 
been  largely  developed,  but  there  are 
deposits  of  coal  and  also  gold,  silver, 
lead,  zinc,  iron,  copper  and  other  min- 
erals. 

Manufactures.  Manufactures  are  not 
largely  developed,  but  are  on  the  increase. 
There  are  more  than  a  hundred  cotton 
mills,  also  woolen  factories,  with  silk  mills, 
flour  mills,  etc. 

Government.  The  United  States  of  Brazil 
are  a  federal  republic,  the  constitution  being 
formed  after  the  pattern  of  the  United 
States.  There  are  twenty  states  and  one 
federal  district.  The  national  Congress  con- 
sists of  a  senate  and  chamber  of  depu- 
ties. 

Inhabitants.  The  population  is  about  22,- 
000,000,  less  than  half  being  of  European 
descent.  The  language,  unlike  that  of  the 
rest  of  South  America,  is  Portuguese.  There 
are  over  2,000,000  immigrants,  chiefly 
Italian,  Portuguese,  Spanish  and  German. 
The  religion  is  Roman  Catholicism.  The 
federal  government  pays  the  salary  of  the 
prelates,  but  has  declared  absolute  freedom 
for  every  form  of  religion. 

Education.  Education  is  under  state 
control,  primary  education  being  free  but 
not  compulsory.  In  Rio  de  Janeiro  there 
are  polytechnic  schools,  law  schools, 


normal  schools,  a  school  of  war,  a  college  of 
marines  and  a  naval  academy.  Other  cities 
are  provided  with  similar  schools,  but  on  the 
whole  the  standard  of  education  is  low, 
four  out  of  five  of  the  population  being 
illiterate. 

History.  Brazil  was  discovered  in  1500 
by  the  explorer  Pinzon,  and  thirty  years 
later  the  Portuguese  began  to  plant  colonies 
along  its  coast.  Their  selfish  and  greedy 
policy  long  delayed  the  progress  of  the 
country.  In  1808  the  royal  family  of 
Portugal,  the  house  of  Braganza,  being 
expelled  by  the  French,  took  refuge  in 
Brazil,  and  their  stay  was  marked  by  gr«r,t 
growth  in  the  country.  On  their  return 
the  king's  eldest  son  was  left  as  prince 
regent,  but  soon  afterward,  in  i822:  he 
declared  Brazil  independent,  and  was 
crowned  emperor  as  Dom  Pedro  I.  Worn 
out  with  the  cares  of  rule,  he  abdicated  in 
1831,  and  for  nine  years  regents  guided  the 
affairs  of  the  empire,  until  in  1831  Dom 
Pedro  II,  at  the  age  of  15,  was  crowned 
emperor.  Except  a  few  insurrections,  his 
reign  was  peaceful,  until  the  revolution  in 
November,  1889,  when  the  empire  became 
a  republic.  The  ex-emperor  was  kindly 
treated  and  provision  made  for  his  support, 
though  for  fear  of  trouble  from  his  pres- 
ence he  was  sent  to  Portugal.  The  cap- 
ital of  Brazil,  its  largest  city  and  most 
important  seaport,  is  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Popu- 
lation (estimated),  1,000,000.  The  other 
chief  towns  are  Bahia  (230,000)  and  Per- 
nambuco  (150,000). 

Brazos  (brd'zos),  formerly  called  Brazos- 
de-Dios,  is  a  large  river  in  Texas.  It  rises 
in  the  elevated  region  of  the  northwest  that 
once  was  called  the  Llano  Estacado  or 
Staked  Plain,  and  flows  southeastward  be- 
tween Colorado  and  Trinity  Rivers.  After 
a  course  of  about  nine  hundred  miles  it 
falls  into  the  Mexican  Gulf,  forty  miles 
southwest  of  Galveston.  During  the  wet 
season  it  affords  300  miles  of  steamboat 
navigation.  The  cotton  plantations  along 
the  river  are  highly  productive.  About 
midway  between  the  source  and  the  mouth 
is  Waco  (population,  30,000).  This  is  an 
important  railway  center  and  the  chief  city 
on  the  river. 

Bread,  an  article  of  food.  Wheat  is  the 
best  material  for  making  bread;  but  other 
grains  are  used,  such  as  rye,  barley,  Indian 
corn  and  rice.  The  earliest  bread  was 
made  without  leaven  or  yeast,  like  the  tin- 
leavened  bread  of  the  Jews  and  the  oat 
cakes  of  Scotland  and  the  corn  cakes  of 
America.  Leaven  was  used  to  raise  bread, 
that  is,  to  give  it  a  spongy  texture,  before 
yeast.  It  is  simply  a  portion  of  moistened 
flour  or  dough  which  has  begun  to  ferment, 
and  so  when  added  to  the  mass  causes  the 
rest  to  ferment.  Leaven  is  still  used,  bu*. 
yeast  has  very  generally  taken  its  place, 


BREADFRUIT  TREE 


263 


BREMER 


BREADFRUIT 


The  usual  materials  of  bread  are  flour, 
yeast  and  water  containing  salt.  Many  of 
the  operations  of  breadmaking  are  now 
carried  on  by  machinery.  Some  bakeries 
use  2,000  bags  of  flour  in  a  week.  Brown 
bread  is  made  from  the  ground  but  un- 
dressed wheat,  and  so  contains  the  bran  as 
well  as  the  wheat. 

Bread'  fruit  Tree,  a  native  of  southern 
Asia,  of  the  islands  of  the  South  Pacific  and 
of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  It  is  now  grown 
also  in  some  of  the  West  Indies.  Growing  to 
a  height  of  forty  or  fifty 
feet,  it  has  large,  dark- 
green  leaves  and  a 
sphere-shaped  fruit, 
about  the  size  of  a  child's 
head,  weighing  some- 
times over  four  pounds. 
The  fruit  is  the  main  food 
of  the  natives  of  the 
South  Sea  islands.  It  is 
covered  with  a  rough 
rind,  and  the  fruit  when 
ripe  is  juicy  and  yellow. 
It  is  better,  however,  be- 
fore it  is  fully  ripe.  When 
cut  up  and  baked  in  an  oven,  it  is  mealy  and 
nourishing.  In  taste  somewhat  sweetish, 
it  is  more  like  a  plantain  than  ordinary 
wheat  bread.  When  properly  cooked,  it 
will  keep  several  weeks.  The  South  Sea 
natives  beat  it  into  a  paste,  which,  slightly 
fermented,  is  somewhat  sour,  but  a  food 
they  relish.  The  breadfruit  tree  will  pro- 
duce two  or  three  crops  a  year.  The  wood 
is  used  for  furniture,  for  building  and  for 
various  purposes. 

Breakwater,  a  bank  or  levee  of  stones 
or  a  timber  structure,  used  to  break  the 
violence  of  the  sea  in  its  entrance  into  a 
harbor  or  roadstead.  There  may  be  a 
natural  breakwater,  as  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
which  protects  Portsmouth  and  Southamp- 
ton. The  Romans  made  artificial  break- 
waters of  some  size  in  several  Italian 
ports.  The  first  modern  structure  and  the 
greatest  of  all  breakwaters  is  that  at 
Cherbourg,  on  the  French  side  of  the  Eng- 
lish Channel.  There  are  also  breakwaters 
in  the  English  harbors  of  Plymouth,  Port- 
land and  Holy  head.  Several  structures  of 
this  kind  have  also  been  built  upon  the 
Great  Lakes,  as  at  Buffalo  and  Cleveland 
on  Lake  Erie  and  at  Chicago  on  Lake 
Michigan.  The  one  at  Buffalo  is  the 
largest  in  the  United  States.  The  usual 
method  of  building  breakwaters  is  to  cast 
down  large  stones  and  allow  them  to 
settle  under  the  action  of  the  tides  and 
currents.  The  top  is  then  covered  with 
large  blocks  of  artificial  stone  or  with 
paving  laid  at  a  regular  slope,  and  a  wall 
is  built. 

Breck'enridge,  John  Cabell,  an  Amer- 
ican politician  and  soldier,  was  born  in  Ken- 


tucky  in  1821. 
He  took  part  in 
the  Mexican  War, 
and  afterward 
became  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress. 
In  1856  he  was 
elected  vice- 
president,  with 
Buchanan  as 
president,  and 
four  years  later 
was  one  of  the 
Democratic  can- 
didates for  pres- 
ident, receiving 
the  electoral 
votes  of  most  of 
the  southern 
states.  He  was 

elected  senator,  but  entered  the  Confederate 
army,  where  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  In  1865  he  was  appointed  Con- 
federate secretary  of  war.  Later,  he 
practiced  law  in  Kentucky.  He  died  in 


JOHN   C.    BRECKENRIDGE 


?5 
B 


remen  (brent'  en  or  brd'men),  one  of  the 
three  free  cities  of  Germany,  stands  on 
both  banks  of  the  Weser,  which  is  spanned 
by  four  bridges.  Though  called  a  free  city, 
it  is  really  a  little  state,  having  an  area  of 
99  square  miles,  which  includes,  besides  the 
city  itself,  the  port  of  Bremerhaven  and 
several  other  small  places.  It  goes  back 
in  history  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne  in 
the  8th  century,  was  at  one  time  a  mem- 
ber of  the  so-called  Hanseatic  league  of 
cities,  and  is  now  a  part  of  the  German 
empire.  It  has  a  senate  of  sixteen  mem- 
bers and  a  council  of  150  burgesses.  It 
has  a  number  of  old  and  interesting  build- 
ings, but  is  especially  noted  for  its  large 
trade,  in  which  it  holds  the  second  place 
among  the  cities  of  Germany.  Its  enor- 
mous foreign  trade  extends  all  over  the 
world,  but  is  largest  with  the  United  States. 
Its  exports  to  the  latter  embrace  aniline 
dyes,  cotton  hosiery,  cotton  lace,  furs, 
hides,  skins  and  leather  manufactures,  toys, 
rubber,  woolen  cloth,  etc.  From  its  port 
about  fifty  per  cent,  of  all  German  emigrants 
set  sail,  most  of  them  coming  to  the  United 
States.  In  one  year  52,000  emigrants  left 
its  port,  and  that  same  year  it  imported 
from  the  United  States  goods  valued  at 
almost  $30,000,000.  Twenty-five  hundred 
vessels  arrive  yearly.  It  is  the  headquarters 
of  the  North  German  Lloyd  steamship  com- 
pany, and  is  connected  by  rail  with  the 
whole  of  western  and  central  Germany. 
Population  of  the  state  is  298,736  and  that 
of  the  city  246,827. 

Bremer  (bre'mer),  Frederika,  a  well- 
known  Swedish  novelist,  was  born  in  Fin- 
land in  1  80  1,  but  was  brought  up  near 
Stockholm,  Sweden.  She  wrote  verses  as 
a  child;  and  was  well-educated,  finishing  her 


BRESLAU 


264 


BREWING 


studies  in  Paris.  Her  first  and  best  novel, 
The  Neighbors,  was  translated  into  German, 
French,  Dutch,  Russian  and  English,  and 
gave  her  a  wide  fame.  After  wnting  sev- 
eral other  stories,  she  traveled  through 
many  countries,  writing  descriptions  of  the 
people  in  her  Homes  of  the  New  World  and 
Life  in  the  Old  World  and  in  many  other 
works.  She  spent  two  years  in  the  United 
States  and  was  cordially  received  every- 
where. The  latter  years  of  her  life  were 
largely  given  up  to  thought  and  work  for 
women.  She  has  been  called  the  Jane 
Austen  of  Sweden.  Among  her  best  books 
are  The  Diary,  The  President's  Daughter 
and  Brothers  and  Sisters.  She  died  in  1865. 

Breslau  (brcs'lou),  the  capital  of  Prus- 
sian Silesia,  lies  at  the  junction  of  the 
Ohlau  and  the  Oder,  which  divide  the  city 
into  two  parts  joined  by  numerous  bridges. 
The  old  parts  of  the  city  are  somber  and 
massive,  but  the  new  parts  have  many  fine 
specimens  of  the  architecture  of  today.  It 
has  a  university,  founded  by  Leopold  I  in 
1702,  which  has  a  teaching  force  of  189  and 
1920  students  and  a  library  of  400,000 
volumes.  It  is  important  as  a  manu- 
facturing and  trading  town,  having  fine 
railroad  and  river  advantages.  Linen  fairs 
are  held,  and  it  is  a  great  wool-market.  In 
population  it  ranks  sixth  among  German 
cities,  numbering  511,891  people.  Breslau 
has  been  occupied  at  different  times  by 
Poles  and  Bohemians.  It  passed  into  the 
hands  of  Austria,  and  finally  into  the  hands 
of  Prussia. 

Brest,  a  French  city  in  the  department 
of  Finistere,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Bay 
of  Brest.  The  bay  is  one  of  the  finest  har- 
bors of  Europe,  and  was  long  a  bone  of 
contention  among  European  powers,  and 
several  naval  battles  have  been  fought  in 
its  neighborhood.  Its  fortifications,  begun 
by  Cardinal  Richelieu  in  the  iyth  century, 
and  the  narrow  and  strongly  protected 
throat  which  forms  the  entrance  make  it  a 
formidable  naval  station.  Its  industries 
are  mainly  connected  with  the  equipment 
of  the  navy.  A  submarine  cable  gives  it 
connection  with  America.  A  splendid  iron 
swing-bridge  crossing  the  little  stream  which 
flows  through  the  city,  a  fine  promenade 
along  the  shore  and  an  old  castle  are 
among  the  interesting  features  of  Brest. 
Its  population  is  90,540. 

Breton  (ore-ton),  Jules  Adolphe,  a 
French  painter,  was  born  in  1827.  He  has 
become  well-known  as  a  painter  of  scenes 
from  peasant  life.  Among  his  best  works 
are  The  Gleaners,  Blessing  the  Grain,  Eve- 
ning, The  Weeders  and  The  Communicants. 

Brewer,  David  Josiah,  associate  justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States, 
was  born  at  Smyrna,  Asia  Minor,  June  20, 
1837,  his  father  being  then  a  missionary  in 
the  east.  He  was  educated  at  the  Wes- 
leyan  University,  at  Yale  and  at  Albany 


Law  School.  He  practiced  law  at  Leaven- 
worth,  Kan.,  where  he  was  elected  probate 
judge.  In  1870  he  became  associate  justice 
of  the  supreme  court  of  his  state,  resigning 
in  1884  to  become  judge  of  the  United 
States  Circuit  Court.  In  1889  he  became 
associate  justice  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court,  under  appointment  of  Pres- 
ident Harrison.  He  took  an  active  interest 
in  education  while  a  resident  of  Kansas, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  faculty  of  the 
Columbian  Law  School.  He  is  an  LL.D.  of 
Yale.  He  also  acted  on  the  Venezulean 
Commission  appointed  by  President  Cleve- 
land, and  was  a  member  of  the  British  Vene- 
zuelan Arbitration  Tribunal.  In  1891  he 
delivered  an  important  address  before  the 
Yale  Law  School  on  The  Protection  of 
Private  Property  against  Public  Attack.  He 
is  the  author  of  a  work  on  American  Citi- 
zenship. He  died  March  28,  1910. 

Brew'ing,  the  art  of  making  fermented 
drinks  without  distilling,  is  divided  into 
two  processes:  first  malting  and,  second, 
brewing  properly  so-called.  In  malting, 
the  barley  is  first  steeped  in  cold  water  for 
two  or  three  days,  so  that  it  may  absorb 
water,  swell  and  soften.  The  barley  is  now 
spread  on  the  floor  of  the  malt-house  to 
the  depth  of  a  foot  or  rather  more.  There 
it  is  left  until  it  begins  to  throw  out  shoots 
and  rootlets.  The  grain  is  frequently 
turned  and  carefully  watched,  and  removed 
by  degrees  as  it  comes  to  the  right  stage. 
When  this  occurs,  as  it  usually  does  in 
about  twelve  days,  the  grain  is  dried  in  a 
heated  room  called  a  kiln,  and  germination 
is  of  course  checked.  The  barley  has  now 
become  malt.  A  temperature  of  about  100° 
in  the  kiln  gives  pale  malt;  of  150°,  brown 
malt,  such  as  is  used  for  porter  and  stout. 
What  has  been  so  far  gained  is  that  the 
substance  of  malt  will  dissolve,  while  barley 
will  not.  The  next  step  is  the  brewing 
properly  so-called.  The  malt  is  crushed 
between  iron  rollers.  It  is  then  called 
grist,  and  the  grist  has  next  to  be  mixed 
with  hot  water  and  set  in  mash-tubs  to 
stand.  Starch  and  glucose  are  sometimes 
added  to  adulterate  the  brew,  so  as  to  eke 
out  the  malt.  The  liquor  is  then  carefully 
drawn  off  from  that  part  of  the  grist  which 
has  not  been  dissolved.  This  liquor,  now 
called  wort,  is  allowed  to  stand  for  a  few 
hours,  and  is  then  drawn  off  and  boiled 
with  hops  in  copper  boilers.  The  hops  give 
flavor  to  the  beer  and  act  as  a  mild  stim- 
ulant or  tonic.  The  boiled  wort  is  fer- 
mented in  large  vessels  or  vats.  The  process 
of  fermentation  is  started  by  adding  to  the 
wort  about  one  per  cent,  of  yeast,  saved  from 
a  previous  brew  of  the  same  kind  of  beer. 
The  temperature  rises,  and  after  about  a 
week  the  brew  is  put  into  cleansing  vessels 
where  the  ferment  is  very  slow.  The  yeast 
is  drawn  off;  and  the  beer  is  left  for  some 
time  in  barrels  to  mature  before  use. 


6REWSTER 


BRIDE  OF  LAMMERMOOR 


Brews'ter,  Sir  "David,  a  noted  Scottish 
natural  philosopher  and  student  of  science, 
was  born  in  1781.  He  was  for  years  editor 
of  the  Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia,  and  at  the 
same  time  was  engaged  in  scientific  studies 
and  in  writing  on  kindred  subjects.  He  was 
a  member  of  a  number  of  societies,  was 
knighted,  and  received  many  medals  for  his 
discoveries  in  science.  The  last  few  years  of 
his  life  were  spent  as  principal  of  Edinburgh 
University.  He  died  in  1868.  Hjs  name  is 
lastingly  connected  with  the  study  of  optics 
and  the  polarization  of  light.  The  beautiful 
and  scientific  toy  called  the  kaleidoscope  was 
invented  by  him,  and  he  made  many  im- 

Erovements  in  the  stereoscope.  He  was  also  a 
ne  writer,  and  has  left  behind  him  several 
works  besides  his  articles  in  magazines  and 
encyclopaedias.  Letters  on  Natural  Magic, 
addressed  to  Sir  Walter  Scott;  More  Worlds 
Than  One;  Martyrs  of  Science;  a  Life  of  New- 
ton; and  Tycho  Brake  and,  Kepler  are  among 
his  most  interesting  books. 

Brews'ter,  William  (1560-1644),  one  of 
the  most  notable  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  who, 
in  1620,  came  to  Plymouth,  Mass.,  in  the 
Mayflower,  and  was  a  ruling  elder  in  the 
historic  body.  Born  at  Scrooby  in  Not- 
tinghamshire, England,  he  for  a  time  studied 
at  Cambridge,  and  then  attached  himself  to 
the  Separatists  or  Nonconformists,  who,  to 
escape  persecution,  fled  to  Holland;  and 
he  taught  at  Leyden.  With  William  Bradford, 
subsequently  governor  of  Plymouth  colony, 
he  came  to  the  New  World  and  formed  one 
of  the  first  settlements  of  Pilgrims  in  New 
England,  and  until  his  death  was  a  preacher 
in  the  community  and  a  loyal  and  revered 
leader  in  the  colony.  See  Steele's  Chief  of 
the  Pilgrims  and  Life  of  William  Brewster. 

Briareus  ( brl-a're-us  ) ,  in  the  Greek  myths 
one  of  the  sons  of  Uranus  and  Gaea  (goddess 
of  the  earth),  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
symbol  of  such  portents  as  earthquakes  or 
volcanic  eruptions.  Thus  he  had  fifty  heads 
and  one  hundred  arms,  and  was  imprisoned 
in  the  earth  by  his  father.  Jupiter  released 
Briareus  and  his  two  brothers  and  by  their 
help  won  the  victory  over  the  Titans. 
Homer  refers  to  Briareus  as  helping  Jupiter 
against  the  plots  of  Neptune,  Minerva  and 
Juno,  and  as  living  in  the  depths  of  the  sea; 
while  Vergil  makes  him  a  guardian  of  the 
Titans  in  Hades. 

Brick.  The  earliest  made  bricks  we  know 
anything  about  were  the  sun-dried  bricks  of 
Egypt,  Assyria  and  Babylonia.  Many  of 
these  have  been  preserved  for  4,000  years. 
The  burning  of  bricks  in  kilns  is  also  quite 
ancient,  some  burnt  bricks  having  been 
found  among  the  ruins  of  Babylonia.  The 
ancient  bricks,  whether  baked  by  the  sun  or 
in  kilns,  were  made  of  clay,  mixed  with  grass 
or  straw.  The  Romans  used  brick  in  most 
of  their  buildings,  and  probably  introduced 
them  into  England.  The  people  of  Holland 
are  great  brickmakers,  and  many  of  their 


bricks  were  brought  to  America  in  ships,  and 
are  still  to  be  found  in  buildings  in  New 
York.  All  kinds  of  clay  can  be  used  foi 
brick  if  it  has  the  right  materials  in  it.  It 
must  not  have  too  much  sand,  for  then  the 
bricks  will  fall  to  pieces;  but  if  there  is  too 
little  sand,  the  bricks  are  apt  to  crack  open. 
After  the  clay  is  dug  from  the  ground,  it  is 
usually  left  in  the  air,  and  if  it  can  be  exposed 
through  the  winter  it  is  all  the  better,  as  the 
frost  breaks  it  up,  so  that  the  different  ma- 
terials of  the  clay  can  be  evenly  mixed. 
When  it  has  been  in  the  air  long  enough, 
water  is  poured  on  it  and  it  is  thoroughly 
mixed,  usually  in  a  mill,  though  it  used  to 
be  done  by  having  men  tramp  it  with  their 
bare  feet.  Anthracite  ooal-dust  is  generally 
mixed  with  the  clay  to  help  in  the  burning 
of  the  bricks.  When  thoroughly  mixed,  and 
all  stones  and  sticks  taken  out,  the  clay  is 
put  into  molds  and  exposed  to  the  sun  to 
dry.  When  dried,  the  bricks  are  taken  to 
kilns  to  be  burned.  Sometimes  they  are 
piled  up  so  as  to  make  their  own  kiln  and  a 
fire  started  inside;  by  this  method  half  a 
million  or  more  bricks  can  be  burned  at 
once.  The  time  required  to  burn  bricks 
varies  from  a  few  days  to  two  weeks,  ac- 
cording to  the  method  used.  Machines  are 
often  used  to  press  the  clay  into  the  molds 
before  burning,  which  makes  the  bricks 
smoother  and  firmer;  but  the  expense  is  so 
much  greater  that  pressed  bricks  are  used 
only  for  fine  buildings.  The  red  color  of 
bricks  is  due  to  the  iron  in  the  clay.  In 
some  parts  of  the  United  States,  clay  is  used 
which  has  so  little  iron  that  the  bricks  are 
cream  or  buff  color.  Fire-bricks  are  maJe 
from  clay  which  has  in  it  very  little,  if  any, 
material  which  burns  easily.  They  are  used 
for  house-grates  and  other  places  where  there 
is  strong  heat.  The  size  of  bricks  in  America 
varies  from  yf  to  8£  inches  in  length,  and 
from  4  to  4^  inches  in  width  and  from  z\ 
to  z\  inches  in  thickness.  Their  weight  ig 
usually  about  four  pounds.  English  bricks 
are  9  inches  long,  4^  inches  wide  and  2$ 
inches  thick. 

Bride  of  Lammermoor,  The,  a  strong 
and  most  finished  piece  of  fiction  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  published  in  1819,  and  form- 
ing one  of  the  famous  series  of  the  Waverley 
novels.  Its  era  is  that  of  William  III,  and  it 
relates  the  tragic  results  of  an  affection  mis- 
mated  by  compulsion.  The  heroine  of  the 
story,  Lucy  Ashton,  daughter  of  Sir  W. 
Ash  ton,  lord-keeper  of  Scotland,  is  in  love 
with  Edgar,  the  young  master  of  Ravens- 
wood,  and  they  plight  their  troth  at  the 
Mermaid's  Fountain.  Lucy,  however,  is 
compelled  to  marry  Frank  Hayston,  laird 
of  Bucklaw,  whom  the  bride,  in  a  fit  of 
insanity,  attempts  to  murder  and  then  dies 
in  convulsions.  Bucklaw,  nevertheless,  re- 
covers and  goes  abroad,  while  Colonel  Ash- 
ton,  Lucy's  father,  appoints  a  hostile  meet- 
ing with  Edgar,  but  young  Ravenswood,  on 


BRIDGE 


266 


BRIDGE 


the  way  to  the  place  appointed,  is  lost  in  the 
quicksands  of  Kelpies  Flow,  in  accordance 
with  an  old  prophecy.  Admirable,  as  a  foil 
to  the  tragic  scenes,  is  the  portrayal  of  Caleb 
Balderston,  the  old  butler.  The  story  has 
been  at  least  twice  dramatized,  while  Doni- 
zetti's well  known  opera  of  Lucia  di  Lam- 
tnermoor  is  founded  on  it,  though  with  some 
departure  in  the  details  of  the  plot  as  nar- 
rated by  the  good  Sir  Walter. 

Bridge,  a  structure  to  carry  a  roadway 
over  a  body  of  water  or  above  the  general 
level  of  the  ground,  as  across  a  valley  or 
depression.  When  the  purpose  of  the  struc- 
ture is  to  avoid  the  expense  or  inconvenience 
of  a  permanent  embankment  the  structure 
is  sometimes  called  a  viaduct.  If  it  is  to 
provide  an  elevated  water  channel,  it  is 
called  an  aqueduct.  The  two  parts  of  a 
bridge  are  the  substructure  and  the  super- 
structure. The  substructure  consists  of  the 
foundation  and  of  the  abutments  and  piers. 


use  in  the  eastern  United  States.  They  were 
later  succeeded  by  combination  trusses  in 
which  wood  and  cast  iron  and  wrought  iron 
were  used,  but  all  trusses  are  now  more 
cheaply  made  of  steel. 

A  peculiar  form  of  the  girder  bridge  was 
the  tubular  bridge,  which  consisted  of  a  rect- 
angular iron  tube  resting  on  the  piers.  The 
roadbed  was  through  the  tube.  The  Victoria 
bridge  across  the  St.  Lawrence  at  Montreal 
is  one  of  the  largest  and  the  finest  bridges  of 
this  kind.  It  is  a  railway  bridge  nearly  if 
miles  long,  with  a  central  span  330  feet  long 
and  twenty-four  spans  of  242  feet.  It  cost 
$7,000,000.  Tubular  bridges  have  been 
superseded  by  other  forms  which  are  cheaper 
and  better.  Arch  bridges  are  made  of  ma- 
sonry, of  iron,  or  of  steel.  One  of  the  largest 
masonry  arched  bridges  is  the  Trezzo  bridge 
over  the  river  Adda  in  Italy.  It  has  an  arch 
with  2  50  feet  span.  Of  recent  arched  bridges, 
the  Eads  bridge  across  the  Mississippi  at  St. 


EADS   BRIDGE    OVER   THE   MISSISSIPPI    RIVER 


The  abutments  and  piers  are  the  parts  upon 
which  the  superstructure  rests.  According 
to  the  superstructure,  bridges  are  divided 
into  classes  as  follows:  girder,  arch,  suspen- 
sion and  cantilever  bridges.  The  first  three 
are  represented  by  a  plank  across  a  stream,  a 
brick  arch  and  two  ropes  supporting  a  sus- 
pended platform.  The  cantilever  is  a  com- 
bination of  two  brackets  with  a  girder  be- 
tween them. 

The  earliest  bridges  were  made  of  wood, 
but  masonry  arches  were  made  in  very  early 
times  by  both  the  Romans  and  Chinese. 
Cast  iron  was  introduced  as  a  bridge  mate- 
rial in  the  arch  bridge  across  the  Severn  in 
1779.  At  the  present  time  steel  has  prac- 
tically superseded  wood  for  bridge  construc- 
tion. 

In  a  girder  bridge  there  are  beams  extend- 
ing from  support  to  support  of  the  substruc- 
ture. When  the  beam  is  not  solid,  but  made 
up  of  a  network  of  bars  and  rods,  so  that 
the  whole  acts  like  a  single  beam,  it  is  called 
a  truss.  Trusses  are  of  various  kinds.  The 
Whipple  and  Pratt  are  common  trusses  in 
American  bridges.  There  are  two  long 
beams  or  cords  connected  by  diagonals. 
Early  in  the  century  trusses  were  made  of 
wood,  and  numbers  of  such  bridges  are  still  in 


Louis  is  one  of  the  best.  It  consists  of  three 
steel  arches,  the  central  one  of  520  feet  span 
and  each  of  the  others  of  502  feet  span.  It 
carries  a  double  line  of  railway  and  an  upper 
roadway  for  carriages  and  foot  passengers. 
The  arch  span  of  this  bridge  has  since  been 
exceeded  by  the  Garabit  bridge  in  France 
(span  541  feet)  and  one  other;  but  the  St. 
Louis  bridge  is  still  one  of  the  finest  and 
most  beautiful  arched  bridges  in  the  world. 
It  cost  over  $6,500,000  and  took  six  years 
in  building. 

The  first  large  suspension  bridge  was  the 
bridge  across  the  Niagara  below  the  Falls. 
It  was  built  by  John  A.  Roebling  in  1852-55, 
and  had  a  span  of  821  feet,  at  a  height  of  245 
feet  above  the  water.  It  carried  a  railroad  on 
the  upper  platform  and  a  carriage  and  foot 
roadway  underneath.  It  was  suspended  by 
four  cables,  each  ten  inches  in  diameter  and 
containing  3,640  wires.  The  largest  and 
finest  suspension  bridge  in  the  world  is  the 
Brooklyn  bridge,  across  the  East  River  at 
New  York.  It  has  a  span  of  1,600  feet,  with 
a  total  length  of  over  a  mile.  The  towers 
are  277  feet  high.  These  towers  carry  the 
four  suspension  cables.  Each  of  these  cables 
is  15^  inches  in  diameter  and  composed  of 
5,282  galvanized  iron  wires.  There  is  a  dis- 


BRIDGE,  CANTILEVER 


267 


BRIDGMAN 


tance  of  135  feet  from  high  water  under  the 
center  of  the  bridge.  The  bridge  has  a  width 
of  85  feet,  and  carries  two  roadways,  two 
railways  and  a  footway.  It  was  opened  in 
1883  and  cost  over  $15,000,000.  The  traffic 
has  increased  so  that  two  additional  bridges 
have  been  built,  one  to  Brooklyn  costing 
$26,000.000  and  one  to  Blackwell's  Island 
costing  $i  7,900,000.  It  was  also  proposed  to 
bridge  the  Hudson  River  from  New  York  to 
the  New  Jersey  shore,  but  the  plan  has  been 
abandoned ,  and  a  tunnel  under  the  Hudson 
and  extending  under  the  East  River  has 
been  built  by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad. 

Bridge,  Cantilever.  The  first  modern 
cantilever  bridge  was  built  in  1882  across 
Niagara,  although  its  principle  had  been  ap- 
proached in  one  or  two  earlier  bridges.  The 
advantage  of  the  cantilever  bridge  is  partly 
in  its  erection  and  partly  in  its  long  spans. 
It  is  the  only  bridge  that  can  compete  with 
the  suspension  for  long  spans.  The  principle 
of  the  cantilever  can  be  understood  from  the 
drawing.  A  and  B  are  two  towers,  C  and  D 
is  a  truss  anchored  at  C,  resting  on  tower  A 
and  projecting  over  the  river.  EBP  is  a 
similar  truss  on  opposite  side.  DE  is  a  simple 
truss  supported  at  D  and  E,  so  as  to  transmit 
only  vertical  loads.  A  load  on  D  tends  to  lift 
C,  but  does  not  effect  EBF.  A  load  on  DE 
is  divided  between  C  and  D  and  EBF. 

The  Forth  Bridge  in  Scotland,  one  of  the 
most  notable  bridges  in  the  world,  is  a  canti- 
lever bridge.  It  has  a  total  length  of  8,295 


CANTILEVER    BRIDGE 

feet,  and  has  two  main  spans  each  1,710  feet 
long.  The  largest  cantilever  structure  in  the 
world  is  the  bridge  over  East  River,  at  New 
York,  known  as  Blackwell's  Island  Bridge, 
built  at  a  cost  of  nearly  $25,000,000.  It  is 
double  decked,  8,449  feet  in  length.  The 
length  of  the  main  span  is  1,182  feet  between 
the  towers.  On  the  lower  deck,  projecting 
beyond  the  trusses,  is  a  roadway  wide  enough 
for  four  three-horse  teams  to  pass  abreast. 
On  each  side  of  and  apart  from  this  roadway 
are  two  trolley  tracks.  In  the  middle  of  the 
upper  deck,  between  the  trusses,  there  are 
two  elevated  railroad  tracks  and  two  prom- 
enades, each  eleven  feet  wide. 

Bridge  of  Sighs,  The,  leads  'from  the 
palace  of  the  Doge  of  Venice  to  the  prisons, 
whence  comes  its  name.  The  bridge  dates 
as  far  back  as  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. Byron  refers  to  it  in  Childe  Harold. 
The  bridge  is  covered  above  and  at  the 
sides,  is  handsomely  built,  and  divided  into 
two  passages  for  going  and  returning.  The 


name  has  been  transferred  to  a  bridge  in 
New  York  City  which  connects  the  Tombs 
jail  with  the  court  of  justice. 

Bridge'port,  a  railroad  and  steamboat 
center  and  a  manufacturing  city  of  Connec- 
ticut, lies  on  Long  Island  Sound,  about 
fifty-seven  miles  northeast  of  New  York.  It 
is  a  fine  looking  city,  has  many  pleasant 
environs,  and  a  magnificent  esplanade 
looking  out  over  the  sound.  It  is  noted  for 
its  manufactures  of  sewing  machines  and 
firearms,  automobiles,  type-writers,  grapho- 
phones,  silverware  and  corsets,  and  it  has 
the  largest  cartridge  factory  in  the  world. 
Population  125,000. 

Bridges,  Robert,  M.  A.  of  Oxford,  made 
poet  Laureate  of  England  on  the  death  of 
Austin  (q.  ».),  was  born  in  1844  on  the  Isle 
of  Thanet,  off  the  coast  of  England.  He 
studied  medicine  and  practiced  with  distinc- 
tion until  1882  when  he  retired  and  devoted 
himself  to  literature,  in  which  he  had  already 
won  distinction.  His  works  include  various 
plays  and  poems.  Among  the  plays  are 
Nero,  Ulysses,  and  The  Christian  Captives. 
His  shorter  poems  include  The  Growth  of  Love, 
Prometheus,  the  Fire  Giver,  and  Pros  and 
Psyche.  In  the  opinion  of  a  distinguished 
English  critic  (Arthur  Symons),  Mr.  Bridges 
"stands  alone  in  our  time  as  a  writer  of  purely 
lyric  poetry." 

Bridge'ton,  N.  J.,  a  port  of  entry,  and 
capital  of  Cumberland  County,  New  Jersey, 
on  the  Cohansey  Creek,  thirty-eight  miles 
south  of  Philadelphia.  Two  railways  connect 
it  with  Vineland,  eleven  miles  northeast,  and 
also  with  towns  on  the  Delaware  River  and 
Bay.  It  is  well  equipped  with  schools, 
among  the  higher  institutions  being  Ivy 
Hall  Seminary,  and  a  high  school,  one 
of  the  largest  in  Southern  New  Jersey, 
in  connection  with  a  good  public  school 
system.  It  has  a  number  of  woolen  and 
rolling  mills,  nail  works,  glass  and  carriage 
factories,  is  also  engaged  in  fruit  and 
vegetable  canning,  and  manufactures  gas- 
pipe,  oilcloth,  etc.  Population,  14,209. 

Bridg'man,  Laura,  a  blind  mute,  was  born 
at  Hanover,  N.  H.,  Dec.  21,  1829.  A  bright 
child,  at  two  fever  destroyed  sight,  hearing  and 
smell,  and  injured  the  sense  of  taste.  She 
learned,  however,  to  make  her  way  about,  and 
even  to  sew  and  knit  a  little.  At  eight,  she 
went  to  the  Perkins  Institute  for  the  Blind,  at 
Boston,  where  Dr.  Howe  tried  to  give  her  signs 
by  which  she  could  interchange  thoughts  with 
others.  Then  she  learned  to  read  raised  letters. 
A  set  of  metal  types  and  a  board  in  which  they 
could  be  fitted,  so  as  to  be  read  by  the  fingers, 
was  the  next  step.  In  three  months  she  wrote 
the  names  of  common  objects  and  she  learned 
to  know  people  almost  instantly  by  the  touch 
alone.  Later  she  studied  geography,  history 
and  algebra,  learned  to  play  the  piano,  to  sew 
and  do  many  other  things.  Once  she  asked 
her  teacher:  "Man  has  made  houses  and 
vessels,  but  who  made  the  land  and  the  sea?" 


BRIGHT 


268 


BRISTOL 


the  land  and  the  sea?"  and  from  that  time 
she  began  to  think  about  religious  questions. 
She  also  became  skillful  as  a  teacher  of  the 
blind  and  deaf  and  dumb.  She  died  in  1889. 

Bright,  John,  an  English  statesman,  was 
born  in  181 1.  He  was  a  Quaker  and  member 
of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  and  en- 
gaged in  the  cot- 
ton-s  pinning 
business.  H  e 
was  always  in- 
terested in  polit- 
ical matters  and 
in  social  reforms, 
and  was  a  promi- 
nent worker  in 
the  anti-corn  law 
league.  After  his 
election  to  Par- 
liament, in  1843, 
he  often  spoke 
against  the  corn 
laws  until  they  J°HN  BRIGHT 

were  repealed.  He  was  active  also  in  work- 
ing for  a  general  adoption  of.  a  free-trade 
system  ;  .  England  and  for  extensions  of  the 
f ranch' 06.  A  member  of  the  so-called  Peace 
Society,  he  wished  to  keep  his  country  out  of 
foreign  wars,  and  tried  to  have  the  standing 
army  reduced.  He  was  a  member  of  Glad- 
stone's ministry  for  a  number  of  years.  He 
was  an  enlightened  statesman  and  one  of  the 
most  eloquent  speakers  of  his  time.  He  died 
in  1889. 

Brighton  (brt'tun),  a  fashionable  water- 
ing-place in  Sussex,  on  the  English  Channel, 
50  miles  south  of  London.  Built  on  a  slope, 
rising  to  a  range  of  chalk  cliffs,  its  health- 
fulness  and  the  presence  of  mineral  springs 
have  made  it  popular  as  a  summer  resort 
ever  since  George  IV,  then  prince  of  Wales, 
in  1782  made  it  his  summer  residence.  Its 
population  is  about  131,250,  but  in  addi- 
tion an  average  of  30,000  visitors,  mostly 
from  London,  crowds  the  resort  during  the 
fashionable  season.  A  vast  sea  wall  ex- 
tends along  the  coast,  and  a  range  of 
splendid  houses  fronts  the  sea  for  more  than 
three  miles,  while  fine  drives  and  walks 
render  the  coast  attractive.  The  Royal 
pavilion  or  Marine  palace,  a  fantastic, 
Oriental  structure,  is  one  of  the  most  fre- 
quented resorts.  A  number  of  well-equipped 
hotels  and  fine  private  residences  add  to 
the  town's  attractions.  There  are  also  a 
college  and  numerous  boarding  schools. 

Brinton,  Daniel  Garrison,  an  Amer- 
ican army  surgeon,  extensive  writer  a 
high  authority  on  ethnology  and  archaeology, 
was  born  in  Thornbury,  Pa.,  May  13,  1837, 
and  died  at  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  July  31, 
1899.  He  graduated  from  Yale  in  1858, 
and  from  Jefferson  Medical  College  in  1861, 
after  which  he  studied  in  Germany;  and 
returning  to  the  United  States,  he  entered 
the  Union  army  as  a  surgeon  and  rose  to 


the  medical  directorship  of  the  nth  army 
corps.  In  1865  he  settled  in  Philadelphia. 
There  he  undertook  for  a  time  the  pro- 
fessorship of  ethnology  in  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences,  and  in  1886  was  pro- 
fessor of  American  linguistics  and  archae- 
ology in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
He  wrote  extensively  on  the  ethnology  and 
antiquities  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  America; 
on  the  American  race  and  peoples;  and  on 
the  myths  of  the  New  World,  etc. 

Brisbane  (briz'bdn),  capital  of  Queens- 
land and  the  chief  trading  city  of  the  colony, 
stands  on  the  Brisbane  River,  about  twenty- 
five  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  channel  has 
been  deepened  so  that  large  vessels  can 
approach  the  city.  It  was  founded  in  1825 
as  a  penal  colony  or  settlement  for  con- 
victs, but  did  not  begin  to  thrive  until  it 
was  open  to  free  settlers.  A  fine  iron  bridge, 
i, 080  feet  long,  connects  two  parts  of  the 
city.  There  are  70  miles  of  streets.  Trade 
is  carried  on  with  Australian  ports  and  with 
England.  Population,  with  South  Brisbane 
and  suburbs,  143,000. 

Bris'tol  Chan'nel,  an  inlet  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  in  the  southwest  of  Eng- 
land. It  is  the  largest  inlet  in  Britain, 
with  an  irregular  coast  line  of  220  miles. 
It  is  about  eighty  miles  long  and  from  five 
to  forty-three  miles  wide.  The  tides  in  it 
rise  to  an  unusual  height.  The  so-called 
bore  occurs  here,  as  in  many  inlets.  It 
is  a  wall  of  water,  sometimes  from  six  to 
nine  feet  high,  which  passes  up  the  channel, 
being  produced  by  the  rapid  rising  of  the 
tide,  which  pushes  the  water  against  the 
current  up  the  ever-narrowing  mouth  of 
the  river  more  rapidly  than  it  can  smoothly 
flow. 

Bris'tol  is  an  English  mercantile  city  on 
the  Avon,  forming  by  itself  a  county.  An 
ancient  city,  it  has  taken  a  prominent  part 
in  history.  The  Cabots  sailed  from  that 
port  on  their  voyages  of  discovery  in  the 
New  World.  Bristol  men  settled  New- 
foundland, made  several  attempts  to  col- 
onize Maine,  and  established  a  large  trade 
with  the  West  Indies  and  the  American 
colonies.  Here  was  built,  in  1838,  the  first 
transatlantic  steamship,  the  Great  West- 
ern. Colston  the  philanthropist  founded 
many  charities  here,  and  a  day  is  yearly 
kept  in  his  honor.  Southey  was  a  native 
of  Bristol,  and  with  Coleridge  spent  many 
of  his  early  days  in  the  place.  The  old  but 
beautiful  St.  Mary  Redcliff  church  was 
declared  by  Queen  Elizabeth  to  be  "the 
fairest  and  most  famous  parish  church  in 
England."  Here  are  two  colleges,  numer- 
ous schools  and  a  free  library.  Its  trade  is 
large.  Population,  338,945. 

Bristol,  R.  I.,  an  old  historic  town,  the 
seat  of  Biistol  County,  on  Narragansett 
Bay,  also  a  port  of  entry,  largely  availed  of, 
owing  to  its  excellent  harbor,  where  there 


BRISTOL 


269 


BRITISH  COLUMBIA 


is  a  considerable  industry  in  boat-building.  It 
is  situated  13  miles  south-southeast  of  Provi- 
dence, and  7  miles  southwest  of  Fall 
River,  Mass.,  and  is  reached  by  the  New 
York  New  Haven  &  Hartford  railroad.  The 
peninsula,  it  is  thought,  was  the  Vineland 
of  the  Norsemen,  and  near  by  were  the 
hamlets  of  the  Narragansett  Indian  chiefs, 
Massasoit  and  King  Philip.  The  place  has 
an  early  history,  the  charter  of  the  town  dat- 
ing from  the  year  1 680.  It  has  a  number  of 
good  schools  and  a  handsome  public 
library,  while  its  industries,  besides  yacht 
and  boat  building,  include  woolen  and  cot- 
ton mills  and  rubber  works.  During  the 
Revolutionary  War  the  town  was  entered 
and  considerable  damage  done  by  the 
English.  Population,  8,565. 

Bristol,  Tenn.  and  Va.,  formerly  a  con- 
solidated city,  the  seat  of  Sullivan  County, 
Tenn.,  and  of  Washington  County,  Va. 
(Bristol  of  the  latter  State  being  formerly 
named  Goodson).  The  division  line  be- 
tween the  two  states  runs  along  the  main 
street  of  the  now  common  city.  Though 
settled  in  1851,  the  present  town  charter 
was  adopted  in  1898,  and  revised  in  1901. 
The  cities  now  have  separate  governments, 
that  of  Bristol  being  under  a  commission. 
It  is  reached  and  served  by  two  railroads, 
the  Southern  and  the  Norfolk  &  Western 
road.  Its  industries  embrace  furniture, 
pulp,  lumber  and  flour  mills,  a  tannery  and 
ice  and  tobacco  factories.  It  is  the  seat 
of  King  College  (Presb.),  Sullins  College 
(M.  E.,  So.)  and  the  Southwest  Virginia 
(Bapt.)  Institute  for  women,  besides  a 
normal  school  for  negroes.  Population 
(1910),  13,395;  Bristol  (Tenn.),  7,148  and 
Bristol  (Va.),  6,247. 

Brit'ish  America  is  the  whole  of  North 
America  north  of  the  United  States,  under 
the  British  flag,  except  Alaska.  It  includes 
almost  3,696,146  square  miles.  It  is  divided 
into  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  its  provinces 
and  territories,  and  Newfoundland;  popu- 
lation, 7,429,869.  See  CANADA. 

British  Columbia,  Canada's  maritime 
province  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  is  the  largest 
in  the  Dominion,  its  area  being  variously 
estimated  at  from  372,630  to  395,610  square 
miles.  It  is  a  great  irregular  quadrangle, 
about  700  miles  from  north  to  south,  with 
an  average  width  of  about  400  miles,  lying 
between  latitudes  40°  and  60°  north.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Strait  of 
Juan  de  Fuca  and  the  States  of  Washington, 
Idaho  and  Montana,  on  the  west  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean  and  southern  Alaska,  on  the 
north  by  Yukon  and  Mackenzie  Territories, 
and  on  the  east  by  the  Province  of  Alberta. 
From  the  4gth  degree  north  to  the  54th 
degree  the  eastern  boundary  follows  the 
axis  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  thence 
north  to  the  i2oth  meridian.  Pop.  502,283. 
The  province  is  traversed  from  south  to 
north  by  four  principal  ranges  of  moun- 


tains— the  Rocky  and  the  Selkirk  on  the 
east  and  the  Coast  and  Island  ranges  on 
the  west.  The  Rocky  Mountain  range 
preserves  its  continuity,  but  the  Selkirks 
are  broken  up  into  the  Purcell,  the  Selkirk, 
the  Gold  and  the  Cariboo  Mountains.  Be- 
tween these  ranges  and  the  Rockies  lies  a 
valley  of  remarkable  length  and  regularity, 
extending  from  the  international  boundary 
line,  along  the  western  base  of  the  Rockies 
northerly  700  miles.  West  of  these  ranges 
extends  a  vast  plateau  or  table  land  with 
an  average  elevation  of  3,500  feet  above 
sea  level,  but  so  worn  away  and  eroded  by 
water  courses  that  in  many  parts  it  pre- 
sents the  appearance  of  a  succession  of 
mountains.  In  others  it  spreads  out  into 
the  wide  plains  and  rolling  ground,  dotted 
with  low  hills,  which  constitute  fine  areas 
of  farming  and  pasture  lands.  This  interior 
plateau  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Coast 
Range,  and  on  the  north  by  a  cross  range 
which  gradually  merges  into  the  Arctic 
slope. 

Rivers  and  Lakes.  One  of  the  noticeable 
physical  features  of  British  Columbia  is  its 
position  as  the  watershed  of  the  North 
Pacific  slope.  All  the  great  rivers  flowing 
into  the  Pacific  Ocean,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Colorado,  find  their  sources  within 
its  boundaries.  The  more  important  of 
these  are  the  Columbia  (the  principal  water- 
way of  the  state  of  Washington),  which 
flows  through  the  province  for  over  600 
miles;  the  Fraser,  750  miles  long;  the  Skeena, 
300  miles;  the  Thompson,  the  Kootenay, 
the  Naas,  the  Stikine,  the  Liard  and  the 
Peace.  These  streams  with  their  numerous 
tributaries  and  branches  drain  an  area  equal 
to  about  one  tenth  of  the  North  American 
contiuent.  The  lake  system  of  British 
Columbia  is  extensive  and  important,  fur- 
nishing convenient  transportation  facilities 
in  the  interior.  Some  of  the  principal  lakes 
are  Atlin,  area  211,600  acres;  Babine,  196,- 
ooo  acres;  Chilco,  109,700  acres;  Kootenay, 
141,120  acres;  Upper  Arrow,  64,500  acres; 
Lower  Arrow,  40,960  acres;  Okanagan,  86,- 
240  acres;  Shuswap,  79,150  acres;  Harrison, 
78,400  acres. 

Many  of  the  smaller  streams  are  not 
navigable  but  these  furnish  driveways  to 
the  lumbermen  and  supply  power  for  saw- 
mills and  electric  plants  and  water  for 
irrigation.  Water  power  is  practically  un- 
limited and  so  widely  distributed  that  no 
portion  of  the  province  need  be  without 
cheap  motive  power  for  driving  all  necessary 
machinery. 

Climate.  Varied  climatic  conditions  pre- 
vail in  British  Columbia.  The  Japanese 
current  and  the  moisture-laden  winds  from 
the  Pacific  exercise  a  moderating  influence 
upon  the  climate  of  the  coast  and  provide 
a  copious  rainfall.  The  westerly  winds  are 
arrested  in  their  passage  east  by  the  Coast 


BRITISH  COLUMBIA 


270 


BRITISH  COLUMBIA 


Range,  thus  creating  what  is  known  as  the 
dry  belt  east  of  those  mountains,  but  the 
higher  currents  of  air  carry  the  moisture  to 
the  loftier  peaks  of  the  Selkirks,  causing  the 
heavy  snow  fall  which  distinguishes  that 
range  from  its  eastern  neighbor,  the  Rockies. 
Thus  a  series  of  alternate  moist  and  dry 
belts  is  formed.  As  a  consequence  of  the 
purity  of  its  air,  its  freedom  from  malaria 
and  the  almost  total  absence  of  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold,  British  Columbia  may  be 
regarded  as  a  vast  sanitarium. 

The  climate  of  Vancouver  Island  and  the 
coast  generally  corresponds  very  closely 
with  that  of  England;  the  summers  are 
warm  with  much  bright  sunshine,  and 
severe  frost  scarcely  ever  occurs  in  winter. 
On  the  mainland  similar  conditions  prevail 
till  the  higher  levels  are  reached,  where  the 
winters  are  cooler.  At  Agassiz,  on  the 
Lower  Fraser,  the  average  mean  temper- 
ature is  in  January  33  degrees  and  in  July 
64  degrees;  the  lowest  temperature  on 
record  at  this  point  is  13  degrees,  and  the 
highest  97  degrees.  There  are  no  summer 
frosts,  and  the  annual  rainfall  is  67  inches, 
95  per  cent,  of  which  falls  during  the 
autumn  and  winter. 

To  the  eastward  of  the  Coast  Range,  in 
Yale  and  West  Kootenay  the  climate  is 
quite  different.  The  summers  are  warmer, 
the  winters  colder  and  the  rainfalls  are 
rather  light — bright  dry  weather  being  the 
rule.  The  cold  of  winter  is,  however, 
scarcely  ever  severe,  and  the  hottest  days 
of  summer  are  made  pleasant  by  the  fact 
that  the  air  is  dry  and  the  nights  are  cool. 
Further  north,  in  the  undeveloped  parts  of 
the  province,  the  winters  are  more  severe. 

Resources.  With  the  exception  of  nickel 
(which  has  not  yet  been  discovered  in 
quantity)  all  that  the  other  provinces  of 
Canada  boast  of  possessing  in  the  way  of 
raw  material  is  here  in  abundance.  British 
Columbia's  coal  measures  are  sufficient  to 
supply  the  world  for  centuries;  it  possesses 
the  greatest  compact  area  of  merchantable 
timber  in  North  America;  the  mines  have 
produced  $430,000,000  and  may  be  said  to  be 
only  in  the  early  stages  of  development;  the 
fisheries  produce  an  annual  average  of  over 
$12,000,000,  and  apart  from  salmon  fishing 
their  importance  is  only  beginning  to  be 
realized;  there  are  immense  deposits  of  mag- 
netite and  hematite  iron  of  the  finest  quality 
which  still  remain  undeveloped;  the  agri- 
cultural and  fruit  lands,  cattle  ranges  and 
dairies  produced  approximately  $22,000,000 
in  1912;  and  less  than  one  tenth  of  the 
available  land  is  settled  upon,  much  less 
cultivated;  the  province  has  millions  of 
acres  of  pulpwood  as  yet  unexploited; 
petroleum  deposits,  but  recently  discovered, 
are  among  the  most  extensive  in  the  world; 
and  much  of  the  province  is  still  unex- 
plored and  its  potential  value  unknown. 


With  all  this  undeveloped  wealth  within  its 
borders  can  it  be  wondered  at  that  British 
Columbians  are  sanguine  of  the  future? 

Agriculture.  Considerable  tracts  of  land 
in  the  province  are  highly  suitable  for  mixed 
farming,  and  in  some  districts  fruit  growing 
is  extensively  and  most  profitably  engaged 
in. 

Education.  The  educational  facilities  of 
the  province  are  varied  and  excellent.  The 
expenditure  for  schools  amounts  to  over 
$1,100,000  a  year.  The  government  builds 
a  schoolhouse,  makes  a  grant  for  incidental 
expenses  and  pays  a  teacher  in  every  dis- 
trict where  20  children  between  the  ages  of 
6  and  16  can  be  brought  together.  For 
outlying  farming  districts  and  mining  camps 
the  arrangements  are  very  satisfactory. 
High  schools  also  are  established  in  cities, 
where  classics  and  mathematics  are  taught. 
Several  of  the  cities  in  the  province  have 
full  charge  of  their  own  public  and  high 
schools,  and  these  receive  a  very  liberal 
per  capita  grant  in  aid  from  the  provincial 
government. 

Trade  and  Transportation.  In  1903  the 
imports  amounted  to  $11,141,068,  and  the 
exports  totalled  $15,604,896.  In  1913  the 
imports  were  $66,596,479  and  the  exports 
$27,087,369,  or  a  total  increase  in  the  trade 
of  the  province  of  over  $66,000,000  in  ten 
years.  The  leading  articles  of  export  are 
fish,  coal,  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  timber, 
masts,  spars,  furs  and  skins,  whale  products, 
fish-oil,  hops  and  fruit.  A  large  portion  of 
the  salmon,  -canned  and  pickled,  goes  to 
Great  Britain,  eastern  Canada,  the  United 
States,  Hawaiian  Islands,  Australia  and  Jap- 
an; the  United  States  consumes  a  large 
share  of  the  exported  coal;  and  immense 
quantities  of  lumber  are  shipped  to  Great 
Britain,  South  Africa,  China,  Japan,  India, 
South  America  and  Australia.  A  large  in- 
terprovincial  trade  with  Alberta,  Saskatche- 
wan, Manitoba  and  the  eastern  provinces  is 
rapidly  developing,  the  fruit  grown  in  British 
Columbia  being  largely  shipped  to  the 
prairie  provinces,  where  it  finds  a  good 
market.  With  the  shipping  facilities  offered 
by  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  and  its 
magnificent  fleets  of  steamships  running  to 
Japan,  China,  New  Zealand,  Australia  and 
Hawaii,  backed  by  her  natural  advantages 
of  climate  and  geographical  position,  British 
Columbia's  already  large  trade  is  rapidly 
increasing.  The  tonnage  of  vessels  employed 
in  the  coasting  trade  is  12,025,510  tons,  and  of 
sea-going  vessels  carrying  cargoes  to  and 
from  the  ports  of  the  province,  4,672,058  tons. 
The  Canadian  Pacific  is  the  principal  rail- 
way in  the  province.  It  has  two  main  lines, 
the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  and  the 
Crowsnest  Pass  Railway,  and  several 
branches  and  steamboat  connections  on  the 
inland  lakes,  besides  its  large  fleet  of  ocean- 
going and  coasting  steamers.  The  railway 
mileage  of  the  province  is  about  2,000  miles. 


BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA 


271 


BRITISH  MUSEUM 


The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Company 
operates  the  Esquimalt  and  Nanaimo  Rail- 
way on  Vancouver  Island,  running  from 
Victoria  to  Alberine,  a  distance  of  145 
miles.  The  company  also  administers  the 
Esquimalt  and  Nanaimo  land  grant,  some 
1,500,000  acres,  the  settlement  of  which 
required  the  extension  of  the  Esquimalt  and 
Nanaimo  main  line  and  the  building  of 
branches. 

Districts  of  British  Columbia.    British   Co- 
lumbia is  divided  into    the   following    dis- 
tricts : 
Kootenay  (East  and  West)   15,000,000  acres 

Yale 15,500,000 

Lillooet   10,000,000 

Westminster 4,900,000 

Cariboo 96,000,000 

Cassiar    100,000,000 

Comox  (Mainland) 4,000,000 

Vancouver  Island 10,496,000 

Additional  information  concerning  each  of 
these  districts  is  given  elsewhere  in  these 
volumes. 

British  East  Africa.  This  territory,  gov- 
erned directly  from  the  foreign  office,  in- 
cludes an  immense  area  on  the  mainland  as 
well  as  the  islands  of  Zanzibar  and  Pemba, 
which  are  immediately  under  the  control  of 
their  Arab  sultan.  To  the  north  and  east 
the  British  sphere  of  influence  (which  merges 
with  the  Sudan  provinces  of  Egypt)  is 
bounded  by  the  Juba  River  as  far  as  the 
sixth  parallel  of  north  latitude,  along  that 
to  the  thirty-fifth  meridian  of  east  longitude, 
and  up  that  meridian  to  the  Blue  Nile.  It 
marches  with  the  Italian  sphere  of  influence 
and  with  Abyssinia  to  the  Egyptian  frontier. 
On  the  south  the  territory  runs  northwest 
from  the  north  bank  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Umba  River  to  the  north  of  Kilimanjaro  to 
the  point  where  the  first  parallel  of  south 
latitude  meets  Lake  Victoria  and  thence 
across  the  lake  westward  of  that  parallel  to 
the  frontier  of  the  Congo  Free  State  at  the 
thirtieth  meridian  of  east  longitude  and  on 
north  to  the  Nile-Congo  watershed.  North 
of  the  source  of  the  Mbomu  the  British 
sphere  is  without  limitation,  extending  to 
the  independent  Muslim  states  of  those 
parts.  Its  total  area  is  probably  in  excess 
of  a  million  square  miles.  The  Imperial 
British  East  Africa  Company,  which  had 
been  instrumental  in  opening  up  the  territory 
under  concessions  from  the  Sultan  of  Zanzi- 
bar, evacuated  its  territory  in  favor  of  the 
government  on  June  30,  1895,  and  the  entire 
land  was  divided  into  the  British  East  Africa 
Protectorate  and  the  Uganda  Protectorate 
for  purposes  of  administration. 

British  East  Africa  Protectorate,  The, 
extends  from  the  Umba  to  the  Juba  River, 
running  as  far  inland  as  the  Uganda  bound- 
ary, with  an  area  of  about  177,100  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  4,038,000,  of 
which  25,000  are  Asiatics  and  2,000  Euro- 
peans or  of  mixed  European  and  Asiatic 


blood.  The  capital  is  Mombasa,  with  a  pop- 
ulation of  30,000.  It  is  divided  into  seven 
provinces  and  an  unorganized  territory  lying 
to  the  north  and  west,  each  under  a  sub- 
commissioner.  These,  with  their  districts 
and  subdistricts,  are  as  follows :  Mombasa, 
where  the  commissioner  and  commander-in- 
chief  has  his  residence  and  where  the  courts 
of  justice  are  situated,  is  in  the  province  of 
Seyidie,  which  includes  the  districts  of 
Vanga,  Mombasa,  Malindi  and  Taita  and  the 
subdistricts  of  Rabai,  Takaungu  and  Ta- 
veta;  Ukamba  includes  the  districts  of 
Masailand  and  Ulu,  with  Nairobi  for  its  cap- 
ital; Tanaland  has  for  its  districts  Lamu  and 
the  Tana  River,  and  Lamu  for  its  capital; 
Jubaland  is  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower 
Jubaland,  Kismayu  being  the  capital;  Kenya 
into  Fort  Hall  and  Nyeri,  governed  from 
Fort  Hall ;  Naivasha  is  the  name  of  both  the 
capital  and  province  and  includes  the  dis- 
tricts of  Naivasha,  Eldama  Ravine  and  Ba- 
ringo ;  and  Kisumu  includes  Kisumu,  Mum- 
ias,  Nandi,  Kericho,  Soba  and  Ugaya,  its 
capital  Port  Florance. 

The  chief  imports  were  cotton  goods,  pro- 
visions, rice,  grain  and  flour  and  building 
materials;  the  chief  exports  ivory,  copra, 
grain  and  hides  and  horns. 

The  Mombasa- Victoria  Railway  is  now  584 
miles  long.  There  are  7  telegraph  lines 
with  a  total  length  of  1,422  miles,  from 
Mombasa  to  Lamu,  Mombasa  [to  Kisumu 
and  Kisumu  to  Entebbe  in  Uganda.  A 
cable  connects  Mombasa  and  Zanzibar. 

Brit'ish  Museum,  a  great  national  institu- 
tion, on  Great  Russel  Street,  London.  It 
was  opened  in  1759,  and  is  constantly  grow- 
ing in  size  and  value.  The  present  building 
was  erected  at  an  expense  of  several  millions. 
There  are  eleven  departments.  The  largest 
one  is  that  of  Printed  Books.  There  are  up- 
wards of  two  million  books,  and  many  of 
them  old  and  rare;  in  the  collection  are  the 
libraries  of  several  English  kings  and  great 
Englishmen;  and  books  in  all  languages. 
The  reading  room,  under  the  vast  dome, 
larger  than  that  of  St.  Peter's,  has  over  600 
readers  daily.  The  departments  of  Maps  and 
Manuscripts  are  also  valuable.  That  of 
Prints  and  Drawings  contains  works  of  the 
great  masters,  drawings  of  Michael  Angelo, 
Raphael,  etc. ;  fine  collections  of  etchings  by 
Rembrandt  and  of  engravings  by  Hogarth. 
The  department  of  Oriental  Antiquities  in- 
cludes Egyptian  monuments  and  the  cele- 
brated Rosetta  stone,  which  furnished  the 
key  to  the  hieroglyphics,  and  the  results  of 
excavations  in  Assyria.  One  of  the  finest 
branches  of  the  museum  is  the  department 
of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities.  Here  are 
fine  collections  of  the  sculptures  of  Athens 
and  Attica,  among  them  the  famous  decora- 
tions of  the  Parthenon,  which  form  the  most 
valuable  monument  of  Greek  art  which  has 
come  down  to  modern  times.  Besides  the 
other  departments  of  Zoology,  Botany,  Geol- 


BRITISH  NEW  GUINEA 


272 


BRONTE 


ogy,  etc.,  the  Natural  History  Museum  at 
South  Kensington  has  also  been  added  to 
the  British  Museum,  making  it  one  of  the 
finest  mstitutions  of  the  kind  in  the 
world. 

British  New  Guinea.  The  British  por- 
tion of  the  island  of  New  Guinea  has  been 
taken  over  by  the  commonwealth  of  Aus- 
tralia, by  a  federal  act  which  went  into 
force  in  1906,  the  assumed  region  now  being 
known  as  the  Territory  of  Papua.  The  work 
of  civilization  is  going  on  rapidly,  great 
tracts  of  territory  being  now  occupied  by 
peaceful  natives,  falling  more  and  more 
under  missionary  influence.  There  are  three 

Earts  of  entry,  Port  Moresby,  Samarai  and 
aru,  with  a  central  court  at  the  first  named, 
the  whole  territory  being  divided  into  six 
districts  for  purposes  of  justice  The  D'En- 
trecasteaux  and  Louisiade  groups  of  islands 
are  included  in  the  New  Guinea  territory. 
The  revenue,  derived  largely  from  import 
duties  in  1907,  amounted  to  $398,355,  and 
the  exports  for  the  same  year  were  $401,450. 
The  great  forests  of  the  island  yield  valuable 
timber  and  precious  woods;  gold  has  been 
found  on  the  Louisiade  Islands,  on  Woodlark 
Island  and  to  some  extent  on  the  mainland. 
The  principal  exports  are  trepang,  copra, 
pearl  shell  and  pearls,  gold,  coffee  and  rub- 
ber; the  imports  are  food  stuffs,  tobacco, 
cloths  and  hardware.  .  Nearly  all  the  trade 
is  with  Queensland  and  New  South  Wales, 
and  for  postal  and  all  other  purposes  the 
island  is  treated  now  aspart  of  the  Australian 
Commonwealth. 

Brit'tany,  an  ancient  province  of  France, 
consisting  of  the  great  northwestern  penin- 
sula, which  is  shaped  like  a  triangle.  It  now 
forms  five  departments,  Finistere,  C6tes-du- 
Nord,  Morbihan,  Ille-et-Vilaine  and  Loire- 
InfeYieure.  It  is  also  usually  divided  into 
Upper  and  Lower  Brittany.  It  co  v^ers  13 ,643 
square  miles.  The  Bretons,  as  the  people 
are  called,  numbering  about  3,224,369,  are 
peculiar  in  many  ways.  They  are  strongly 
attached  to  their  country  and  customs,  and 
oppose  all  changes.  During  the  French  Rev- 
olution they  were  loyal  to  the  old  house  of 
Bourbon.  Though  not  noted  in  matters  of 
commerce  and  manufactures,  they  are  among 
the  boldest  seamen  in  the  world  and  are  to 
be  met  with  in  the  most  distant  waters. 
British  colonies  settled  here  as  early  as  the 
3d  century,  and  by  the  5th  century  had 
changed  the  original  name  of  Armorica  to 
Brittany.  It  was  at  different  times  under 
the  sway  of  Italy,  but  gradually  became  a 
part  of  France.  The  Breton  folk-lore  and 
folk-songs  consist  of  a  vast  wealth  of  tra- 
ditional stories  and  songs.  The  country 
abounds  in  remains  of  the  ancient  religion 
of  the  Druids.  Brittany  has  given  many 
great  men  to  the  world,  among  them  Abe- 
lard,  Jacques  Cartier,  Chateaubriand,  Jules 
Simon  and  Ernest  Renan.  Rennes,  once 
the  capital  of  ancient  Brittany,  is  now  the 


capital  of  the  French  department  of  Ille-et- 
Vilaine.  Population,  79,372. 

Brobdingnag  (brob' ding-nag'),  a  won- 
derful land,  described  by  Dean  Swift  in  his 
Gulliver's  Travels,  the  inhabitants  thereof 
and  all  natural  objects  being  of  gigantic  size; 
hence,  to  speak  of  a  man  as  brobdingnagian 
is  to  signify  one  of  unusual,  indeed  of  mam- 
moth, height.  The  term  indicating  this 
strange,  imaginative  land,  is  frequently, 
though  incorrectly,  spelled  Brobdignag. 

Brock,  Sir  Isaac,  administrator  of  the 
province  of  Upper  Canada  (now  Ontario)  for 
two  sessions  of  Parliament.  Commander  of 
the  forces  of  the  province  and  the  representa- 
tive of  His  Majesty  as  well:  administering  its 
civil  affairs.  War  was  declared  by  the 
United  States  against  Great  Britain  on  the 
i8th  of  June,  1812,  and  the  province  was  in- 
vaded. General  Brock's  military  record  is 
a  splendid  one.  He  fell  on  the  i3th  day 
of  October,  1812,  while  bravely  leading  a 
charge  up  Queenston  Heights.  A  few  hours 
after  his  death  the  enemy 's  position  was  taken , 
and  the  American  army  and  its  commander 
surrendered.  A  handsome  monument  in 
memory  of  his  achievements  was  erected  by 
the  province  on  Queenston  Heights. 

Brocken,  The.  See  WALPURGIS 
NIGHT. 

Brock'ton,  a  city  in  Plymouth  Co.,  Mas- 
sachusetts. It  received  its  present  name  in 
1874,  having  formerly  been  called  North 
Bridgewater.  It  is  a  wealthy  place  and 
quite  a  business  center.  The  manufacture 
of  boots,  shoes  and  rubber  goods  is  carried 
on  extensively.  Shoe  machinery  and  sup- 
plies, tools,  bicycles,  etc.  are  also  made 
here.  The  city  has  admirable  public  schools 
and  valuable  school  property.  Population, 
61,500. 

Brock'ville,  a  city  of  9,000  in  eastern 
Ontario,  is  beautifully  situated  on  the 
St.  Lawrence  River  near  the  Thousand 
Islands,  and  is  called  after  General  Brock. 
It  is  the  center  of  a  rich  dairying  district, 
and  has  a  large  cheese  market.  One  of 
the  hospitals  for  the  insane  owned  and 
maintained  by  the  province  is  located  here, 
occupying  a  commanding  position  over- 
looking the  St.  Lawrence  River.  It  is 
served  by  both  the  Grand  Trunk  and 
Canadian  Pacific  Railways. 

Brok  or  Brock,  was  one  of  the  dwarfs 
in  the  Norse  mythology,  skilled  in  hand- 
work, who,  having  incurred  the  wrath  of 
Odin,  was  sent  by  him  to  work  in  the  under 
darkness. 

Bronte  (bron'te),  Charlotte,  one  of 
the  most  gifted  of  English  novelists,  who 
wrote  under  the  pen-name  of  Currer  Bell, 
was  born  at  Thornton,  in  Yorkshire,  in 
1816.  Almost  all  her  life  was  one  of  sor- 
row and  struggle,  which  showed  itself  in  her 
character  and  in  her  books.  She  herself 
was  the  heroine  of  Jant  Eyre,  her  greatest 
novel;  and  the  Lowood  of  that  story  was 


BRONZE 


273 


BROTHERHOOD 


a  picture  of  her  own  sad  school-life.  She 
had  two  sisters,  also  with  decided  literary 
talent,  and  their  death  still  further  dark- 
ened her  life.  Her  other  chief  novels  are 
Shirley,  Villette  and  The  Professor.  Jane 
Eyre  has  been  translated  into  most  Euro- 
pean languages,  and  dramatized  in  England 
and  Germany,  under  the  title  of  The  Or- 
phan of  Lowood.  She  died  in  1855,  having 
in  the  previous  year  married  the  Reverend 
Arthur  Nicholls,  her  father's  curate.  See 
Mrs.  Gaskell's  Life  of  Charlotte  Bronte. 

Bronze  (bronz),  an  alloy  of  copper  and 
tin.  It  is  harder  than  copper  but  less 
malleable.  It  was  long  used  by  the  an- 
cients for  weapons  and  utensils,  and  is  now 
widely  used  for  statues,  machinery  and 
cannon.  It  is  also  used  for  parts  of  tele- 
scopes. In  making  bronze,  the  metals  are 
melted  separately,  and  then  poured  to- 
gether, stirred  and  turned  into  molds. 
The  many  varieties  of  bronze  have  differ- 
ent proportions  of  the  metals,  and  lead, 
zinc  and  silver  are  sometimes  added.  Bell 
metal  has  seventy-eight  parts  of  copper 
and  twenty-two  of  tin.  Cannon  metal 
has  much  more  copper.  The  temperature 
ot  the  alloy  when  poured  and  the  rapidity 
of  cooling  also  have  an  effect  on  the  quality 
of  the  bronze.  Copper  and  aluminum 
also  produce  an  alloy  called  bronze. 

Bronze,  Age  of,  a  term  used  to  denote 
the  stage  of  culture  of  a  people  using  bronze 
for  weapons,  cutting  tools,  etc.  Before  it 
comes  the  Age  of  Stone,  and  after  it  the 
Age  of  Iron.  This  order  of  development 
is  not  true  of  all  nations,  nor  did  these 
different  stages  exist  at  the  same  period 
in  all  nations.  Thus,  in  the  time  of  Homer, 
the  Greeks  were  passing  from  the  use  of 
bronze  to  that  of  iron;  while  the  Mexicans 
were  still  in  the  bronze  age  in  very  recent 
times.  Among  the  tools  and  weapons  of 
the  bronze  age  are  knives,  saws,  sickles, 
awls,  hammers,  anvils,  axes,  swords,  spears, 
arrows,  daggers  and  shields.  The  forms 
of  these  articles  were  constantly  changing 
from  one  age  to  another,  and  also  during 
the  progress  of  a  single  age.  The  composi- 
tion of  the  bronze  used  was  about  ninety 
parts  of  copper  and  ten  of  tin. 

Brook' line,  Mass.,  an  old  historic  town, 
now  an  elegant  residential  suburb  of  Bos- 
ton, in  Norfolk  County,  connected  with 
Boston  by  steam  and  street  cars  (a  three- 
mile  ride).  It  lies  on  the  Charles  River, 
and  has  many  fine  villas  and  country 
seats;  it  is  also  reached  by  the  Boston 
and  Albany  R.  R.  Annexation  has  fre- 
quently been  proposed  to  it  by  Boston, 
but  it  coyly  refuses  the  temptation  to 
join  the  city.  It  has  some  manufacturing 
interests,  chiefly  of  electrical  supplies, 
screens,  etc.;  it  also  has  a  riding  academy 
and  a  public  library.  The  population  is  now 
31,934- 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.      (See  NEW  YORK  CITY.) 


PHILLIPS  BROOKS 


Brooks,  Phillips,  late  Episcopal  bishop 
of  Massachusetts,  was  born  at  Boston  in 
1835,  and  gradu- 
uated  at  H  a  r  - 
vard  College  and 
at  the  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  at 
Alexandria,  Va. 
He  was  rector 
for  some  years 
of  churches  i  n 
Philadelphia,  and 
in  1869  was 
made  rector  of 
Trinity  Church 
in  Boston.  In 
1891  he  was 
elected  bishop 
of  Massachusetts. 
He  was  one  of 

the  finest  pulpit-orators  of  any  denomination 
— a  man  of  high  ideals,  spiritual  thought 
and  commanding  influence.  See  his  Life 
and  Letters,  by  Prof.  Alex.  V.  G.  Allen. 
Bishop  Brooks  died  at  Boston  Jan.  23,  1893. 
Broom  (Cytisus  scopatius),  an  evergreen 
shrub  found  growing  on  heaths  and  on  dry 
soils,  bearing  twig-like  branches  and  large 
yellow  flowers.  The  tough  twigs  are  made 
use  of  for  thatching  purposes)  and  in  the 
making  of  besoms  or  brooms  for  household 
sweeping.  The  Cytisus  albus  or  white 
broom  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  much 
cultivated  in  England  as  an  ornamental 
shrub.  It  attains  frequently  a  height  of 
from  12  to  15  feet,  and  its  white  flowers 
are  much  admired.  A  Spanish  variety 
is  used  for  its  medical  properties,  its  tops 
and  seeds,  which  are  strongly  diuretic, 
being  beneficial  in  cases  of  dropsy.  The 
broom,  the  planta  genista,  as  it  is  known, 
gave  its  name  to  the  Plantagenet  royal 
family,  an  ancestor  of  which  used  the 
broom  for  his  crest. 

Broom-Corn  (Sorghum  vulgare),  a  native 
of  the  East  Indies,  largely  cultivated  in 
the  United  States.  It  grows  to  the  height 
of  eight  or  ten  feet,  has  a  jointed  stem,  the 
panicle  of  which  is  extensively  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  whisks  and  brooms.  It  is 
sometimes  utilized  for  forage,  but  is  not 
of  much  value  as  such.  It  is  propagated 
considerably  in  Kansas  and  Nebraska 
as  well  as  in  the  east,  and  chiefly  in  the 
Mohawk  Valley  of  |New  York  state  An 
acre  will  produce  from  500  to  600  pounds 
of  the  material  for  making  brooms. 

Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and  Philip, 
founded  in  1888  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Rufus  W. 
Miller,  of  Philadelphia,  present  President 
of  the  General  Council.  The  organization, 
which  held  its  first  federal  convention  in 
New  York  city  in  1893,  is  composed  of 
members  of  23  Evangelical  denominations, 
in  this  country,  besides  chapters  in  Aus- 
tralia and  Japan.  Its  objects  are  indicated 
in  the  statement  that  "any  man  can  be- 


BROTHERHOOD  OF  ST.  ANDREW         274 


BROWN 


long  to  the  Brotherhood  who  will  promise 
to  pray  daily  for  the  spread  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Christ  among  men  and  to  make  an  earn- 
est effort  each  week  to  bring  at  least  one 
man  within  the  hearing  of  the  Gospel." 
The  number  of  chapters  of  the  Brotherhood 
in  the  United  States  is,  at  present  writing, 
875,  with  a  total  membership  of  25,000  in 
44  states. 

Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew,  The,  is 
an  organization  with  objects  in  view  similar 
to  those  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and 
Philip,  though  its  operations  are  confined 
to  men  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 
The  Brotherhood  was  organized  June  12, 
1896,  and  has  1,200  active  chapters,  with 
a  membership  of  about  14,000  men.  It 
also  includes  a  junior  department  to  train 
young  men  and  older  boys  for  Christian 
work.  The  latter  has  400  chapters  in  the 
United  States,  with  a  membership  number- 
ing about  5,000.  A  similar  general  organ- 
ization has  been  formed  in  the  Scottish 
Episcopal  Church,  while  chapters  of  the 
Brotherhood  have  also  been  formed  in  the 
Episcopal  Church  in  Australia  and  in  the 
Canadian  Dominion. 

Brougham  (broo'am  or  broom),  Henry, 
Lord  Brougham  and  Vaux,  was  born  at 
Edinburgh  in  1778.  He  was  called  to  the 
English  bar  and  soon  after  entered  Parlia- 
ment, taking  sides  with  the  Liberals.  He 
spoke  against  slavery  and  was  active  in  all 
measures  of  reform.  He  became  immensely 
popular  with  the  people  and  wielded  a  great 
influence,  being  recognized  by  the  Liberals 
as  their  leader 
in  debate.  He 
received  a  peer- 
age and  became 
lord  chancellor 
in  the  so-called 
Reform  Min- 
istry. As  an 
advocate,  also, 
though  he 
never  had  a 
large  practice, 
he  attained 
some  fame,  his 
greatest  speech 
being  that  in 
behalf  of  Queen 
Caroline 
against  George 
IV.  He  was 
interested  i  n 

science  and  literature,  and  his  writings  cover 
a  wide  range  of  subjects.  The  founding  of 
London  University  was  largely  due  to  him. 
As  an  orator  he  was  inferior  only  to  Canning 
among  the  men  of  his  time.  He  was  pecu- 
liar in  many  ways,  and  while  for  many 
years  the  popular  idol  was  not  liked  by 
those  who  worked  with  him.  He  built  a 
chateau  at  Cannes,  in  the  south  of  France, 
and  died  there  in  1868.  It  was  once  said  of 


LORD  BROUGHAM 


him  as  he  was  passing  along  in  a  carriage: 
"  There  go  Solon,  Lycurgus,  Demosthenes, 
Archimedes,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Lord  Chester- 
field and  a  great  many  more  in  one  post- 
chaise." 

Broughton  (bra' tun  or  brou'tiin) ,  Rhoda, 
an  English  novelist,  was  born  in  North 
Wales,  November  29,  1840,  and  for  forty 
years  has  actively  been  engaged  in  the  pro- 
duction of  fiction.  In  1867  she  made  her 
successful  debut  with  her  popular  novel, 
Cometh  Up  as  a  Flower,  which  was  followed 
by  Not  Wisely  but  Too  Well  and  in  1870 
by  Red  as  a  Rose  is  She.  Her  later  stories 
include  Nancy,  Joan,  Second  Thoughts, 
Belinda,  Dr.  Cupid,  Alas!  Dear  Faustina, 
The  Game  and  the  Candle,  Foes  in  Law 
and  Lavinia. 

Brown,  Charles  Brockden*  an  early 
American  novelist,  much  prized  in  his  day, 
was  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1771,  and  died 
there  in  1810.  His  two  best-known  stories 
are  Wieland  [or  the  Transformation  and 
Arthur  Mervyn.  The  former  is  an  alluring 
though  improbable  tale,  of  a  ventriloquist, 
who,  by  personating  a  supernatural  being, 
leads  the  hero  to  kill  his  wife  and  children; 
the  latter  gives  a  vivid  description  of  Phila- 
delphia, when,  in  1783,  the  city  was  scourged 
by  yellow  fever.  His  other  stories,  Ormond, 
Edgar  Huntley,  Jane  Talbot  and  Philip 
Stanley  are  now  but  little  read.  Early  in 
the  century  he  brought  out  semi-annually 
for  a  time  The  American  Register,  a  useful 
work  of  literary  and  historic  reference. 

Brown,  Elmer  Ellsworth.  Born  in 
Chatauqua  County,  New  York,  in  1861, 
Mr.  Brown  graduated  from  the  Illinois 
State  Normal  University  in  1881,  and  after- 
ward studied  both  in  the  University  of 
Michigan  and  abroad,  receiving  his  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  in  Halle,  Germany, 
in  1890.  He  was  principal  of  schools  in 
Belvidere,  111.,  for  three  years,  and  in  Jack- 
son, Mich.,  for  one  year.  From  1884  to 
1887  he  was  assistant  state  secretary  of  the 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  in  Illinois.  After  returning 
from  Germany,  Mr.  Brown  became  assis- 
tant professor  of  the  science  and  art  of 
teaching  in  the  University  of  Michigan, 
and  in  1893  he  became  professor  of  the 
theory  and  practice  of  education  in  the 
University  of  California.  In  1906  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt  appointed  him  as  successor 
to  Dr.  William  T.  Harris  in  the  office  of 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education. 
He  is  the  author  of  The  Making  of  Our 
Middle  Schools. 

Brown,  Hon.  George,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1821.  Came  to  New  York  in  1838. 
In  1843  tne  family  came  to  Tcronto  (Can- 
ada). In  1844  The  Globe  was  first  pub- 
lished. With  it  the  name  of  George  Brown 
is  inseparately  and  honorably  connected. 
Since  its  first  publication  it  has  been  a 
powerful  force  in  Canada.  In  1848  it  be- 
came the  organ  of  the  Liberal  government. 


BROWN 


275 


BROWN 


GEORGE    BROWN 


In  1851  Mr.  Brown  was  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment for  Kent  County  (western  Ontario), 
and  took  his  seat 
in  1852.  In  1854 
he  was  elected  for 
Lambton.  In  1857 
he  was  returned 
for  two  ridings 
at  the  same  time : 
North  Oxford  and 
the  City  of  To- 
ronto. Called  on 
to  form  an  admin- 
istration which 
was  short-lived. 
He  was  mainly 
influential  as  ed- 
itor of  Tlie  Globe, 
and  one  of  the 
fathers  of  confederation.  He  died  on  May 
9th,  1880. 

Brown,  Henry  Billings,  associate-jus- 
tice of  the  United  States  supreme  court,  was 
born  at  South  Lee,  Mass.,  March  2,  1836, 
and  after  graduating  at  Yale  studied  law 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Wayne 
County,  Mich.,  in  July,  1860.  From  1861 
to  1863  he  was  deputy  United  States  marshal 
for  his  district,  and  from  1863  to  1868 
acted  as  assistant  United  States  attorney 
for  the  eastern  district  of  Michigan.  He 
afterwards  practiced  law  at  Detroit,  and 
from  1875  to  1890  he  was  United  States 
judge  for  the  eastern  district  of  his  state 
(Michigan),  and  compiler  for  a  number  of 
years  of  Brown's  Admiralty  Reports.  In 
January,  1891,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
United  States  supreme  court  as  an  associate- 
justice,  taking  up  his  residence  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

Brown,  John,  an  American  abolitionist, 
was  born  at  Torrington,  Connecticut,  May  9, 
1800.  Descended  from  one  of  the  Pilgrims 
who  landed  in  the  Mayflower,  he  retained 
the  old  Puritan  spirit  of  sternness.  The 
idea  of  liberating  the  slaves  early  became  his 
master  passion.  Having  failed  in  business, 
he  settled  on  a  farm  in  New  York  state, 
from  which  he  was  called  by  his  sons,  who 
had  settled  in  Kansas,  to  assist  them  in 
the  struggle  then  going  on  between  the  pro- 
slavery  and  anti  slavery  men.  Here  he 
became  a  leader  in  the  border  warfare. 
His  most  famous  engagements  were  the 
combat  of  Black  Jack,  where  he  drove  back 
a  superior  force  of  Missourians,  and  the 
encounter  from  which  he  received  the  name 
of  Ossawatomie,  resisting  for  almost  an 
hour  a  body  of  500  men  with  only  15  men, 
and  then  making  good  his  escape.  He 
assisted  a  number  of  slaves  to  escape  to 
Kansas,  and  tried  to  interest  people  in  the 
east  in  his  plans;  but  he  was  looked  upon 
as  a  fanatic.  He  planned  to  attack  slavery 
on  its  own  ground,  and  relied  on  the  slaves 
rallying  to  his  standard  to  make  good  his 
attack.  He  even  drew  up  a  constitution 


and  elected  officers,  but  claimed  that  he  had 
no  intention  of  overthrowing  the  govern- 
ment. His  plan  included  the  seizure  of  the 
United  States  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry, 
Virginia.  Going  to  Hagerstown,  Maryland, 
near  Harper's  Ferry,  Brown  took  a  farm 
and  gradually  gathered  about  twenty-two 
persons,  seventeen  of  them  being  white 
men.  Arms  and  ammunition  were  secretly 
shipped  to  him,  and  on  the  night  of  October 
16,  1859,  he  seized  the  arsenal,  liberated 
the  slaves  of  the  city,  and  captured  sixty 
citizens.  But  the  negroes  failed  to  rally 
around  him;  his  men  were  gradually  picked 
off,  though  a  number  of  the  citizens  were 
also  killed;  and  on  the  morning  of  the  i8th 
the  door  of  the  engine  room  to  which  he 
had  retreated  was  battered  down,  and  he 
and  the  few  survivors  were  overpowered 
and  captured  by  United  States  troops  under 
Col.  Robert  E.  Lee.  Brown  was  taken  to 
Charlestown,  Virginia,  and  tried  and  con- 
demned for  treason  and  murder.  To  the 
last  he  preserved  his  dauntless  bearing,  freely 
admitted  the  object  01  the  attack,  and  only 
deplored  its  failure.  He  was  hanged  Decem- 
ber 2,  1859.  His  attempt  and  death  and 
the  investigations  that  followed  undoubt- 
edly had  an  effect  in  bringing  to  a  focus 
the  difference  of  opinion  between  the  two 
sections  of  the  country  on  the  question  of 
slavery,  and  hurried  on  the  Civil  War. 

Brown,  John  (1810-1882),  a  Scottish 
author  and  physician,  is  known  by  his 
charming  series  of  essays  and  short  stories. 
He  was  fond  of  children  and  dogs,  and  his 
best  stories  are  on  these  subjects.  He  wrote 
of  nothing  that  he  did  not  thoroughly 
know  and  love,  saying  that  no  one  should 
publish  anything  "unless  he  has  something 
to  say,  and  has  done  his  best  to  say  it 
aright."  Accordingly,  his  works  are  few 
but  of  the  best  quality.  His  rich  sense  of 
humor  and  his  pathos  make  his  works  deeply 
interesting,  and  these  two  qualities  reached 
their  perfection  in  his  stories  of  the  uncouth 
but  intelligent  mastiff,  Rab  and  his  Friends, 
and  the  little  girl,  Mar  forte  Fleming.  Spare 
Hours  and  John  Leech  and  Other  Papers 
comprise  almost  all  his  works. 

Brown,  Joseph  Emerson,  American  poli- 
tician, war  governor  of  Georgia  and  for  a 
time  chief  justice  of  the  state  supreme  court, 
was  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1821,  and  died 
at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  November  30,  1894.  In 
1849  ne  was  elected  to  the  state  senate 
of  Georgia,  and  was  Democratic  governor 
of  the  state  successively  from  1857  to  1863. 
When  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  he  became 
an  active  secessionist,  and  on  January  3, 
1 86 1,  he  seized  Forts  Pulaski  and  Jackson, 
near  Savannah,  a  fortnight  before  his  state 
seceded,  and  also  took  possession  of  the 
United  States  arsenal  at  Augusta.  He 
warmly  espoused  the  southern  caxise  and 
was  a  stout  supporter  of  the  Confederate 
government,  though  he  disputed  the  con 


BROWN  UNIVERSITY 


276 


BROWNING 


stitutipnality  of  Jefferson  Davis's  acts  of 
conscription.  Near  the  close  of  the  war 
he  was  imprisoned  for  a  time  by  the  national 
government,  but,  being  released,  he  resigned 
his  governorship,  and  in  1866  visited  Wash- 
ington and  urged  his  state  to  accept  the 
issues  of  the  struggle  and  comply  with  the 
pacific  measures  of  reconstruction.  This 
made  him  unpopular  with  the  south  and 
his  Democratic  friends,  and  for  a  while  he 
joined  the  Republicans,  only,  however,  to 
return  at  length  to  his  own  political  fold. 
He  was  afterward  a  member  of  the  United 
States  senate.  He  left  a  considerable  for- 
tune, though  he  was  a  large  benefactor  of  the 
Georgia  University  and  of  the  Southern  Bap- 
tist Theological  Seminary  at  Louisville,  Ky. 

Brown  University,  an  institution  for  the 
higher  learning,  belonging  chiefly  to  the 
Baptist  denomination,  but  non sectarian, 
located  at  Providence,  R.  I.  It  was  founded 
at  Warren,  R.  I.,  in  1764,  under  the  name 
of  Rhode  Island  College,  but  was  in  1770 
removed  to  Providence  and  named  after 
Nicholas  Brown,  a  philanthropic  merchant 
and  legislator  of  the  state,  who  contributed 
$100,000  to  its  endowment.  It  has  about 
80  instructors,  and  nearly  1,000  students 
are  on  its  contemporary  rolls.  It  has 
turned  out  over  4,500  graduates.  The 
university  buildings  are  extensive  and  in- 
clude, besides  a  well-furnished  library,  an 
observatory  equipped  with  one  of  the  most 
powerful  telescopes  in  America. 

Brown-Sequard,  Charles  Edward 
(1818-94),  Franco-American  physician  and 
physiologist,  skilled  in  the  treatment  of 
nervous  diseases,  was  born  in  the  island  of 
Mauritius,  his  father  being  a  Philadelphian 
and  his  mother  a  French  woman  of  the  name 
of  Sequard.  He  studied  medicine  in  Paris, 
where  he  graduated  an  M.D.  in  1840,  after- 
wards gaining  distinction  by  his  important 
researches  in  neurology  and  by  his  experi- 
ments on  the  composition  of  the  blood,  on 
the  muscular  and  nervous  systems  and  on 
the  spinal  cord.  From  a  professional  post 
in  London,  he  came  to  the  United  States, 
where  he  occupied  the  chair  of  physiology 
and  pathology  at  Harvard  (1864-68),  re- 
turning in  the  latter  year  to  Paris,  where 
he  lectured  at  the  School  of  Medicine,  and 
then  spent  five  years  (1873-78)  as  a  practi- 
tioner in  New  York.  Returning  once  more 
to  Paris,  he  filled  for  a  time  the  chair  of 
experimental  medicine  at  the  College  de 
France,  won  a  notable  prize  awarded  by 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  published 
several  professional  works,  besides  editing 
one  or  two  medical  journals.  His  more 
important  publications  include  his  lectures 
on  the  Physiology  and  Pathology  of  the 
Nervous  System,  Diagnosis  and  Treatment 
of  the  Lower  Extremities  and  Lectures  on 
Nervous  Affections. 

Browne,  Charles  Farrar,  was  born 
at  Waterford,  Me.,  April  26,  1834.  He 


began  life  as  a  printer,  then  acted  as  a  re- 

Eorter  for  a  weekly  paper  in  Cincinnati.  His 
rst  letter  signed  with  the  famous  name 
Artemus  Ward  pretended  to  be  from  a  trav- 
eling showman,  and  was  published  in  a  Cin- 
cinnati paper.  He  edited  a  humorous  paper, 
Vanity  Fair,  in  New  York,  gave  humorous 
lectures  and  brought  out  Artemus  Ward: 
His  Book.  He  published  three  other  volumes 
of  the  same  nature,  which  were  all  successful 
in  their  line.  His  last  years  were  spent  in 
England,  where  he  was  a  contributor  to 
Punch.  He  died  at  Southampton,  England, 
March  6,  1867. 

Browne,  Thomas  Alexander  (Rolf  Bol- 
drewood) ,  the  novelist,  was  born  in  London, 
August  6,  1826,  went  in  early  life  to  Aus- 
tralia and  was  educated  at  Sydney  College. 
He  led  the  life  of  a  pioneer  in  Victoria, 
holding  the  position  of  police  magistrate 
and  warden  of  Goldfields  until  1895.  His 
sixteen  novels,  all  written  since  1888,  deal 
with  Australian  life  in  some  of  its  roughest 
as  well  as  in  its  most  civilized  aspects, 
though  Mr.  Browne's  style  lends  itself 
rather  to  vigorous  than  merely  polite  treat- 
ment. 

Brown'ing,  Elizabeth  Barrett,  a  great 
English  poet,  was  born  at  Carlton  Hall, 
Durham,  England,  March  6,  1809.  Her 
wonderful  talents  were  early  shown.  At 
ten  she  could  read  Homer  in  the  Greek,  and 
at  fourteen  she  wrote  an  epic  on  the  Battle 
of  Marathon.  An  early  injury  and  the 
shock  received  from  the  death  of  her  brother 
by  drowning  made  her  an  invalid  for  the 
greater  part  of  her  life;  but  she  wrote 
constantly  and  enjoyed  the  society  and 
admiration  of  some  of  the  greatest  literary 
men  of  the  day.  Among  her  earlier  poems 
is  the  fine  lyric,  The  Cry  of  the  Children, 
a  noble  outburst  over  the  wrongs  of  young 
children  employed  in  factories.  In  1846 
she  married  the  poet,  Robert  Browning, 
and  from  that  time  made  her  home  in  Flor- 
ence. Italy  was  then  struggling  to  lift 
itself  into  an  independent  and  united  king- 
dom, and  many  of  Mrs.  Browning's  finest 
poems  were  written  in  the  interest  of  her 
"adopted  country."  Among  the  latter  is 
Casa  Guidi  Windows,  which  takes  the  name 
from  the  building  in  which  the  authors 
lived.  The  translation  of  Prometheus  Bound 
and  the  poem  Aurora  Leigh  are  among  her 
finest  efforts.  She  died  June  30,  1861,  and 
the  city  of  Florence  placed  an  inscribed 
tablet  to  her  memory  on  the  walls  of  Casa 
Guidi.  Mrs.  Browning  has  been  described 
as  "a  soul  of  fire  in  a  shell  of  pearl."  But 
few  of  her  sex  have  ever  approached  her 
in  poetic  genius. 

Browning,  Robert.  It  is  unfortunate 
when  the  work  of  a  gifted  poet  is  the  sub- 
ject of  controversy,  for  it  delays  general 
understanding  and  acceptance  of  his  mes- 
sage. It  is  admitted  to-day  by  many  of 
Browning's  warmest  admireis  that  the  early 


BROWNSVILLE 


277 


ROBERT    BROWNING 


Browning  Societies  claimed  too  much  for 
him,  and  created  a  wide  impression  that  he 
was  difficult.  He  had  certain  obscurities 
of  style,  it  is  true,  but  these  were  magnified 

by  the  idea  that 
they  concealed 
a  profundity  of 
thought  whose 
beauty  could  be 
comprehended 
only  by  the  in- 
tellectually 
elect.  This  dis- 
couraged spon- 
taneousreading. 
Now  it  is  be- 
•>  i  ginning  to  be 

/  understood  that 
B  rowning's 
message  was 
simple  and  di- 
rect, and  to  all  mankind  that  struggles  and 
strives  after  moral  good.  Through  the 
poets  that  immediately  preceded  him  we 
learned  to  look  for  God  in  nature,  the 
spiritual  solace  and  growth  to  be  found  in 
keeping  close  to  simple,  natural  things. 
Browning  spent  a  half  century  in  teaching 
the  uplifting  power  of  human  life  and  work — 
the  beauty  of  sublime  faith,  dauntless  cour- 
age and  deathless  love  to  lift  us  to  heights 
unattained  and  give  us  thence  the  farther 
vision  into  the  world  beyond. 

This  subtlest  seer  of  the  soul,  as  he  has 
been  called,  was  born  in  a  suburb  of  London, 
May  7,  1812,  and  was  brought  up  in  that 
human  maelstrom,  surrounded  by  it,  a  part 
of  it, — conscious  of  the  swarming  millions 
with  their  problems  and  desires.  The  son 
of  a  man  in  banking  and  wealthy,  he  was 
almost  as  obscure  as  if  he  had  been  poor, 
for  he  was  outside  the  aristocracy  of  birth, 
outside  the  established  church,  outside  every 
thing  that  claims  distinction  in  social  and 
intellectual  life  in  England.  Where  many 
men  of  sensitive  imagination  see  only  con- 
fusion and  discouragement  in  such  a  hive 
of  commercial  activity,  Browning  saw  hope 
and  order.  An  optimist,  he  believed  in  tne 
enthronement  of  man  above  time  and  cir- 
cumstance. And  this  he  taught  in  his 
earliest  poems,  Pauline  and  Paracelsus.  At 
33  he  won  an  audience  with  Pippa  Passes. 
The  pretty  little  silk-winder  of  Asolo,  with 
her  simple  faith  and  happy  heart  expressed 
in  song,  triumphed  over  the  snarls  of  sin 
and  selfishness.  All  the  world  understood 
her  "God's  in  His  heaven;  all's  right  with 
the  world. ' '  Browning  wrote  other  things 
as  simple  as  that,  like  The  Pied  Piper  of 
Hamehn,  Herve  Kiel,  How  They  Brought 
the  Good  News  from  Ghent  to  Aix  and  Home 
Thoughts.  Saul  is  one  long,  sustained  drama 
of  optimism  in  a  royal  setting;  Bells  and 
Pomegranates  and  Men  and  Women  contain 
matchless  lyrics,  sensuous,  impassioned, 
dramatic. 


The  most  tender  of  all  Browning's  poems 
were  addressed  to  his  wife,  Elizabeth  Bar- 
rett Browning,  herself  a  poet  of  distinction. 
Their  brief  life  together  in  Italy  is  one  of 
the  world's  most  precious  love  stories. 
He  outlived  her  28  years  and  wiote  his 
greatest  work,  The  Ring  and  the  Book,  after 
her  death.  The  last  poem  he  wrote  ex- 
pressed the  belief  that  he  should  "clasp 
thee  again,  O  thou  soul  of  my  soul,  and 
with  God  be  the  rest."  He  died  in  Venice 
December  12,  1889,  and  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  London.  Professor 
Edward  Dowden,  one  of  his  biographers 
says:  "Much  of  Browning's  work,  as  much 
of  Wordsworth's,  is  below  what  is  charac- 
teristic. Those  things  will  survive  that 
are  inspired  by  the  permanent  passions 
and  endearing  interests  of  humanity. ' '  Wil- 
liam Sharp  says:  "It  is  as  a  poet  that  he 
will  live,  not  as  a  novel  thinker  in  verse. 
He  had  an  enormous  influence  on  the  spir- 
itual and  mental  life  of  his  day,  an  influence 
that  continually  shapes  itself  to  wise  and 
beautiful  issues."  See  Life  and  Works  by 
Prof.  Edward  Dowden  and  The  Poetry  of 
Robert  Browning  by  Rev.  Stopford  Brooke. 

Browns'ville,  Texas,  a  city,  the  county- 
seat  of  Cameron  County  and  a  port  of  entry, 
situated  on  the  Rio  Grande  River,  opposite 
Matamoros,  Mexico.  Brownsville  was  set- 
tled in  1848,  and  five  years  later  incorpo- 
rated as  a  city.  It  is  in  a  busy  stock-raising 
district,  and  has  a  large  trade  with  Mexico. 
The  region  in  which  the  city  is  situated  was, 
after  the  year  1845,  claimed  by  the  Mexi- 
cans. This  helped  to  bring  on  war  with  the 
United  States,  our  government  stationing 
a  garrison  at  Fort  Brown,  adjoining  the 
city,  throughout  the  duration  of  the  rup- 
ture with  Mexico.  Four  miles  from  Browns- 
ville the  battle  of  Resaca  de  la  Palma  was 
fought  in  May,  1846,  the  issue  being  the 
flight  of  the  Mexicans  in  a  state  of  panic. 
In  September,  1859,  a  Mexican  raiding 
party  captured  Brownsville,  but  it  was 
recovered  by  General  Banks  in  November, 
1863.  The  city  has  grown  since,  and  to-day 
has  some  fine  public  buildings,  including 
the  county  court-house,  United  States 
custom-house,  a  Roman  Catholic  cathe- 
dral, college  and  convent.  Population, 
13,163. 

Bruce,  James  (born  1730,  died  1794),  a 
famous  Scottish  traveler,  called  the  Abys- 
sinian, early  gave  up  business  to  travel 
through  Europe.  In  1768  he  went  to 
Algiers  as  consul-general,  and  there  studied 
the  oriental  languages  and  also  the  art  of 
medicine.  He  traveled  through  Tunis  and 
Tripoli,  studied  at  Aleppo  in  Syria,  spent 
some  time  at  Alexandria,  and  finally  set 
out  from  Cairo  on  foot  to  explore  the  head- 
waters of  the  Nile.  In  November,  1770, 
he  reached  the  sources  of  the  Abawi,  then 
supposed  to  be  the  main  stream  of  the  Nile. 
He  spent  about  two  years  in  Abyssinia, 


BRUCE 


278 


BRUNN 


and  afterward  returned  to  Alexandria  by 
way  of  Senaar  and  the  desert  of  Assuan. 
He  published  so  many  strange  things  about 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Abyssinians, 
that  they  were  not  believed  at  the  time; 
but  recent  explorations  have  proved  their 
truth.  His  Travels  to  Discover  the  Sources 
of  the  Nile  was  published  in  1790. 

Bruce,  Robert,  the  most  heroic  of  the 
Scottish  kings,  son  of  the  Earl  of  Carrick, 
was  born  July  n,  1274.  One  of  the  several 
claimants  to  the  throne  of  Scotland,  Bruce  at 
first  took  no  part  in  the  struggles  of  William 
Wallace  to  free  his  country  from  the  English 
power.  At  last,  however,  he  joined  the 
final  rising  against  the  English  king,  Ed- 
ward I,  beginning  his  career  by  the  murder 
of  the  Red  Comyn,  one  of  his  rivals,  in 
a  fit  of  passion,  because  he  suspected  him 
of  betraying  their  plans.  He  laid  claim  to 
the  throne  and  was  crowned  king,  but  for 
many  years  he  was  an  outlaw  in  his  own 
kingdom,  taking  refuge  in  the  fastnesses 
of  the  mountains,  and  hiding  at  one  time 
in  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Ireland,  while 
he  was  thought  to  be  dead.  The  story 
is  told  of  him  that  one  day,  while  lying  in 
bed  in  a  wretched  hut,  he  saw  a  spider  try- 
ing to  spin  its  web  from  beam  to  beam  over 
his  head.  Six  times  it  tried  and  failed, 
just  as  many  times  as  Bruce  had  been 
beaten  by  the  English.  "  If  the  spider  tries 
again,"  1  e  thought,  "so  will  I."  The  spider 
tried  once  more,  and  was  at  last  successful. 
So  Bruce  determined  to  try  again.  He 
landed  once  more  in  Scotland,  won  several 
victories,  and  the  death  of  the  energetic 
Edward  I,  and  the  accession  of  his  unwar- 
like  son  gave  him  a  chance  to  recover  his 
lost  ground.  He  won  back  one  castle  after 
another,  and  at  last  the  great  battle  of 
Bannockburn,  which  was  to  decide  the 
liberty  of  Scotland,  was  fought  June  24, 
1314.  The  Scotch  spent  the  night  before 
the  battle  in  fasting,  and  in  the  morning 
Bruce  opened  the  battle  by  a  single  combat 
with  a  powerful  English  knight.  His  vic- 
tory fired  the  hearts  of  his  men,  and,  although 
less  than  a  third  the  number  of  their  ene- 
mies, they  utterly  routed  them.  Later  he 
attacked  the  English  on  their  own  ground 
and  compelled  them  to  recognize  him  as 
lawful  king  of  an  independent  Scotland. 
He  died  in  1329,  at  the  age  of  55,  of  leprosy. 
James  Douglas  tried  to  carry  his  heart  to 
Jerusalem  and  bury  it  there,  as  King  Robert 
had  requested,  but  was  killed  in  Spain  while 
fighting  against  the  Moors.  The  heart  was 
brought  back  to  Scotland  and  buried  in  the 
monastery  of  Melrose.  The  king's  body 
was  buried  in  the  abbey  church  of  Dun- 
fermline,  where  his  bones  were  discovered 
in  1818,  when  the  foundations  were  being 
cleared  out  for  a  new  church.  His  son, 
David  II,  succeeded  him. 

Bruchesi,  The  Most  Reverend  Louis 
Paul  Napoleon,  Archbishop  of  Montreal, 


born  in  Montreal  in  1855.  Studied  theology 
in  Paris  and  Rome.  Ordained  in  Rome  in 
1878.  Became  a  professor  in  Laval  Uni- 
versity. For  years  chairman  of  the -Catho- 
lic school-board  of  Montreal.  Appointed 
archbishop  in  1897. 

Bruges  (bru'jez — Fr.  bruzh),  a  city  of 
Belgium,  capital  of  West  Flanders,  is  situated 
about  eight  miles  from  the  sea,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  three  canals.  Named 
from  its  many  bridges,  it  is  famous  more 
for  its  ancient  <  prominence  than  for  its 
present  prosperity.  It  dates  from  the  3rd 
century,  and  in  the  1 2th  century  it  was  the 
center  of  the  world's  traffic.  Commercial 
agents  from  seventeen  kingdoms  resided 
here,  and  no  less  than  twenty  ministers 
from  foreign  courts  had  mansions  within 
its  walls.  At  this  period  its  population 
numbered  upward  of  200,000.  Political 
troubles  and  religious  persecutions  sub- 
sequently ruined  its  prosperity.  Many  of  its 
traders  and  manufacturers  settled  in  Eng- 
land, and  it  is  only  during  the  present  cen- 
tury that  its  greatness  has  begun  to  return. 
Its  population  is  now  about  54,015.  It  has 
a  number  of  manufactures  of  lace,  woolens, 
etc.  Among  its  buildings  is  Les  Halles,  a 
market,  with  a  famous  belfry,  353  feet  high, 
and  possessing  a  chime  of  forty-eight  bells 
regarded  as  the  finest  in  Europe.  Long- 
fellow's poem  has  made  this  belfry  well 
kn  wn.  The  church  of  Notre  Dame  has 
a  spire  442  feet  high  and  many  valuable 
paintings,  carvings  and  statues.  Caxton, 
the  famous  printer,  lived  thirty-five  years 
in  Bruges. 

Brumaire  (bru'mdr),  (meaning,  foggy 
winter  month — -November),  The  Eigh= 
teenth,  in  the  year  VII,  according  to  the 
calendar  of  the  French  Revolution,  was  a 
day  famous  in  French  history.  It  corre- 
sponds to  November  9,  1799.  On  that  day 
was  begun  the  movement  which  overthrew 
the  government  of  the  Directory,  which  had 
been  set  up  five  years  before,  and  made 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  first  consul  and  finally 
emperor  of  France. 

Brunelleschi  (broo'nel-lds'ke),  Filippo, 
(born  1377,  died  1446),  one  of  the  greatest 
Italian  architects,  was  a  native  of  Florence. 
His  most  famous  work  is  the  dome  of  the 
cathedral  of  Santa  Maria  dei  Fiori  at  Flor- 
ence. It  is  the  largest  dome  in  the  world, 
and  was  used  by  Michael  Angelo  as  a  model 
for  that  of  St.  Peter's.  He  made  the  designs 
for  the  Pitti  Palace,  which  gave  rise  to  the 
beautiful  style  of  Tuscan  palace  architecture 
in  the  ijth  century. 

Brunhilde.         See   NIBELUNGENLIED. 

Brunn  (briiri) ,  a  city  of  the  Austrian  em- 
pire, capital  of  Moravia,  stands  at  the 
junction  of  the  Schwarzawa  and  the  Zwit- 
tawa.  Though  its  appearance  is  in  manv 
respects  like  an  ancient  city,  yet  it  has  nunv 
erous  modern  improvements.  The  state 
theater,  opened  in  1882,  was  the  first  theater 


BRUNO 


279 


BRUSSELS 


on  the  continent  lighted  by  electricity.  As 
a  manufacturing  town,  its  wools  are  espe- 
cially famous.  Back  of  the  city,  on  a  height 
of  984  feet,  rises  the  castle  of  Spielberg, 
where  the  unfortunate  Italian  author,  Silvio 
Pellico,  was  imprisoned  from  1822  to  1830. 
The  population  numbers  109,346,  almost 
half  of  whom  are  Czechs. 

Bru'no,  Giordano,  an  Italian  philosopher 
who  lived  during  the  last  half  of  the  i6th 
century.  Concerning  his  parents  and  the 
date  of  his  birth  almost  nothing  is  known. 
His  life  was  spent  largely  in  lecturing  in 
many  of  the  principal  cities  of  western 
Europe,  including  Padua,  Geneva,  Paris, 
London,  Oxford,  Wittenberg,  Prague.  His 
chief  service  lies  in  the  energetic  and 
successful  war  which  he  waged  against 
the  scholasticism  of  his  times,  and  in 
particular  against  the  lifeless  physics  of 
Aristotle. 

A  contemporary  of  Tycho  Brahe  and 
Kepler,  he  expanded  the  system  of  Coper- 
nicus and  prepared  the  way  for  Galileo. 
Even  from  these  few  lines,  it  will  be  evident 
that  he  was  just  the  type  of  man  which  the 
Inquisition  was  looking  for.  At  the  hands 
of  this  institution  he  received  the  verdict 
of  "guilty,"  in  February  of  1600.  Punish- 
ment was  prescribed  in  the  following  cus- 
tomary hypocritical  sentence:  Ut  yuam 
dementis sime,  et  citra  sanguinis  effusionem 
puniretur,  "to  be  punished  with  the  ut- 
most clemency  and  without  shedding  of 
blood."  He  was  accordingly  burned  at 
the  stake  in  Rome  on  the  i  yth  of  February, 
1600. 

Bruns'wick,  Duchy  of,  a  state  of  north- 
ern Germany,  made  up  of  three  larger  and 
five  smaller  distinct  parts.  Its  total  area 
is  1,424  square  miles,  considerably  larger 
than  Rhode  Island,  and  its  population  is 
485,958,  most  of  whom  are  Saxons  and 
belong  mainly  to  the  Lutheran  church. 
The  country  is  rich  in  minerals,  and  agri- 
culture is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  people. 
The  capital  is  the  city  of  Brunswick,  popu- 
lation, 136,397.  Brunswick  was  a  part  of 
Saxony  under  Charlemagne,  but  in  1235  it 
became  a  duchy.  It  now  holds  the  ninth 
place  among  the  states  of  the  German 
empire. 

Brunswick,  Ga.,  a  city,  the  county  seat 
of  Glynn  County,  in  the  southeast  part  of 
the  State,  on  St.  Simon's  Sound,  about  nine 
miles  from  the  Atlantic,  with  a  commodious 
and  safe  harbor.  It  is  reached  by  the 
Southern  Railroad,  the  Plant  System  and 
the  Seaboard  Air  Line,  and  lies  about  90 
miles  south-southwest  of  Savannah.  It  is 
also  reached  by  steamships  plying  from 
Boston  and  New  York.  The  place  was 
settled  early  in  the  i8th  century  by  James 
Oglethorpe,  and  is  a  favorite  summer  ard 
winter  resort,  made  attractive  by  its  his- 
toric interests  and  many  attractions,  in- 
cluding St.  Simon's  Island,  Cumberland 


Island  (where  sleeps  Light-Horse  Harry 
Lee),  the  Carnegie  Dungeness  Castle  and 
the  Jekyl  Island  Club.  Its  exports  embrace 
oysters  (canned),  vegetables  (also  canned), 
besides  cotton,  phosphates,  tar,  rosin,  tur- 
pentine and  pine  lumber.  Population, 
10,182. 

Bruns'wick,  Germany,  the  capital  of 
the  duchy  of  Brunswick,  is  situated  on  the 
Ocker,  143  miles  southwest  of  Berlin. 
Founded  in  the  gth  century  by  Bruno, 
duke  ot  Saxony,  it  was  enlarged  by  Henry 
the  Lion  and  became  an  important  member 
of  the  Hanseatic  League.  It  has  annual 
fairs  of  some  importance  and  a  large  trade. 
The  ducal  palace  is  a  fine  modern  building, 
and  there  are  a  number  of  picturesque  old 
structures.  The  museum  is  valuable.  Pop- 
ulation, 143,534. 

Brunswick,  Me.,  a  town  in  Cumberland 
County,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Androscoggin  River  and  on  the  Maine 
Central  Railroad,  opposite  Topsham,  and 
nine  miles  west  of  Bath.  It  possesses  good 
water-power  for  its  many  manufactures, 
which  include  cotton  goods,  wood  pulp,  flour, 
wooden-ware,  etc.  Bowdoin  College  is  located 
there.  The  town  was  settled  early  in  the 
1 7th  century.  In  early  times  it  was  known 
as  Pejepscot,  a  local  history  of  the  region 
being  published  at  Boston  in  1878.  Popu- 
lation, 6,621. 

Brussels  ( br&s'selz) ,  the  capital  of  Bel- 
gium and  one  of  the  finest  cities  in  Europe, 
lies  on  the  River  Senne.  Railroads  connect 
it  with  the  principal  towns  of  Belgium  and 
with  France,  Germany,  and  Holland.  The 
lower  town,  although  it  contains  some  fine 
old  churches  and  some  specimens  of  Gothic 
architecture,  is  mostly  given  up  to  trade. 
The  upper  town  is  the  newest  part  of  the 
city,  and  has  the  finest  residences  and 
public  buildings,  including  the  king's  palace, 
the  chief  hotels,  residences  of  foreign  min- 
isters, etc.  The  new  palace  of  justice  is 
a  magnificent  structure.  The  old  city- 
walls  have  been  turned  into  boulevards, 
and  there  are  a  number  of  noteworthy 
squares  or  places,  as  they  are  called, 
such  as  the  Place  Royale,  with  a  colossal 
monument  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon;  the 
Grand  Place,  where  in  the  i6th  century 
the  patriot  counts,  Egmont  and  Horn,  were 
beheaded  by  order  of  the  Spanish  Duke 
of  Alva;  and  the  Place  of  Martyrs,  where 
a  memorial  has  been  built  to  those  who 
fell  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  by  which 
Belgium  became  independent.  A  picture 
gallery,  museum  and  public  library  are 
contained  in  the  Palace  of  the  Fine  Arts, 
and  there  are  a  large  university  and  several 
academies.  Besides  being  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment, Brussels  is  one  of  the  chief  cen- 
ters of  the  industry  of  the  country.  Its 
lace  is  particularly  famous;  but  of  the  so- 
called  Brussels  carpets,  only  a  few  are 
made  here,  the  larger  part  tcing  man- 


BRUTUS 


280 


BRYANT 


ufactured  at  Tournai.  A  great  world- 
exhibition  was  held  here  in  1888.  The 
population,  with  the  suburbs,  in  1910  was 
665,806. 

Bru'tus,  Lucius  Junius,  a  Roman  pa- 
triot, who  lived  about  500  years  B.  C.  Ac- 
cording to  the  old  story,  he  was  the  nephew 
of  King  Tarquin  the  Proud,  and,  to  escape 
the  fate  of  his  father  and  brothers,  who 
had  been  put  to  death  by  the  king,  he 
feigned  stupidity,  from  which  he  got  his 
name  Brutus.  He  once  went  with  the 
sons  of  Tarquin  on  a  mission  to  the  oracle 
at  Delphi  and  when  they  were  told  that 
the  one  who  first  kissed  his  mother  should 
rule,  Brutus,  as  he  landed  in  Italy,  pre- 
tended to  stumble  and  kissed  the  earth, 
the  common  mother  of  all.  The  treatment 
which  the  noble  Lucretia  received  from  the 
son  of  the  king  was  the  signal  for  a  rising 
to  throw  off  the  kingly  yoke,  and  Brutus, 
laying  aside  his  mask,  led  the  people  in 
an  insurrection  which  put  an  end  to  the 
monarchy.  Brutus  was  chosen  one  of  the 
first  consuls,  and  when  his  sons  took 
part  in  a  plot  to  bring  back  the  Tarquins, 
he  condemned  them  to  be  scourged  and 
beheaded,  and  saw  the  sentence  executed. 
He  was  finally  killed  in  battle  against  the 
enemies  of  his  country's  liberty.  A  public 
funeral  was  voted,  the  women  wore  mourn- 
ing for  a  year,  and  a  brazen  statue,  with 
a  drawn  sword  in  its  hand,  was  raised  to 
his  memory. 

Bru'tus,  Marcus  Junius,  one  of  the  as- 
sassins of  Cassar,  was  born  in  85  B.  C.,  and 
died  42  B.  C.  He  joined  Pompey  in  his  war 
against  Caesar;  but  after  Pompey 's  defeat 
he  was  kindly  treated  by  Cassar,  and  made 
governor  of  Cisalpine  Gaul.  In  44  B.  C., 
in  his  eagerness  to  preserve  the  liberty  of 
the  republic  against  Caesar's  apparent  pur- 
pose of  being  made  emperor,  he  was  per- 
suaded by  Cams  Cassius  to  join  a  conspiracy, 
and  helped  in  his  assassination,  although 
Caesar  had  given  him  many  honors  and 
promised  him  others.  The  people,  instead 
of  rejoicing  at  Caesar's  death,  were  enraged, 
and  Brutus  fled  from  Rome.  Soon  after, 
he  and  Cassius  were  defeated  at  Philippi 
by  Antony  and  Octavius.  He  at  once 
flung  himself  upon  his  sword  and  died.  He 
was  an  earnest  student,  and  something  of 
a  philosopher. 

Bry'an,  William  Jennings,  was  born 'at 
Salem,  111.,  March  19,  1860.  He  graduated 
from  Illinois  College  in  1881,  studied  law  at 
Chicago,  and  began  practice  in  Jacksonville, 
111.  In  1887  he  removed  to  Lincoln,  Neb. 
In  1890  he  was  elected  to  Congress,  and 
was  re-elected  in  1892.  Here  he  took  posi- 
tion as  a  strong  debater  and  brilliant  orator. 
In  1896  he  was  nominated  for  the  presi- 
dency by  the  Democratic  party,  on  a  free- 
silver  platform,  but,  after  a  hard  contest, 
was  defeated  by  William  McKinley,  the 
nominee  of  the  Republican  party.  In  1900 


he  was  again  the  standard  bearer  of  his 
party,  and  was  again  defeated  by  McKinley. 
In  1908  he 
again  led  his 
party,  in  oppo- 
sition to  Taft, 
but  was  de- 
feated. In  1913 
he  was  appoint- 
ed secretary  of 
state  but  resign- 
ed in  1915  owing 
to  disagreement 
with  President 
Wilson  in  a  dis- 
pute with  Ger- 
many as  to  neu- 
tral rights  aris- 
ing out  of  the 
use  of  submar-  WILLIAM  j.  BRYAN 

ines. 

Bryant,  William  Cullen,  a  celebrated 
American  poet,  was  born  at  Cummington, 
Mass.,  November  3,  1794.  He  began  to 
write  poetry  when  he  was  but  ten  years 
old,  and  in  his  fourteenth  year  his  friends 
had  published  two  of  his  poems,  which  were 
so  popular  that  a  second  edition  was  called 
for.  He  entered  Williams  College  in  1810, 
where  he  stayed  two  years,  after  which  he 
began  the  study  of  law,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1815.  His  well-known  poem, 
Thanatopsis,  was  written  when  he  was 
1 8  years  old.  He  practiced  law  for  a 
short  period  at  Plainfield  and  then  at  Great 
Barrington.  In  1817  he  began  to  write 
for  the  North  American  Review,  which 
brought  him  into  public  notice;  and  in  1821 
his  reputation  was  greatly  increased  by 
the  publication  of 
a  volume  of  poems. 
He  went  to  New 
York  in  1825  and 
engaged  in  editor- 
ial work,  and  the 
next  year  became 
connected  with  the 
Evening  Post,  be- 
coming chief  edi- 
tor a  short  time 
after.  In  1832  a 
complete  edition  of 
his  poems  was 
printed,  which 
WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT  made  his  reputa- 
tion in  England 

as  great  as  it  already  was  in  Amer- 
ica. He  visited  Europe  several  times, 
and  studied  the  language  and  literature  of 
several  countries.  The  volume,  Letters  of  a 
Traveler,  was  written  soon  after  his  return 
from  one  of  these  trips,  and  his  letters  to  the 
Evening  Post,  afterward  collected  under  the 
title,  Letters  from  Spain  and  Other  Countries, 
were  written  during  another  journey.  In 
1863  a  small  volume  of  new  poems  was 
published,  and  in  1870  and  1871  appeared 


BRYCE 


281 


BUCHANAN 


his  translation  01  Homer's  Iliad  and  Odyssey, 
in  English  blank  verse.  He  was  often 
called  on  for  addresses,  and  a  volume  of 
his  Addresses  and  Orations  was  issued  in 
1873.  He  died  at  New  York,  June  12,  1878. 
His  poems  are  noted  for  their  delicacy  yet 
vigor  of  expression,  for  their  beautiful  in- 
terpretation of  nature  and  for  their  depth 
of  thought. 

Bryce  (bris) ,  Rev.  George,  is  head  of  he 
faculty  of  the  University  of  Manitoba,  lec- 
turer there  in  biology  and  geology,  and  a 
professor  in  Manitoba  College.  He  was 
born  at  Mount  Pleasant,  Brantford,  Ont., 
April  22,  1844,  and  was  educated  at 
the  Brantford  high-school,  the  Univer- 
sity of  Toronto  and  at  Knox  College 
in  Toronto,  taking  many  prizes  and 
medals  during  his  course,  and  becoming 
examiner  in  natural  history  in  the  Uni- 
versity in  1870.  In  1871  the  general  assem- 
bly of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada 
selected  him  to  proceed  to  Manitoba  and 
there  organize  a  church  and  college.  He 
thereupon  organized  Manitoba  College  in 
1871,  Knox  Church  in  1872,  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  University  of 
Manitoba  in  1877,  and  was  moderator  of 
the  general  assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Canada  in  1902-3.  More  than 
sixty  churches  have  been  opened  in  Mani- 
toba through  the  influence  of  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Bryce,  who,  in  addition  to  many  magazine 
articles,  has  published  Manitoba,  Infancy, 
Progress,  ana  Present  Condition  (1882), 
Short  History  of  the  Canadian  People  (1887), 
The  Apostle  of  Red  River  (1898),  Remarkable 
History  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
(1900),  and  Makers  of  Canada  (1903),  this 
last  a  series  of  volumes. 

Bryce,  Rt.  Hon.  James,  an  English 
ex-member  of  Parliament,  a  Liberal  in  pol- 
itics and  a  distinguished  author,  was  born 
at  Belfast,  Ireland,  in  1838,  and  ed- 
ucated at  Glasgow  and  at  Oxford.  At 
the  latter  university  he  was  appointed  in 
1870  regius  professor  of  civil  law,  resign- 
ing the  post  in  1893.  In  1880.  he 
entered  Parliament  and  six  years  later 
(while  representing  Aberdeen),  he  became 
under-secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs 
in  Mr.  Gladstone's  administration.  He 
has  been  one  of  the  chief  supporters 
of  Irish  home-rule,  and  has  also  held 
the  offices  of  chancellor  of  the  Duchy 
of  Lancaster  and  president  of  the  board 
ot" trade.  He  was  (1907-12)  ambassador  from 
Great  Britain  to  the  United  States.  He 
is  a  voluminous  writer,  his  two  most  im- 
portant works  being  The  Holy  Roman 
Empire,  since  become  a  classic,  and  his 
admirable  and  authoritative  survey  of  The 
American  Commonwealth.  His  other  works 
embrace  a  narrative  of  a  journey  in  Asiatic 
Russia,  entitled  Transcaucasia  and  Ararat; 
Two  Centuries  of  Irish  History  (as  editor)  ; 
and  an  important  book  giving  his  Impres- 


sions of  South  Africa.  Mr.  Bryce  has  always 
taken  a  deep  interest  in  Irish  questions,  in 
the  extension  of  rural  local  government,  in 
the  reconstruction  of  the  second  chamber,  in 
the  development  of  secondary  education  and 
in  the  condition  of  the  eastern  Christians 
and  their  emancipation  from  Turkish  mis- 
rule. 

Bryophytes  (bri-o-fi'tez),  one  of  the  four 
great  divisions  of  the  plant  kingdom.  It 
consists  of  two  great  classes,  known  com- 
monly as  liverworts  and  mosses.  Of  these 
two  classes  the  liverworts  are  the  more 
primitive,  and  have  been  derived  very 
probably  from  the  Green  Algae  (Chlorophy- 
ce&),  and  in  turn  have  given  rise  to  the 
mosses.  In  the  Bryophytes,  alternation  of 
generations  (which  see)  appears  for  the 
first  time  very  distinctly.  The  gametophyte 
is  the  leafy  plant  upon  which  the  antheridia 
and  archegonia  are  borne.  The  egg  devel- 
oped within  the  archegonia  is  fertilized,  and 
its  germination  produces  the  sporophyte, 
which  in  this  case  is  a  leafless  structure, 
and  is  commonly  known  as  the  fruit  of 
the  moss.  Bryophytes  are  distinguished 
from  T  hallo  phytes,  the  group  below 
them  in  rank,  not  merely  by  the  distinct 
alternation  of  generations,  but  also  by 
the  fact  that  they  have  a  much  more  com- 
plex body  and  the  female  organ  is  always 
an  archegonium.  The  group  is  also  distin- 
guished from  the  P  teredo  phytes,  which  are 
next  above  them,  by  the  fact  that  the  sporo- 
phyte is  simply  a  leafless  affair,  and  also  by 
the  fact  that  they  have  no  vascular  or  woody 
system  of  tissues.  See  HEPATIC^E  and  Musci. 

Buccaneers,  the  famous  adventurers 
of  the  1 6th  and  i7th  centuries,  who  plun- 
dered the  West  Indies  and  the  Spanish 
colonies  of  South  America.  They  were 
mostly  English  and  French,  and  were  united 
by  a  common  enmity  against  the  Spaniards. 
Their  first  stronghold  was  on  the  little 
island  of  Toitugas;  but  later  the  French 
buccaneers  established  themselves  in  San 
Domingo  and  the  English  in  Jamaica.  They 
formed  themselves  into  an  association,  with 
a  code  oi  laws.  They  went  out  in  bands 
of  fifty  or  more  in  boats,  and  attacked  and 
plundered  the  Spanish  ships  as  they  returned 
from  the  colonies  to  Europe,  loaded  with 
treasure.  Later  on,  they  grew  bolder  and 
went  in  much  larger  numbers  against  for- 
tified towns.  The  Frenchman,  Montbars, 
named  from  his  fierceness  the  extermin- 
ator, and  the  Welshman,  Henry  Morgan, 
were  among  the  most  famous  leaders.  The 
plundering  of  Vera  Cruz  and  of  Cartagena 
was  among  the  most  noted  exploits  of  tlie 
buccaneers. 

Buchanan  (buk-an'an),  James,  fifteenth 
president  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at 
Stony  Batter,  Pa.,  in  1791,  his  father  having 
emigrated  from  Ireland  in  1783.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1812,  and  soon  ob- 
tained a  fine  practice.  In  1821  he  was 


BUCHANAN 


282 


BUCKEYE 


elected  to  Congress,  and  remained  there  ten 

Jears.     In  1831   he  was   sent  by  President 
ackson   as  minister  to   Russia,  where   he 
made  the  first  commercial  treaty  between 
that  country  and  the  United  States,  which 
gave  our  merchants  many  valuable  trading 
privileges  on   the    Baltic   and    Black   Seas. 
Two    years    later    he   was   elected    to    the 
United  States   senate,  of  which  he  was  a 
member    for    12 

Siars,  until  1845. 
ere  he  was  an  ac- 
tive and  able  sup- 
porter of  the  doc- 
trines and  measures 
of  the  Democratic 
party,  as  well  as  a 
strong  upholder  of 
slavery  and  the  rights 
of  the  separate  states. 
When  President  Polk 
was  elected,  he  made 
Buchanan  secretary 
of  state;  and  under 

JAMES  BUCHANAN  President  Pierce,  he 
was  appointed  min- 
ister to  England.  In  1856  he  was  elected 
president.  During  his  administration  a 
Mormon  rebellion  in  Utah  was  quietly  set- 
tled. In  the  last  year  of  his  administration 
the  trouble  between  the  north  and  the 
south  came  to  a  head,  and  in  December, 
1860,  South  Carolina  withdrew  from  the 
Union.  The  president  declared  that  Con- 
gress had  no  power  by  the  constitution  to 
prevent  any  state  from  withdrawing  if  it 
wished  and  that  the  president  could  not 
treat  with  the  representatives  of  any  state, 
but  must  refer  the  matter  to  Congress. 
Soon  afterward,  Lincoln  was  elected  presi- 
dent. Buchanan  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life  at  his  home  in  Lancaster,  Pa.  In 
1866  he  wrote  a  book  to  defend  his  ad- 
ministration. He  died  in  1868. 

Buchanan,     Robert,    an    English  poet, 
novelist,  critic  and   literary  free  lance,  was 
born  in  Staffordshire,  England,  in  1841,  and 
educated  at  Glasgow  University,  Scotland. 
His  early  work 
appeared  when 
he  was  a  jour- 
nalist and  won 
him     consider- 
able  fame,   es- 
pecially       two 
volumes         o  f 
verse     entitled 
U ndertone s 
and        London 
Poems.       His 
other      poetical 
writings  in- 
clude A  Lyrical 
Drama;   The 
Drama     of        ROBERT  BUCHANAN 
Kings;    Ballads 
of    Love,    Life    and    Humor;    The    City    of 


Dreams;  and  The  Wandering  Jew.  HIP 
chief  novels  are  A  Child  of  Nature;  God 
and  the  Man;  Come  Live  with  Me  and  be 
My  Love;  and  The  Shadow  of  the  Sword. 
He  also  wrote  a  bright  jeu  d'esprit,  entitled 
St.  Abe  and  His  Seven  Wives.  He  also 
issued  a  number  of  dramas  and  popular 
plays.  His  biting  pen,  as  a  critic  and  essay- 
ist, made  him  many  enemies;  though  the 
good  in  him,  on  the  other  hand,  won  him 
many  warm  friends.  He  died  June  10,  1901. 
Bucharest  (bod'kd-resf),  the  capital  and 
seat  of  government  of  the  kingdom  of 
Rumania,  which,  since  1861,  includes  the 
now  united  principalities  of  Wallachia  and 
Moldavia,  stands  on  the  plain  of  the  small 
river,  Dambovitza.  The  city  has  a  number 
of  handsome  buildings.  A  university  is 
situated  here,  and  there  is  a  large  trade 
centering  in  Bucharest  between  Austria  and 
the  Balkan  Peninsula.  There  is  an  unusual 
number  of  cafes  and  gambling  houses;  and 
the  presence  of  all  the  vices  and  few  of  the 
refinements  of  Paris  has  given  Bucharest 
the  reputation  of  being  the  most  wicked 
capital  in  Europe.  The  city  has  been  the 
scene  of  many  military  operations,  and  has 
suffered  from  floods,  earthquakes  and  pes- 
tilences. The  population  is  300,000. 

Buck,  Dudley,  an  American  organist  and 
composer,  who  has  achieved  fame  for  his 
song  music,  operettas  and  fine  organ  com- 
positions, was  born  at  Hartford,  Conn.. 
March  10,  1839,  and  received  his  profes- 
sional education  at  the  Leipsic  Conservatory 
of  Music.  For  several  years  he  was  organist 
at  the  Music  Hall,  Boston,  and  latterly 
organist  of  Holy  Trinity  Church,  Brooklyn 
and  director  of  the  Apollo  Club.  He  wrote 
a  number  of  admired  songs,  cantatas  and 
festival  hymns,  besides  several  long  compo- 
sitions, especially  his  Golden  Legend,  based 
on  Longfellow's  well-known  poem  with  that 
title.  He  died  Oct.  6,  1909. 

Buckeye  (genus  JLsculus),  a  group  of 
trees  distinguished  by  large  winter  buds; 
conspicuous  flowers  in  pyramidal  racemes; 
leaves  large,  compound  and  opposite;  large 
nuts  the  fruit.  In  all  the  buckeyes  the 
leaflets  are  branched  at  the  end  of  the  stem. 
There  are  eleven  species,  four  native  to 
this  country.  One  very  well  known  is 
the  Ohio  buckeye,  once  so  abundant  in 
Ohio  as  to  give  the  state  the  name  Buckeye, 
and  the  tree  the  name  Ohio.  It  is  gradually 
becoming  rare,  the  disagreeable  odor  exhaled 
by  the  bark  counting  strongly  against  it. 
The  tree  is  also  known  as  the  fetid  buckeye. 
It  is  found  from  Pennsylvania  south  to 
Alabama,  west  to  Michigan  and  Oklahoma. 
The  bitter  nuts  are  not  edible,  and  are 
poisonous  to  cattle.  The  wood  is  valued 
specially  in  the  making  of  artificial  limbs. 
The  tree  grows  from  20,  40  to  70  feet  high, 
has  slender  spreading  branches,  and  in 
April  and  May  bears  small,  pale  yellow- 
green  flowers. 


BUCKINGHAM 


283 


BUDAPES1 


The  sweet,  yellow  or  big  buckeye,  has 
no  disagreeable  odor,  and  the  nuts  are 
eaten  by  cattle.  It  is  a  tall,  shapely  tree, 
and  bears  an  abundance  of  showy  yellow 
flowers.  The  tree  grows  along  the  Alle- 

fhanies,   south    to    Georgia    and    west    to 
owa. 

The  California  buckeye  grows  along  the 
western  coast,  is  usually  a  small  tree,  and 
has  a  broad  top.  See  Rogers:  The  Tree 
Book;  Lounsberry:  A  Guide  to  th$  Trees, 

Buckingham,  George  Villiers,  Duke  of 
(born  1592,  died  1628),  the  son  of  an 
English  nobleman,  who  rose  to  wealth  and 
power  under  the  Stuarts.  He  accompanied 
Charles  I  to  Madrid  in  his  unsuccessful 
suit  for  the  hand  of  the  Spanish  princess, 
and  made  the  arrangements  for  Charles's 
marriage  with  the  Princess  Henrietta  of 
France.  He  involved  England  in  war,  and 
became  very  unpopular,  but  remained  in 
high  favor  with  the  king,  He  was  finally 
assassinated. 

Buck'land,  William  (born  1784,  died 
1856),  an  English  geologist,  was  lecturer  for 
many  years  at  Oxford  on  mineralogy  and 
geology,  and  by  his  researches  and  writings 
did  much  for  geology  as  a  science.  He 
practically  founded  the  geological  museum 
in  Oxford.  Geology  and  Mineralogy,  Con- 
sidered with  Reference  to  Natural  Theology, 
'«  one  of  his  most  popular  works. 

Buck'ner,  Simon  Boiivar,  a  Confederate 
general,  was  born  in 
1823  in  Kentucky,  grad- 
uated at  West  Point, 
and  took  part  in  the 
War  with  Mexico.  He 
joined  the  southern 
army  in  the  Civil  War 
and  became  a  major- 
general.  After  the  war 
he  settled  in  New  Or- 
leans. Returning  t  o 
Kentucky,  he  was 
elected  governor  of  that 
state  in  1887,  and  in 
1896  was  vice-presiden- 
tial nominee  of  the  sound- 
SIMON  B.  BUCKNER  money  Democrats.  He 

died  January  8,  1914. 

Buck'wheat,  a  kind  of  grain,  believed  to 
be  a  native  of  Asia,  called  by  the  French 
Saracen  wheat.  It  grows  on  poor  soils  and 
matures  quickly,  but  is  destroyed  by  the 
least  frost.  Its  flowering  season  lasts  for  a 
long  time,  so  that  it  is  impossible  for  all  the 
seeds  to  be  at  the  proper  stage  of  develop- 
ment when  it  is  reaped.  The  seeds  furnish  a 
white  flour,  from  which  gruel  is  made  in 
Germany  and  in  Poland,  and  breakfast 
cakes  in  America  and  in  England.  A  dark, 
heavy  bread  is  also  made  from  it  in  France. 
The  flowers  are  rich  in  honey,  and  so  buck- 
wheat is  cultivated  to  feed  bees.  Another 
kind  of  buckwheat  is  called  Siberian  buck- 
wheat, but  it  is  of  a  poor  quality. 


Bud,  a  name  applied  in  general  to  an  un- 
developed shoot  in  which  the  axis  is  nor 
elongated  and  the  leaves  overlap  one  an- 
other. In  general,  buds  may  be  distin- 
guished as  leaf  buds,  which  continue  the 
ordinary  growth  of  the  stem  axis,  and 
flower  buds.  In  the  former  case,  the  bud 
disappears  by  the  elongation  of  the  axis 
and  the  separation  of  the  leaves.  In  the 
latter  case  it  disappears  by  the  opening  oi 
the  flower. 

Budapest  (bdo'dd-pe'st),  the  capital  oi 
Hungary,  consisting  of  the  now  united  cities 
of  Buda  and  Pest,  situated  on  both  banks 
of  the  Danube.  Within  recent  years  the 
city  has  become  one  of  the  finest  capitals 
of  Europe,  and  its  growth  and  enterprise 
resemble  those  of  our  western  cities.  The 
two  parts  are  connected  by  a  magnificent 
suspension  bridge.  Buda  is  built  in  the 
form  of  an  amphitheater  around  a  hill,  which 
rises  485  feet  above  the  sea  and  is  crowned 
by  a  citadel  and  a  royal  palace.  The 
Blocksburg  promontory  rises  abruptly  to 
a  still  greater  height.  On  its  top  is  a  now 
useless  citadel,  and  its  sides  are  dotted  with 
villas.  Just  out  of  Buda,  in  a  little  plain 
surrounded  by  high  hills,  are  the  well 
known  bitter-water  springs,  which  have 
made  the  name  of  Hungary  more  famous, 
perhaps,  than  any  other  article  of  export. 
On  the  other  side  of  the  river,  the  ancient 
and  inner  part  of  Pest  is  surrounded  by  a 
series  of  boulevards;  while  others  branch 
out  from  them  in  straight  lines  to  the  outer 
environs  of  the  city  The  finest  street  in 
Budapest,  and  one  of  the  handsomest  in 
Europe,  is  Andrassy  Street,  which  is  two 
miles  long.  It  is  divided  into  a  central 
driveway,  with  sidewalks,  narrower  drive- 
ways next  the  sidewalks,  and  graveled 
riding  courses  between  the  central  and 
outer  driveways.  It  connects  the  inner 
city  with  a  beautiful  park  of  1,000  acres 
The  Margaretta  island,  which  lies  in  the 
Danube,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  city, -two 
miles  long  and  a  half  mile  wide,  is  also  kept 
as  a  pleasure  ground.  The  river  is  lined 
for  three  miles  with  stone  quays,  leading 
up  to  promenades,  along  which  are  rows 
of  fine  buildings,  broken  by  open  parks 
and  adorned  with  statues  of  Hungarian 
heroes.  The  city  government  controls  many 
institutions  which  in  the  United  States 
are  under  private  companies,  such  as  thea- 
ters, opera  houses,  street  railways,  etc. 
The  university  and  special  schools,  the 
national  museum,  the  250  periodicals  and 
a  dozen  or  more  daily  papers  pub- 
lished in  the  city  are  among  the  liter- 
ary advantages  of  the  place.  All  the 
Hungarian  railroads  center  in  Buda- 
pest, and  its  trade  by  the  Danube  is 
extensive.  Next  to  Minneapolis,  on  this 
continent,  it  is  the  great  milling  cen- 
ter of  the  world.  Total  population  (1910), 
880,371. 


BUDDHA 


284 


BUENA  VISTA 


Buddha  (bdod'dd),  the  founder  of  the 
religion  known  as  Buddhism.  Although 
this  religion  has  now  existed  for  2,500  years, 
and  its  followers  are  counted  as  more  than 
340,000,000,  or  nearly  one  fourth  of  the 
human  race,  it  is  only  within  recent  years 
that  the  discovery  and  study  of  Buddhist 
sacred  books  has  made  known  to  western 
nations  the  nature  and  birth  of  this  world- 
religion.  It  began  about  the  beginning  of 
the  6th  century  B.  C.,  in  the  north  of  Hindu- 
stan. Buddha,  the  founder,  was  a  prince 
named  Siddhartha;  but  he  is  often  called 
Sakya  and  Gautama.  Buddha,  or  more 
properly  the  Buddha,  is  the  title  given  him 
m  his  state  of  perfection,  and  means  the 
Enlightened  One  or  he  to  whom  truth 
is  known.  This  prince,  as  the  story  runs, 
was  of  a  thoughtful  disposition,  and  his 
father,  fearing  that  he  would  desert  his 
high  position  and  take  to  a  religious  life, 
had  him  married  to  a  charming  princess 
and  surrounded  him  with  all  the  splendors 
of  a  luxurious  court.  He  was,  however, 
in  spite  of  his  surroundings,  constantly 
brooding  over  the  thought  of  old  age,  of 
loathsome  sickness  and  death  and  of  the 
unknown  future  after  death.  After  twelve 
years  passed  thus,  he  escaped  from  the 
palace  and  began  a  strict  religious  life.  He 
was  now  about  thirty  years  old.  He  cut  off 
his  long  locks,  the  sign  of  his  high  caste,  and 
studied  all  that  the  Brahmans  could  teach 
him,  but  found  no  satisfaction.  He  sat 
thinking  for  weeks,  and  at  last  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  ignorance  is  the  cause  of 
all  evil  and  that  by  getting  rid  of  ignorance, 
we  can  be  free  from  all  miseries.  After 
various  stages  of  thought,  he  himself  be- 
came free  from  ignorance,  and  attained 
the  "perfect  wisdom"  of  the  Buddha.  He 
began  to  preach  this  strange  gospel  at 
Benares,  and  for  forty  years  traveled  over 
northern  India,  making  many  converts. 
He  died  at  Kusinagara,  at  the  age  of  eighty, 
in  the  year  472  B.  C. 

BUDDHISM  has  now  little  hold  in  India, 
the  land  of  its  birth;  but  it  has  full  sway 
in  Ceylon  and  over  the  whole  Indo-Chinese 
peninsula;  it  prevails  in  China  and  to 
some  extent  in  Japan;  it  is  the  religion  of 
Tibet,  of  the  Mongolian  population  of 
central  Asia  and  southern  Siberia  and  of 
the  Tartar  tribes  on  the  lower  Volga.  As 
a  system  of  belief,  Buddhism  holds  that 
existence  is  on  the  whole  a  curse,  and  so 
it  seeks  final  rest,  in  what  is  called  Nirvana 
cr  nothingness — non-existence.  Death,  how- 
ever, does  not  bring  this  rest,  for  it  leads 
only  to  another  state  of  existence,  as  a 
person,  a  spirit,  an  animal,  an  insect,  a 
plant  or  even  an  inanimate  thing,  according 
to  the  merit  or  demejrit  of  the  departed. 
The  Nirvana  ft  gained  by  eight  things: 
right  faith,  right  judgment,  right  language, 
right  purpose,  right  practice,  right  obedi- 
ence, right  memory  and  right  meditation. 


There  are  many  moral  precepts  and  direc- 
tions and  certain  virtues  which  lead  directly 
to  it.  The  great  virtue  of  the  religion  is 
benevolence.  Buddhism  knows  no  supreme 
God  or  Creator,  and  as  an  intellectual  belief 
is  of  little  value;  but  as  a  system  of  morals 
it  ranks  only  second  to  Christianity.  Since 
the  time  of  its  founder  its  worship  has  been 
disfigured  by  countless  extravagant  and 
childish  forms  and  ceremonials. 

Buell  (bu'el),  Don  Carlos,  an  American 
general,  was  born  near  Marietta,  O.,  in  1818. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841  and 
took  part  in  several  battles  in  the  Mexican 
War,  being  severely  wounded  at  Churu- 
busco.  From  the  era  of  the  Mexican  to 
that  of  the  Civil  War,  he  was  assistant 
adjutant-general  in  different  departments. 
After  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  he 
helped  for  a  time  in  organizing  the  army 
at  Washington;  then  became  commander 
of  the  department  °f  the  Ohio,  and  later 
was  made  major- 
general  of  volun- 
teers. At  the  bat- 
tle of  Shiloh  his 
forces  came  to  the 
aid  of  General 
Grant,  and  with 
their  help  the  Con- 
federates were  de- 
feated on  the  sec- 
ond day  of  the 
battle.  A  few 
months  later  he 
was  given  com- 
mand of  the  new 
district  of  the 
Ohio.  The  Confederate  force  under  Gen- 
eral Bragg  entered  Kentucky  and  threat- 
ened Louisville  and  Cincinnati.  A  part 
of  this  force  was  met  by  a  part  of  Buell 's 
army  at  Perryville,  October  8,  1862,  and  aa 
indecisive  battle  was  fought,  Buell  allowing 
the  Confederates  to  retreat  without  attempt- 
ing to  follow  them.  His  command  was  given 
to  General  Rosecrans  in  the  same  month, 
and  a  court  of  inquiry  was  ordered  to  in- 
vestigate his  conduct,  but  he  was  acquitted. 
He  became  president  of  the  Green  River 
Iron  Works,  in  Kentucky,  in  1865,  and 
died  on  November  19,  1898. 

Buena  Vista  (bwd'na  ves'ta  or  bu'na 
vts'ta),  a  village  in  Mexico,  near  which  the 
American  forces  under  General  Taylor  de- 
feated the  Mexicans  under  General  Santa 
Anna,  on  February  23,  1847.  Taylor  had 
a  force  of  5,000  men  and  Santa  Anna  had 
20,000.  The  American  forces  occupied  a 

Eosition  which  made  it  almost  impossible 
sr  the  Mexicans  to  make  use  of  their  artil- 
lery or  cavalry.  Slight  skirmishes  took 
place  on  February  22;  but  the  main  attack 
by  the  Mexicans  began  the  following 
morning  and  lasted  the  whole  day,  Santa 
Anna  being  finally  drfven  back  and  re- 
treating during  the  night  The  America^ 


GENERAL  BUELL 


BUENOS  AVRES 


885 


BUFFALO-FISH 


loss  was  746 ;    that  of   the  Mexicans  being 
2,000. 

Buenos  Ayres  (bo'nus  a'riz,  Sp.  pron. 
bwd'nos  I'r&s),  the  federal  capital  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  stands  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  River  Plata,  150  miles  from  the 
open  sea.  The  river  here  is  36  miles 
across,  but  very  shallow,  a  difficulty  which 
is  being  remedied  by  a  vast  system  of  har- 
bor works.  Besides  the  coast  and  foreign 
trade,  there  is  a  large  overland  traffic  to 
Chile.  The  absence  of  any  good  fuel  near 
at  hand  and  of  stones  and  timber  for  build- 
ing purposes,  has  been  a  great  disadvantage 
to  the  city.  It  is,  however,  being  greatly 
built  up,  in  modern  style,  and  has  a  number 
of  fine  buildings,  among  them  one  of  the 
finest  cathedrals  in  South  America.  The 
six  railroads,  also,  which  have  their  termini 
here,  have  many  of  them  handsome  depots. 
There  are  also  a  university  and  a  military 
college;  while  its  extensive  mileage  of 
street  railroad  lines  and  an  extensive  tele- 
phone system  are  among  recent  improve- 
ments. Europe  and  the  United  States  are 
connected  with  the  city  by  cable.  Buenos 
Ayres  was  founded  in  1535,  but  was  twice 
destroyed  by  the  Indians.  It  became  in- 
dependent of  Spain  in  1810.  The  commerce 
of  the  country,  which  passes  through  the 
ports  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  Montevideo, 
consists  chiefly  of  wheat  and  other  grains, 
mutton,  sheep-skins,  wool,  tallow  and 
stearine.  Its  population  (estimated  1911), 
I>3I9,747J  population  of  the  province  of  this 
name,  1,796,320;  area,  117,777  square  miles. 
Buffalo.  Two  kinds  of  cattle — the  Asiatic 
buffalo  and  the  Cape  buffalo — properly 
receive  this  name.  The  Asiatic  form  is  a 
native  of  India;  it 
has  been  domesti- 
cated and  carried 
into  Greece,  Italy 
and  Egypt.  It  is 
larger  and  more 
powerful  than  an 
ox.  It  is  fond  of 
water,  and  will 
stand  for  hours 
^with  only  its  head 
above  the  surface. 
The  Cape  buffalo 
is  found  in  Cen- 
tral and  South 
Africa.  It  grazes 
chiefly  at  night, 
and  lies  in  the  woods  and  thickets  during 
the  day.  It  has  never  been  domesticated. 
It  is  very  fierce  and  cunning,  and  often 
attacks  without  provocation.  Its  skin  is 
so  tough  that  it  is  made  into  shields  by  the 
Kaffirs.  The  so-called  American  buffalo  is 
the  bison  (which  see). 

A  faithful  bird-friend  it  has,  the  buffalo- 
bird,  which  closely  attends  it,  picks  para- 
sites from  its  hide,  and  gives  note  of 
alarm  at  the  approach  of  danger.  The 


1.  Head  of  Cape  Buffalo 

2.  Head  of  Indian  Buffalo 


Indian  or  water  -  buffalo  is  of  great 
service,  owing  to  his  strength  and  his 
ability  to  labor,  in  wet  grounds.  It  is 
a  very  interesting  sight  to  see  this  huge 
creature  at  work  in  the  rice  fields,  his  head 
always  low  down,  nose  thrust  far  in  front. 
There  are  still  some  wild  herds  to  be  found 
of  the  Indian  buffalo,  the  largest  of  all 
wild  cattle,  a  very  dangerous  animal,  able 
to  worst  a  tiger  in  combat.  The  so-called 
American  buffalo  is  the  bison.  (See  BISON.) 

Buffalo,  a  western  city  of  New  York 
state,  at  the  eastern  end  of  Lake  Erie,  at 
the  head  of  Niagara  River.  It  has  37  miles 
of  water  frontage,  12  miles  of  which  are  on 
Buffalo  River  and  the  remainder  is  on  the 
outer  harbor  along  the  lake  front  and  on 
Niagara  River.  It  has  one  of  the  best  har- 
bors on  the  lake,  formed  by  the  Buffalo 
River,  the  entrance  being  protected  by  an 
immense  breakwater,  4,000  feet  in  length. 
A  new  harbor  has  also  been  made  by  the 
building  of  a  breakwater  in  the  Niagara 
River.  The  city  is  a  desirable  place  of 
residence,  especially  in  summer,  during  which 
the  lake  breezes  moderate  the  temperature. 
It  has  a  beautiful  series  of  parks  connected  by 
broad  driveways.  It  has  nearly  200 
churches  and  many  fine  public  and  business 
buildings.  Its  railway  facilities  are  great, 
while  it  has  the  advantage  of  the  trade  of 
the  Barge  Canal.  Its  commerce  has  grown 
wonderfully  in  recent  years,  and  it  is  now 
the  fourth  shipping  city  in  the  New  World. 
The  first  grain  elevator  on  the  lakes  was 
built  here,  and  it  now  has  22  elevators 
with  25,350,000  bushels'  capacity.  It  has 
2,200  manufactories,  and  handles  great 
quantities  of  flour,  lumber,  coal  and  min- 
eral ores.  It  is  supplied  with  natural  gas, 
piped  from  Pennsylvania  and  from  Canada, 
and  with  electric  power  from  Niagara  Falls 
tunnel.  It  has  over  375  miles  of  street-rail- 
way and  376  miles  of  paved  streets,  in- 
cluding 250  miles  of  asphalt  thoroughfares. 
Pure  water  is  supplied  from  Lake  Erie. 
There  are  a  good  system  of  public  schools 
and  several  colleges  and  seminaries,  as  well 
as  public  and  private  libraries.  The  town 
was  burned  in  the  War  of  181 2  by  the  British 
and  Indians.  In  1901  Buffalo  was  the  seat 
of  the  Pan-American  Exposition,  and  the 
mecca  for  travelers  and  sight  seers  from 
Europe  and  all  parts  of  the  New  World. 
It  was  here  (on  September  6,  1901),  that 
President  McKinley  was  assassinated  by 
an  anarchist.  Population,  454,112. 

Buffalo  -  Berry,  a  shrub  with  small 
silvery  leaves,  which  bears  red  or  yellow 
fruit  the  size  of  a  currant.  It  is  some- 
times planted  as  an  ornamental  shrub.  It 
is  a  native  of  cold,  dry  regions  of  north- 
western North  America. 

Buffalo  Bill.  See  CODY,  WILLIAM  FRED- 
ERICK. 

Buffalo -Fish,  a  dark  colored  fish  with 
humped  back  and  large  head,  found  in  the 


BUFFALO-GNAT 


BULGARIA 


Mississippi  valley.  It  is  one  of  the  suckers, 
and  the  flesh  is  poor. 

Buffalo -Gnat,  a  rival  to  the  mosquito 
in  bloodthirstiness,  a  dreaded  enemy  of 
man  and  beast,  that  ravages  in  the  Mississ- 
ippi and  Missouri  valleys.  These  gnats 
kill  poultry  and  domestic  animals.  Their 
bite  is  poisonous  and,  attacking  as  they  do 
in  droves,  causes  much  loss  of  blood.  They 
fly  and  bite  in  the  day  time.  The  larvae 
are  aquatic,  found  on  rocks  and  logs  in 
swift  streams. 

Buffalo -Grass,  a  highly  valued  grass 
common  in  the  West,  from  Manitoba  to 
Texas.  It  is  low  and  spreading,  spreads 
rapidly  by  runners,  is  easily  propagated 
and  is  adapted  to  regions  of  little  rainfall. 
All  stock  enjoy  it. 

Buffalo-Moth.      See  CARPET  BEETLE. 

Buff  on  (bXff&n,  Fr.  buf'fdri),  Georges 
Louis  Leclerc,  Count  de,  a  French  scien- 
tist (born  1707,  died  1788).  He  was  of  a 
wealthy  family  and  educated  for  the  law; 
but,  after  traveling  for  a  time,  decided  to 
devote  himself  to  science.  In  1739'  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Scien- 
ces, and  appointed  director  of  the  Royal 
Garden.  This  gave  him  opportunity  to 
study  animals  widely.  His  Natural  History, 
in  fifteen  volumes,  is  written  in  the  finest 
literary  style  and  created  a  great  popular 
interest  in  natural  history.  Rosseau  is 
said  to  have  kissed  the  steps  of  the  pavilion 
in  which  the  book  was  written.  He  was 
a  great  thinker  and  one  of  the  pioneers 
in  the  modern  doctrine  of  evolution.  The 
History  of  Birds,  The  History  of  Minerals 
and  Epochs  of  Nature  are  other  works  of 
his  which  are  well-known. 

Building -Material.  In  the  mammoth 
structures  which  our  modern  building  era 
has  made  us  all  familiar  with,  more  impor- 
tant than  ever  is  the  necessity  of  having 
good  sound  material  for  their  erection,  so 
as  to  withstand  the  severe  strain  now  im- 
posed upon  all  departments  of  the  builder's 
and  constructor's  work.  In  earlier  times 
the  erection  of  buildings  was  for  the  most 
part  a  matter  of  mere  masonry,  calling  into 
exercise,  in  addition  to  the  architect,  the 
bricklayer's  or  stonemason's  work;  to-day, 
in  this  era  of  immense  steel  structures, 
the  demands  are  more  extensive  and  com- 
plicated, calling  not  only  for  materials  of 
greater  strength  and  endurance,  as  well  as 
for  increased  fireproof  protection,  but  also 
for  elaborate  plumbing,  heating  and  ven- 
tilating arrangements,  and  for  stone,  granite, 
concrete  or  iron  and  steel  that'  will  resist 
crushing  weights  and  defy  deterioration 
by  the  changes  in  weather  and  temperature. 
So  vast,  and  occasionally  so  elaborate,  are 
the  structures  of  our  modern  day  that  the 
building  of  them,  under  the  architect's 
supervision,  has  to  be  undertaken  not  only 
by  specialized  labor,  but  let  out  to  various 
contracting  and  sub-contracting  firms, 


each  responsible  for  its  own  assigned  task, 
and  turned  out  by  the  use  of  material 
either  where  the  building  is  to  be  erected, 
or,  more  generally,  in  yards,  workshops 
and  factories  where  specialized  work  is 
made  ready,  as  demand  calls  for,  on  a  large 
scale,  and  that  whether  it  be  vaults,  beams, 
joists,  arches,  balustrades,  railings,  baths, 
doors,  windows,  mantels,  moldings,  stair- 
cases, encaustic  tiles,  wardrobes,  belts  and 
belting,  roofing  material,  boilers,  radiators, 
furnaces,  ranges,  sinks  and  light  and  heat- 
ing plant.  When  these  rough  essentials 
are  furnished  and  placed,  then  come  the 
plumbing,  lathing  and  plastering  operations, 
the  fireproofing,  glazing,  painting,  papering 
and  general  finishing  and  decorating, — the 
processes  of  all  being  well  known,  and  the 
materials  of  which,  including  the  skilled 
labor  in  using  and  applying  them,  should 
be  of  the  best  quality  and  the  most  work- 
manlike and  satisfactory. 

Bulb.  In  a  certain  sense  a  bulb  is  a  bud 
whose  leaves  have  become  fleshy  through 
storage  of  reserve  food.  This  simply  means 
that  it  is  a  shoot  whose  axis  has  remained 
short  and  whose  overlapping  leaves  have 
become  thickened.  A  further  difference  be- 
tween a  bud  and  bulb  is  that  in  the  latter 
case  it  is  not  the  whole  leaf,  which  is  thick- 
ened, but  merely  the  leaf  bases,  as  in  the 
hyacinth  and  onion. 

Bul'bel,  bulbs  which  grow  from  the  main 
bulb,  or  which  are  formed  by  the  breaking 
apart  of  the  main  bulb.  What  is  known  as 
the  potato-onion  is  an  example  of  the 
latter  phase. 

Bulb'let,  small  bulbs  which  are  borne  in 
connection  with  the  foliage  or  flowers.  For 
example,  "  top  onions"  bear  bulBlets  in  the 
flower  cluster,  while  the  tiger  lily  bears 
bulblets  in  the  axils  of  its  leaves. 

Bulga'ria,  including  Bulgaria  proper, 
occupies  a  part  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula, 
and  lies  between  the  Danube  and  the 
Balkan  Mountains,  and,  with  Eastern  Rume- 
lia  to  the  south,  is  a  tributary  principality 
of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  under  the  Sultan 
of  Turkey.  On  its  eastern  border  is  the 
Black  Sea,  on  its  western  Servia;  while 
it  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Rumania 
and  on  the  south  by  Turkey. 

Natural  Resources.  With  a  fine  agricul- 
tural country,  a  broad  seaboard,  the  fine 
waterway  of  the  Danube  on  her  northern 
boundary,  a  mild  climate,  one  of  the  most 
liberal  constitutions  in  Europe  and  an  en- 
ergetic people,  Bulgaria  has  great  possi- 
bilities. 

Occupations.  There  is  in  Bulgaria  con- 
siderable agricultural  and  cattle  raising  in- 
dustry; also  wine-making,  tobacco  growing 
and  manufactures  of  silk  and  the  attar  of 
roses. 

Cities.  Sofia,  the  capital,  has  a  popu- 
lation of  102,769.  The  other  chief  towns 
are  Varna,  41,317,  a  fortress  on  the  Black 


BULL 


287 


BULL-FIGHT 


Sea,  Plevna,  23,081,  and  Rustchuk,  35,823. 
At  Sofia  there  is  a  university,  with  50 
professors  and  about  800  students. 

History.  The  present  Bulgarians  came 
in  the  6th  century  from  the  banks  of  the 
Volga  and  overran  the  country.  They 
gained  power,  and  at  one  time  ruled  over 
Macedonia,  Thessaly,  Epirus  and  Albania; 
while  their  prince  styled  himself  the  auto- 
crat of  all  the  Bulgarians  and  Greeks,  and 
looked  forward  to  a  great  empire  of  Slavs. 
They  fell,  however,  under  the  power  of  the 
Byzantine  Empire  and,  later,  under  the 
Turks,  lost  all  their  civilization,  and  their 
warlike  character  seemed  gone  forever. 
But  about  the  middle  of  the  igth  century  a 
national  feeling  began  to  stir  again,  and 
literature,  newspapers,  and  schools  grew 
up.  The  Bulgarian  atrocities  in  1876, 
in  which  many  thousands  of  Christians 
were  killed  by  their  Turkish  neighbors, 
aroused  the  interest  of  Europe  in  Bulgaria, 
and  the  next  year  Russia,  as  the  assumed 
guardian  of  the  Slavic  races,  made  war 
against  Turkey.  By  the  treaty  of  Berlin, 
1878,  Bulgaria  was  made  a  self-governing 
state,  but  her  choice  of  a  ruler  must  be  con- 
firmed by  Turkey  and  the  powers  of  Europe. 
Prince  Alexander  of  Battenberg,  by  the 
choice  of  the  people,  became  Alexander  I 
of  Bulgaria  in  1879,  and  in  the  following 
year  Eastern  Rumelia  united  with  Bulgaria. 
A  war  with  Servia  followed,  in  which  Bul- 
garia was  completely  successful,  through 
the  bravery  and  generalship  of  her  prince, 
who  became  the  idol  of  the  people.  Russia, 
however,  grew  hostile  to  him,  and  in  the  in- 
terest of  Bulgaria  he  surrendered  the  throne. 
In  1887  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg  oc- 
cupied the  vacant  throne.  In  1908  Bulgaria 
proclaimed  complete  independence  of  Rus- 
sia and  Ferdinand  assumed  the  title  of  Czar. 

EASTERN  RUMELIA  is  in  many  respects  in 
advance  of  Bulgaria  proper,  as  it  has 
been  longer  open  to  influence.  The 
production  of  attar  of  roses  is  one  of  its 
most  valuable  industries.  Sofia  and  Philip- 
popolis  are  the  two  capitals.  The  army 
consists  of  about  52,500  men,  with  a  military 
college  at  Sofia.  There  is  also  a  small 
fleet.  The  total  area  of  Bulgaria,  including 
both  parts,  is  38,080  square  miles,  or  a 
little  larger  than  Indiana,  and  the  popula- 
tion of  the  whole  principality  is  4,329,108. 
Eastern  Rumelia  has  a  population  of  1,174,- 
535.  with  an  area  of  13,700  square  miles. 
Philippopolis,  the  capital,  has  a  population 
of  47,929- 

Bull,  Ole  Bornemann,  a  Norwegian  vio- 
linist (born  1810,  died  1880).  His  father 
was  greatly  opposed  to  his  studying  music, 
but  in  1829  he  went  to  study  under  a 
musician  in  a  German  town.  He  became 
discouraged  and  proceeded  to  Gottingen  to 
study  law,  but  afterwards  went  to  Paris 
where  the  celebrated  violinist,  Paganini,  was 
present  at  his  de"but.  After  a  period  of 


misfortune,  he  became  famous  as  a  player. 
He  traveled  through  Italy,  Great  Britain, 

Russia,  Germa- 
ny and  Norway, 
his  reputation 
'increasing  all 
the  time.  In 
v844  he  came 
to  America,  and 
nine  years  later 
he  made  this 
country  a  sec- 
ond visit,  play- 
ing to  immense 
crowds  a  n  0 
making  a  large 
fortune,  most  of 
which  he  lost  in 
OLE  BULL  land-specula- 

tions. One  of  his  land-schemes  was  the 
buying  of  a  great  tract  in  Pennsylvania, 
upon  which  he  founded  a  Scandinavian 
colony,  later  called  Oleana.  The  plan 

? roved  a  failure,  and  the  colony  broke  up. 
n    1869    he    once   more   visited   America. 
He  died  at  Bergen,  Norway,  in  1880. 

Bull-Dog,  a  large-headed,  strong-jawed 
variety  of  dog,  of  the  mastiff  type  common 
in  England,  and  used  in  olden  days  in  boar- 
hunting  and  bull-baiting.  Nowadays  they 
are  commonly  reared  as  watch-dogs,  or 
crossed  with  other  breeds  and  their  temper 
modified,  as  pets  and  faithful  companions 
of  man.  In  color  the  usual  varieties  are 
brindle,  red,  fawn,  white  or  piebald;  in 
weight  they  are  about  50  pounds,  compact 
in  shape  and  thick-set.  Other  species  in- 
clude the  toy  bull-dog,  and  the  French 
bull-dog,  the  latter  familiar  now  in  this 
country  as  a  house  dog  of  good  disposition. 
Btiller,  General  Sir  Redvers,  V.C., 
a  British  officer  in  command  of  the  Natal 
Force  in  the  Boer  War  of  1899-1901,  who, 
after  many  disheartening  reverses,  effected 
the  relief  of  Ladysmith,  and  returned  to 
England  in  November,  1900.  He  was  born 
in  England  in  1840,  and  as  an  officer  of  the 
6oth  Rifles  saw  much  service  in  the  China 
Expedition  of  1860,  in  the  Red  River 
Rebellion  (in  northwestern  Canada),  in 
Ashanti  and  in  the  Kaffir  and  Zulu  Wars  in 
South  Africa.  In  the  war  with  the  Boers, 
that  broke  out  in  October,  1899,  he  had 
chief  command  of  the  first  army-corps  sent 
from  England  to  South  Africa,  and  was 
conspicuous  in  the  operations  which  led  to 
the  relief  of  Ladysmith.  He  died  in  Eng- 
land, June  2,  1908. 

Bull -Fight,  a  Spanish  amusement.  It 
was  introduced  by  the  Moors  and  soon  spread 
over  all  the  kingdom.  Each  city  has  its 
arena,  some  very  magnificent,  called  place 
of  the  bulls,  for  carrying  on  this  sport. 
The  bulls  are  let  loose  in  the  open  space, 
one  at  a  time.  Horsemen  begin  the  attack 
armed  with  lances,  and  if  one  of  the  horses 
is  ripped  up,  as  often  happens,  a  crowd  of 


BULFINCH 


288 


BULWER-LYTTON 


footmen  with  red  banners  take  up  the 
attention  of  the  bull,  while  the  rider  escapes. 
Men  armed  with  sharp,  barbed  darts,  with 
fireworks  and  flags  attached  to  them,  next 
torment  the  victim.  Finally  the  main  actor 
enters  the  arena  clad  in  black,  and,  armed 
with  a  long,  straight  sword,  he  soon  ends 
the  sport,  driving  his  blade  up  to  the  hilt 
into  the  bull,  where  the  neck  joins  the  spine. 

Bulfinch,  Thomas  (1796-1867),  the 
author  of  the  Age  of  Fable  (1855),  a  remark- 
able and  well-written  book,  and  of  many 
literary  and  historical  studies,  was  a  native 
of  Boston,  Mass.  He  was  a  student  of 
Phillips  Exeter  Academy;  and  a  graduate 
of  Harvard  University  (1814).  Mr.  Bul- 
finch was  a  business  man  and  banker  as 
well  as  an  author.  Among  his  works  are 
Legends  of  Charlemagne,  Poetry  of  the  Age 
of  Fable,  the  Hebrew  Lyrical  History,  the 
Age  of  Chivalry,  Oregon  and  Eldorado  and 
the  Boy  Inventor.  Mr.  Bulfinch  was  an  in- 
timate friend  of  the  poet  Longfellow. 

Bull  Run,  a  small  stream  in  northeastern 
Virginia,  upon  whose  banks  were  fought  two 
severe  battles  of  the  Civil  War,  both  of 
which  resulted  in  defeat  to  the  Federal  arms. 
The  first  battle  of  Bull  Run  was  fought 
July  21,  1 86 1,  and  was  the  first  important 
engagement  of  the  war.  The  Union  army, 
35,000  strong,  was  commanded  by  General 
Irvin  McDowell;  the  Confederate  army, 
numbering  about  32,000,  was  under  General 
Beauregard.  The  fight  began  in  the  early 
morning,  and  until  noon  the  advantage  was 
with  the  Federal  forces,  which  crossed  Bull 
Run  and  attempted  to  turn  the  confederate 
left;  but  in  the  afternoon  the  Confederates 
were  re-enforced,  the  Federal  lines  gave 
way  before  the  onset  of  fresh  troops,  and 
finally  retreated  in  confusion  and  disorder. 
The  effect  of  this  battle  was  greatly  to  en- 
courage and  strengthen  the  south,  while 
the  n  orth  proceeded  to  prepare  for  a  struggle 
which  it  was  now  seen  must  be  stubborn 
and  prolonged.  On  the  same  field  a  second 
and  terrible  battle  was  fought  on  the  2gth 
and  3oth  of  August,  1862,  between  the 
Confederate  army  under  General  Lee  and 
the  Union  forces  under  Major-General  John 
Pope.  After  two  days'  hard  fighting,  Pope 
was  defeated  and  compelled  to  retreat.  He 
charged  his  defeat  to  the  tardy  support 
which  was  given  him  by  certain  divisions 
of  McClellan's  army,  which  had  been  sent 
to  him,  and  particularly  to  positive  dis- 
obedience of  orders  by  General  Fitz-John 
Porter,  who  withheld  re-enforcements  dur- 
ing the  crisis  of  the  battle.  Porter  was 
afterward  courtmartialed  and  dismissed  from 
the  service,  but  was  later  on  restored. 

Bulpw  (bu'16)  Prince  Bernard  von,  Ger- 
man imperial  chancellor  in  succession  to 
Prince  Hohenh>he,  who  retired  in  1900 
and  died  in  the  following  year.  Prince 
von  Bulow  was  born  in  1849,  m  Holstein, 
studied  at  Lausanne,  Leipsic  and  Berlin. 


served  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  and 
entered  the  German  Foreign  Office  in  1874. 
In  his  early  diplomatic  career  he  was 
successively  secretary  of  legation  at  Rome, 
St.  Petersburg,  Vienna  and  Paris;  charge 
d'  affaires  at  Athens;  and  secretary  at 
the  Berlin  Congress.  In  1897  he  was 
named  Foreign  Secretary  at  Berlin,  and  as 
such  concluded  with  Spain  the  treaty  by 
which  Germany  became  possessor  of  the 
Mariana  and  Caroline  Islands.  In  1899 
he  was  created  a  count  and  in  1900  became 
German  Chancellor,  after  which  he  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  prince  of  the 
Empire,  as  well  as  prime  minister  of  Prussia. 

Biilow  (bu'lo),  Hans  Quido  von,  a  Ger- 
man musician,  born  at  Dresden  in  1830, 
and  died  February  12,  1894.  He  studied 
law  for  a  time,  but  by  the  advice  of  Wagner 
and  Liszt  decided  to  devote  himself  to  the 
study  of  music,  which  he  did  under  Liszt 
for  two  years.  In  1855  he  was  made 
professor  of  the  piano  in  the  Conservatory 
of  Music  at  Berlin,  and  later  went  on  con- 
cert tours  through  Germany  and  Russia, 
gaining  a  great  reputation  as  a  pianist. 
In  j867  he  became  chapel-master  to  the 
king  of  Bavaria  at  Munich,  and  in  1880 
he  was  made  director  of  music  to  the  court 
at  Meiningen.  He  wrote  about  thirty  musi- 
cal works,  and  composed  many  songs  and 
short  pieces.  He  was  one  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful orchestra-leaders  in  Europe,  and 
as  a  pianist  had  few  equals.  He  died  at 
Cairo,  Egypt,  on  Feb.  i2th,  1894. 

Bul'wer-Lyt'ton,  Edward  George  Earle 
Lytton,  Baron  Lytton,  an  English  novel- 
ist, was  born  in  Norfolk  in  1803.  He 
belonged  to  a  very  old  English  family,  and 
was  educated  at  Cambridge  University. 
In  1826  he  wrote  his  first  poetry  for  publi- 
cation, and  in  the  next  year  his  first  novel, 
Falkland,  appeared.  After  that  his  writings 
were  published  in  rapid  succession,  among 
the  earlier  ones  being  Eugene  Aram,  Pelham, 
Last  Days  of  Pompeii,  Rienzi  the  Last  of 
the  Tribunes,  Zanoni  and  The  Last  of  the 
Barons.  He  was  also  successful  in  the 
writing  of  dramas,  Richelieu  and  The  Lady 
of  Lyons  being  the  best  known.  He  entered 
Parliament  in  1831  and  became  a  prominent 
member,  being  made  secretary  of  state  for 
the  colonies  in  Lord  Derby's  cabinet  in 
1858.  Most  of  his  later  works  were  first 
published  in  magazines,  of  which  the  most 
celebrated  are  The  Caxtons,  Harold  the 
Last  of  the  Saxon  Kings,  My  Novel,  A 
Strange  Story  and  Caxtoniana,  the  last  be- 
ing a  collection  of  essays.  Bulwer  con- 
sidered King  Arthur,  an  epic  poem,  his  best 
work.  His  novels  are  very  popular  and 
have  been  translated  into  several  languages. 
He  was  made  a  peer  and  given  the  title 
Baron  Lytton  in  1866.  His  death  occurred 
in  1873.  Lord  Lytton 's  son,  Robert,  in- 
herited much  of  his  father's  gifts,  especially 
as  a  poet.  His  best  known  work  is  Lucile, 


BUNKER  HILL 


289 


BUNTING 


published  under  the  nom  de  plume  of  Owen 
Meredith.  He  is  also  known  as  a  states- 
man and  diplomat,  having  filled  the  offices 
of  governor-general  of  India  (1878-80)  and 
of  ambassador  to  France  (1887-91).  Lord 
Robert  Lytton  was  born  at  London  in  1831, 
and  died  at  Paris  in  1891. 

Bun'ker  Hill,  an  historic  elevation  in 
Charlestown,  now  a  part  of  Boston,  Mass. 
It  is  about  100  feet  high,  and  is  connected 
by  a  ridge  with  another  smaller  hill,  called 
Breed's  Hill.  These  hills  are  where  the 
famous  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  was  fought  be- 
tween the  British  and  American  troops,  June 
17,  1775.  The  British  had  possession  of  Bos- 
ton, and  Generals  Howe,  Clinton  and  Bur- 
goyne  had  just  arrived  from  England  with  a 
large  body  of  troops.  The  American  militia 
and  the  volunteers  were  encamped  at  Cam- 
bridge, three  miles  from  Boston.  The  news 
had  come  to  the  Americans  that  General 
Gage  was  planning  to  fortify  Dorchester 
Heights,  and  in  order  to  prevent  this  1,000 
men  under  Col.  William  Prescott  were  sent 
to  Charlestown  on  the  night  of  June  16  to 
fortify  Bunker  Hill.  General  Putnam  and 
Major  Brooks  joined  them,  and  after  reach- 
ing Bunker  Hill  without  attracting  the 
attention  of  the  British,  it  was  decided 
to  throw  up  the  breastwork  on  Breed's 
Hill  instead,  as  it  was  nearer  Boston.  At 
daybreak  the  British  sailors  on  the  ships 
anchored  in  the  harbor,  descried  the  forti- 
fication and  began  firing  upon  it.  Prescott 
extended  the  fortification  by  filling  up  with 
hay  the  space  between  two  old  rail-fences 
on  the  left  of  the  breastworks.  General 
Warren  came  up  about  two  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon,  and,  refusing  the  command, 
fought  as  a  volunteer.  At  the  same  time 
Colonel  Stark  arrived  with  500  men  and 
took  up  a  position  behind  the  rail-fence. 
Meanwhile,  the  British  forces,  under  Gen- 
erals Howe  and  Pigot,  had  been  brought 
over  from  Boston  in  boats,  and  at  half- 
past  two  the  first  charge  was  made.  Pres- 
cott had  ordered  his  soldiers  not  to  fire 
until  the  British  were  so  near  that  the 
whites  of  their  eyes  could  be  seen;  and 
when  they  did  open  fire  the  British  retreated 
in  confusion.  Meanwhile  the  town  of 
Charlestown  had  been  set  on  fire  by  the 
shot  from  the  British  ships,  and,  under 
cover  of  tie  dense  smoke,  Howe  ordered  a 
second  attack;  but  again  his  troops  were 
driven  back.  Unfortunately  the  Ameri- 
cans were  by  this  time  almost  out  of  am- 
munition, and  when,  Clinton  having  come 
over  with  British  re-enforcements,  a  third 
assault  was  made,  the  Americans  after 
firing  their  last  shot  and  fighting  the  British 
bayonets  with  clubbed  muskets  were  obliged 
to  retreat.  The  British  pursued  them  only 
a  short  distance.  The  loss  of  the  British 
was  1,054;  that  of  the  Americans  being 
only  450,  though  among  them  was  General 
Warren.  In  the  center  of  the  old  fortifi- 


cation at  Breed's  Hill  now  stands  a  granite 
monument,  221  feet  in  height.  The  corner 
stone  was  laid  by  Lafayette  in  1825,  at  the 
fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  battle,  Daniel 
Webster  delivering  one  of  his  greatest 
orations.  It  was  completed  in  1842  and 
dedicated  in  the  following  year,  Webster 
once  more  being  the  orator  of  the  day. 

Bun'sen  (boon' sen),  Robert  Wilhelm,  a 
distinguished  German  physicist  and  chemist, 
born  at  Gottingen,  March  31,  1811.  He 
received  his  university  training  at  Got- 
tingen, where  he  took  his  doctor's  degree  at 
the  age  of  20.  His  education  was  con- 
tinued at  Paris,  Berlin  and  Vienna.  At 
the  age  of  22  he  began,  with  a  privat-docent- 
ship  at  Gottingen,  that  marvelous  career  of 
teacher  and  investigator  destined  to  extend 
over  more  than  half  a  century  and  to  maka 
his  name  beloved  by-  his  own  students  and 
a  household  word  for  all  others.  The  years 
from  1851  to  1899  were  spent  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Heidelberg. 

In  addition  to  his  more  technical  chemical 
investigations,  the  following  may  be  men- 
tioned as  his  most  important  contributions 
to  science: 

1.  The  invention  of  the  Bunsen  battery 
which  replaced  the  expensive  platinum  plate 
of  the  Grove  cell  by  a  cheap  carbon  rod. 

2.  The  invention  of  the  Bunsen  burner 
now  in  use  everywhere  from  the  kitchen  to 
the  research  laboratory. 

3.  A    satisfactory    explanation    of    the 
phenomenon  of  the  geyser,   given  after  a 
trip  to  Iceland  in   1847. 

4.  Precise  methods  for  analyzing  gases. 

5.  The  chemical  action  of  light. 

6.  His    well-known    ice-calorimeter    for 
measuring  quantities  of  heat. 

7.  His     most     important     contribution, 
however,  is  that  which  he,  in  conjunction 
with  Kirchoff,  published  in  1860  and  1861, 
namely,  the  establishment  of  the  foundation 
of    spectrum    analysis.     These     two     men 
showed    that  the  prism    is  a    reliable    and 
delicate  method  for  detecting  the  presence 
of   any   particular   element   in   a   chemical 
compound.     And    in    their    second    paper 
they  exemplified  this  fact  by  the  discovery 
of  two  new  elements,  namely,  casium  and 
rubidium. 

During  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life 
Bunsen  was  not  engaged  in  active  teaching, 
but  held  an  emeritus  professorship  at 
Heidelberg,  where  he  died  August  16,  1899. 

Bunting,  a  group  of  birds  between  finches 
and  starlings,  containing  numerous  species 
widely  distributed.  Among  these  may  be 
mentioned,  as  of  special  interest  to  our  readers, 
the  Snowflake,  called  Snow-Bunting;  the  Dick- 
cissel  or  Black-Throated  Bunting;  Vesper  Spar- 
row or  Bay- Winged  Bunting.  And  mention 
should  be  made  of  the  Indigo  Bunting,  Painted, 
Varied,  Beautiful  and  Lazuli  Buntings.  The 
Bunting  is  one  of  the  few  birds  of  the  Arctics. 
See  SNOWFLAKE  AND  DICKCISSEL. 


BUNYAN 


290 


BURGOYNE 


Bun'yan,  John,  author  of  The  Pilgrim's 
Progress,  was  born  near  Bedford,  England, 
in  1628.  His  father  was  a  tinker,  and  John 
was  trained  to  that  craft.  He  was  very 
fond  of  dancing  on  the  village  green  and 
of  ringing  the  church  bells — things  he  after- 
ward thought  sinfuL  He  served  in  the  army 
for  some  time  during  the  English  Civil  War, 
though  only  16  years  old.  After  the 
war  he  married  a  poor  girl  and  became 
deeply  interested  in  religion.  He  began 
to  preach  to  the  poor  people  in  the  villages 
around  Bedford,  and,  getting  into  dis- 
cussions with  the  Quakers,  in  1656  he 
published  a  book  against  them.  It  was  a 
remarkable  book  for  an  uneducated  crafts- 
man to  write.  This  led  to  further  discussion 
and  the  publication  of  other  works,  Bunyan 
being  finally  arrested  and  imprisoned.  He 
was  in  prison  12  years,  though  he  was 
continually  told  that  he  would  be  set  free 
if  he  would  give  up  preaching;  to  which 
he  replied :  "  If  you  let  me  go  to-day,  I  will 
preach  again  to-morrow."  He  supported 
himself  and  his  family  while  in  prison  by 
making  lace,  the  remainder  of  his  time 
being  spent  in  reading  the  Bible,  preaching 
to  the  other  prisoners  and  writing  religious 
papers  and  books.  He  finally  was  released 
in  1672,  and  preached  for  three  years,  after 
which  he  was  again  put  in  prison,  but  was 
let  out  again  six  months  later.  While  he 
was  in  prison  the  second  time  he  wrote 
The  Pilgrim's  Progress.  He  became  pas- 
tor of  the  Bedford  Church,  where  he  re- 
mained 1 6  years,  dying  in  1688.  The 
Pilgrim's  Progress  at  once  became  very 
famous  and  has  since  been  translated  into 
nearly  a  hundred  languages. 

Bur'bank,  Luther,  the  "PlantWizard,"  after 
four  years  of  patient  effort,  developed  the 
famous  Burbank  potato  from  small  tubers  of 
scanty  yield  when  only  a  boy  on  the  farm  on 
which  he  was  born  near  Lancaster,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1849.  Although  his  achievement 
soon  added  $20,000,000  a  year  to  the  value  of 
our  potato  crop,  he  sold  his  rights  to  a  local 
seedsman  for  $i  50.  Not  long  after,  his  health 
requiring  outdoor  life,  he  went  to  California, 
worked  at  odd  jobs  as  a  farm  hand  and  finally 
saved  enough  to  start  a  small  nursery.  When 
it  was  bringing  him  a  profit  of  nearly  $10,000  a 
year,  he  gave  it  up,  against  the  protest  of 
friends,  and  began  the  series  of  experiments  on 
his  farm  at  Santa  Rosa  which  have  given  us 
not  only  the  thornless,  edible,  fruit-bearing 
cactus,  but  a  long  list  of  other  wonders  of  the 
plant  world,  including  the  crimson  poppy,  the 
Shasta  daisy,  a  combination  of  plum  and  apri- 
cot called  the  plumcot,  the  white  blackberry, 
new  varieties  of  apples,  pears  and  cherries,  and  a 
walnut  tree  that  produces  a  wood  like  mahog- 
any and  of  remarkably  rapid  growth.  His 
thornless  cactus  is  a  forage  plant  showing 
great  improvement  in  productiveness  even 
over  alfalfa.  The  fruit  has  a  flavor  between 
the  raspberry  and  the  pineapple,  and  will  grow 


on  the  desert  as  well  as  the  spiny  variety. 
Thousands  of  acres  have  been  planted,  not 
only  in  this,  but  in  almost  every  foreign  country. 
Where  alfalfa  grows  five  to  ten  tons  per  acre, 
this  cactus  produces  fifty  to  two  hundred  tons. 
The  money  derived  by  Mr.  Burbank  from  the 
sale  of  improved  varieties,  considering  the  out- 
lay required  to  produce  them,  has  been  small — 
from  $100  to  $500  each.  Having  disposed  of 
the  commercial  department  of  his  work  he  now 
gives  his  exclusive  attention  to  producing  im- 
proved varieties  of  trees,  plants  and  flowers. 

Burdett-Coutts,  Lady.  In  1814  there 
was  born  in  Ramsburg,  Wiltshire,  England, 
a  little  girl -named  Angela,  the  daughter  of 
Sir  Thomas  Burdett,  a  celebrated  parlia- 
mentarian, and  granddaughter  of  Thomas 
Coutts,  a  London  banker.  At  the  age  of 
22  she  inherited  a  great  fortune  and  became 
head  of  a  banking  firm  that  was  second 
only  to  the  Bank  of  England.  People 
expected  her  to  take  a  high  place  at  the 
young  queen's  court  and  to  marry  a  duke 
or  prince.  Instead  she  quietly  set  about 
the  task  of  bringing  light  and  hope  to  the 
swarming  millions  of  East  London.  At  a 
cost  of  $450,000  she  built  St.  Stephen's 
Church,  the  first  institutional  church  in 
the  world.  It  combined  the  religious  func- 
tion with  the  social  settlement.  Other 
churches,  schools,  model  tenements,  scholar- 
ships in  universities,  evening  schools,  penny 
dinners  for  poor  school  children,  a  fishing 
school  and  fleet  for  famine-stricken  west 
Ireland  and  a  great  market -house  in  the  slums 
of  East  London,  followed  in  rapid  succes- 
sion. Then  plain  Angela  Burdett  added 
her  grandfather's  name  to  her  own  and  the 
Queen  made  her  a  baroness — the  only 
woman  of  the  people  ever  raised  to  the  peer- 
age in  Great  Britain.  As  Lady  Burdett- 
Coutts,  she  secured  the  Children's  Charter 
from  Parliament,  to  protect  children  from 
cruelty;  also  a  law  to  stop  cruelty  to  ani- 
mals. In  a  time  of  cholera  she  cleaned 
East  London  and  forced  new  sanitary  laws. 
She  assisted  starving  Irish  peasants  to 
emigrate  and  carried  on  relief  work  in  the 
Turko-Russian  War.  For  70  years  she  was 
the  friend  of  the  queen  and  of  every 
celebrated  man  and  woman  of  her  time, 
from  Charles  Dickens  to  the  Duke  of  Well- 
ington. Walter  Besant  made  her  the  heroine 
of  his  novel  All  Sorts  and  Conditions  of  Men. 
At  the  age  of  68,  she  married  her  private 
secretary,  Mr.  Ashmead-Bartlett,  who  took 
her  name  and  entered  parliament  to  further 
her  ideas  of  public  good.  She  died  in  1907 
at  the  age  of  93,  universally  mourned. 
Burgoyne  (bdr-goin') ,  John,  an  English  gen- 
eral during  the  American  Revolution.  His  sur- 
render to  the  Americans,  Oct.  7,  1777,  at  Sara- 
toga, (q.  v.)  was  one  of  the  most  important 
victories  of  the  war.  Entering  the  army  as  a 
subordinate  he  had  risen  by  distinguished  ser- 
vice in  Portugal  before  being  sent  to  America.  On 
returning  to  England  he  wrote  an  account  of 


SOME  OF  THE  PLANT  WIZARD'S  WORK 


Copyright  by  the  Macmillan  Co. 

POTATO  CAUSED  TO  GROW  ON  TOMATO  VINE 


Copyright  by  the  Macmillan  Co. 

THESE    WILD    POTATOES    ARE   CROSSED   WITH    TAME  POTATOES   TO    MAKE 

THEM  HARDY 


BURGUNDY 


BURLESQUES 


his  American  campaign  in  his  own  defense, 
throwing  the  blame  for  his  failure  on  the 
British  cabinet.  He  also  wrote  several 
dramas.  He  died  at  London  in  1792. 

Bur7 gundy  (bur'gun-dt),  the  name,  at 
different  times,  of  three  kingdoms,  of  a 
duchy  and  lastly  of  a  French  province. 
The  first  kingdom  was  formed  about  406, 
by  the  Burgundians,  a  German  people 
who  crossed  the  Rhine  and  extended  their 
dominion  over  the  Saone  and  the  Rhone. 
They  were  converted  to  Christianity  in 
eight  days.  About  100  years  later  they 
were  conquered  by  the  Franks,  but 
the  country  still  kept  its  name.  About 
300  years  later,  when  the  Carlovingian 
Empire  was  broken  up,  two  kingdoms  were 
formed  from  a  part  of  old  Burgundy,  and 
called  Lower  Burgundy  and  Upper  Bur- 
gundy, which  afterward  were  united  and 
finally  fell  tinder  the  power  of  Germany. 
The  remaining  portion  of  old  Burgundy 
meanwhile  had  become  a  powerful  duchy 
of  France.  In  the  first  family  of  the  dukes 
of  Burgundy  there  was  a  succession  of 
twelve,  who  were  among  the  most  powerful 
princes  of  their  time  and  were  noted 
for  their  loyalty  to  the  French  kings.  This 
family  came  to  an  end,  and  soon  after  the 
duchy  was  given  by  the  French  King  John, 
to  his  son,  Philip  the  Bold.  This  duke 
and  his  three  successors,  John  the  Fearless, 
Philip  the  Good  and  Charles  the  Bold,  are 
among  the  most  famous  historical  characters 
of  their  age.  The  last  two  had  royal  power, 
and  owned,  besides  Burgundy,  the  Nether- 
lands and  several  other  countries.  After 
the  death  of  Charles  the  Bold,  the  duchy 
of  Burgundy  became  a  province  of  France. 
This  province  included  the  present  depart- 
ments of  Cote-d'Or,  Saone-et-Loire  and 
Yonne,  with  parts  of  adjoining  departments. 
Burgundy  wines,  which  are  famous,  are 
produced  in  these  departments  and  named 
after  the  old  province. 

Burke,  Edmund,  a  British  statesman  and 
author,  was  born  at  Dublin,  Ireland^  in  1729. 
He  Graduated  at 
Dublin  University, 
and  proceeded  to 
London  to  study 
law,  but  aban- 
doned it  for  liter- 
ary work.  He 
wrote  two  works 
in  1756,  the  most 
famous  of  which 
is  a  study  of  the 
origin  of  our  ideas 
o  f  The  Sublime 
and  the  Beautiful. 
Soon  after  he  be- 
came acquainted 
with  the  cele- 
brated Dr.  Samuel 
Johnson,  who  said 
EDMUND  BURKE  of  him  that  "no 


man  of  sense  could  meet  Mr.  Burke  by  acci- 
dent under  a  gateway,  to  avoid  a  snower, 
without  being  convinced  that  he  was  the  first 
man  in  England."  In  1 765  he  entered  parlia- 
ment, and  at  once  became  prominent  because 
of  his  wide  knowledge  and  learned  speeches. 
In  1769  and  1770  he  published  two  pamphlets 
which  were  widely  read,  called  Tne  Present 
State  of  the  Natton  and  Thoughts  on  the 
Cause  of  the  Present  Discontent.  He  was  a 
great  student  of  American  affairs,  and  his 
papers  and  speeches  during  the  Revolution- 
ary War  made  him  unpopular  with  many 
people  in  England.  At  the  same  time  he 
was  greatly  interested  in  English  affairs 
in  India,  and  led  the  trial  of  Warren  Hast- 
ings for  corrupt  government  in  India. 
When  the  French  Revolution  broke  out, 
Burke  at  first  favored  it;  but  when  he  saw 
the  leaders  were  becoming  lawless  and 
violent,  he  opposed  it.  His  Reflections  on 
the  French  Revolution  was  the  most  popular 
paper  on  the  subject  written  in  England; 
but  it  separated  him  from  his  former  political 
friends,  who  were  strongly  in  favor  of  the 
Revolutionary  party.  He  wrote  many  other 
papers,  but  left  Parliament  in  1794.  He 
died  in  1797.  Burke  was  one  of  the  most 
famous  orators  England  ever  had,  and  his 
writings  are  wonderful  examples  of  beau- 
tiful English. 

Burlesques,  a  class  of  literary  or  dra- 
matic compositions  of  the  nature  of  parody 
or  travesty,  which  date  from  classic  times, 
and  have  had  a  considerable  vogue  in  Italy 
whence  the  term  (from  the  word  bur  fa 
which  means  raillery,  mockery  or  jesting) 
is  derived.  Burlesques  have  also  been  much 
written  in  France,  in  England  and  in  this 
country,  the  design  of  their  authors  being 
to  travesty  some  well-known  work,  or  to 
present  a  subject  in  a  humorous  or  even  a 
ludicrous  aspect  and  treating  it  in  a  light, 
playful,  jocose  manner.  Ancient  examples 
can  be  traced  back  to  the  era  of  Aristophanes 
and  to  Hipponax  of  Ephesus  (6th  century 
B.  C.).  the  latter  being  deemed  the  father 
of  burlesque  poetry.  Its  modern  example* 
are  those  found  in  Italian  literature,  in  thv 
writing  especially  of  Berni  and  GOZZJ 
whose  most  successful  imitators  were  Sar 
razin  and  Scarron  in  France,  Chaucei, 
Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  Butler  in  hi* 
Hudibras,  the  brothers  Horace  and  Jaine* 
Smith  in  their  Rejected  Addresses.  Ll 
dramatic  burlesques  the  most  notabh 
example  is  Moliere  in  France,  and  of  the 
lighter  order,  Burnand,  W.  S.  Gilbert  ant\ 
Plandie  in  England.  The  Gil  Bias  of  JL4< 
Sage  and  Don  Quixote  of  Cervantes  ai"« 
renowned  examples  of  burlesque.  In  Eng- 
land many  instances  of  burlesque  ani 
diverting  poetic  effusion  are  to  be  met 
with  in  the  poems  of  Thomas  Hood,  Praed, 
Cocker,  Calverley  and  Dobson.  In  this 
country  plentiful  examples  will  be  found 
in  the  writings  of  Dr.  O.  W.  Holmes  and  in 


BURLINGAME 


292 


3TJRMA 


our  innumerable  humorists  and  dialect 
writers. 

Burlingame  (bur'ttn-gam') ,  Anson,  an 
American  statesman,  born  at  New  Berlin, 
New  York,  in  1820.  He  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  and  at  the  Harvard 
Law  School,  and  began  the  practice  of  law 
in  Boston.  In  1853  he  was  elected  to  the 
senate  of  Massachusetts,  and  one  year  later 
to  Congress,  helping  to  form  during  the 
following  year  the  new  Republican  party. 
In  1 86 1  President  Lincoln  appointed  him 
minister  to  China.  In  1867  he  intended  to 
give  up  his  position  and  return  to  America, 
but  the  regent  of  the  Chinese  Empire  ap- 
pointed him  special  Chinese  ambassador  to 
the  United  States  and  the  countries  of  Eu- 
rope, to  make  treaties  between  China  and 
other  nations.  In  July,  1868,  he  succeeded 
in  getting  new  articles  added  to  the  old 
treaty  between  China  and  the  United  States, 
which  gave  the  citizens  of  each  country 
many  privileges  in  the  other,  such  as  religious 
freedom  and  the  right  of  founding  schools. 
This  is  known  as  the  Burlingame  treaty. 
Mr,  Burlingame  then  secured  special  treaties 
between  most  of  the  European  powers  and 
China,  and  was  at  St.  Petersburg,  negotiat- 
ing a  Chinese  treaty  with  Russia,  when  he 
died  in  1870. 

Bur'lington,  a  city  in  Iowa,  county  seat 
of  Des  Moines  County,  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  a  beautiful  and 
healthful  city,  the  business  portion  being 
built  along  the  river,  while  the  residences 
are  on  high  bluffs,  from  which  there  is  a 
fine  view  up  and  down  the  river.  The  city 
has  good  public  schools,  including  a  $250,000 
high  school  and  a  Roman  Catholic  Academy. 
Notable  in  the  city  are  the  municipal  build- 
ings, opera  house  and  public  library.  Coal 
is  extensively  mined  near  the  city,  making 
it  a  favorable  place  for  manufactures,  among 
which  there  are  flour  and  planing  mills, 
foundries,  soap  factories,  breweries  and  pork- 
packing  establishments,  agricultural  tools, 
furniture,  etc.  Population  24,640. 

Bur'lington  (bur1  ling-ton),  N.  J.,  (formerly 
a  port  of  entry)  in  the  county  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  Delaware  River,  19  miles  north- 
east of  Philadelphia  and  on  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad.  Here  are  situated  Burlington 
College,  and  St  Mary's  (P.  E.)  Hall  for 
Girls,  and  the  town  has  an  opera  house  and 
a  good  public  library,  besides  churches  and 
schools.  Its  industries  embrace  iron  pipe, 
stove  and  carriage  works,  harness  and 
shoe-making  establishments,  also  canned 
goods,  besides  berrying  and  market  garden- 
ing. The  city  owns  and  operates  its  own 
water-works,  its  charter  as  a  city  dating  from 
1851,  with  revision  in  1868.  Population, 
8,336. 

Bur'lington,  Vermont,  a  city  and  port 
of  entry  in  Chittenden  County,  Vermont, 
on  Lake  Champlain.  It  is  the  seat  of 


the  University  of  Vermont  and  State  Agri- 
cultural College,  of  the  Vermont  Episco- 
pal Institute,  (for  boys)  and  of  Bishop 
Hopkins  Hall  (for  girls) .  The  Mary  Fletcher 
Carnegie  Library  Building.  The  city  has 
Fletcher  Free  Library  now  housed  in  a 
Carnegie  Library  Building.  The  city  has 
an  extensive  trade  in  lumber  and  in  the 
manufactured  products  of  lumber,  in  stone 
and  marble  and  in  proprietary  medicines. 
Good  water-power  is  furnished  by  the  Win- 
ooski  River  and  large  cotton  and  woolen 
mills  are  situated  here. 

The  public  schools  of  the  city  have  an 
enviable  reputation,  the  parochial  schools 
are  largely  attended,  and  there  are  two 
commercial  colleges.  Burlington  is  the 
educational  center  for  a  wide  region  of 
country.  It  is  noted  for  its  beauty  of  sit- 
uation, for  its  wide  and  well  kept  streets, 
for  its  handsome  private  residences  and  for 
its  fine  public  buildings.  It  has  a  municipal 
electric  lighting  plant.  Population,  2 0,46 8. 

Bur' ma,  the  largest  of  all  the  provinces  of 
the  Indian  Empire,  lies  between  Tibet, 
China,  Siam  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  It 
covers  about  236,738  square  miles,  consider- 
ably more  than  California  and  South  Dakota, 
while  the  total  population  is  over  12,1 15,000. 
The  old  province  of  Lower  Burma  occupies 
about  one  third  of  the  territory,  and  the 
new  province  of  Upper  Burma,  with  the 
Shan  States  about  two  thirds. 

Surf  ace  and  Drainage.  The  country  ismostly 
hilly,  largely  covered  with  forests.  Of  the 
numerous  mountain  peaks,  the  highest 
reaches  an  elevation  of  15,000  feet.  The 
largest  river  is  the  Irawadi,  flowing  from 
its  unknown  source  in  the  snows  of  Tibet, 
over  a  course  of  1,100  miles  to  the  Bay  of 
Bengal.  It  is  navigable  all  the  year  round 
for  river  steamers  for  700  miles;  and  though 
there  are  now  several  railroads,  most  of 
the  trade  is  carried  on  by  the  numerous 
rivers. 

Natural  Resources.  Teak  and  bamboo  are 
the  most  valuable  of  the  forest  products. 
An  unusual  wealth  of  wild  beasts,  serpents, 
birds  and  fishes  found  in  India  abounds  here. 
The  mineral  yield  of  the  soil  is  not  note- 
worthy, except  that  from  the  ruby  mines 
near  the  capital.  The  ruby-yielding  region 
extends  for  about  200  square  miles,  and 
the  rubies  are  the  best  in  the  world. 

People,  Ctistoms.  Besides  foreigners,  the 
people  are  mainly  Burmans,  Shans,  Karens 
and  other  hill  tribes.  The  Burmans  are 
the  largest  class.  Their  chief  food  is  rice, 
and  they  have,  besides,  fish  or  meat  daily. 
They  live  well,  but  save  little  money.  Most 
of  the  people  live  in  modern  houses  or 
bamboo  huts,  but  the  pagodas  or  temples 
of  masonry  and  the  monasteries  made  of 
teak  are  more  substantial  buildings.  The 
finest  and  most  sacred  pagoda  in  Burma  is 
the  Shway  Dagon  Pagoda  at  Rangoon. 

Products.    The  chief  crop  of  the  country 


BURNE-JONES 


BURNS 


is  rice,  the  acreage  of  which  in  Upper  and 
Lower  Burma  was,  in  1904-05,  9,265,097 
acres.  Wheat,  pulse,  sugar-cane,  cotton, 
tea  and  oil-seeds  are  also  raised. 

Religion.  Their  religion  is  chiefly  Bud- 
dhism. The  class  which  has  the  most  in- 
fluence and  is  most  respected  is  the  Buddhist 
monks,  of  whom  there  are  20,000,  whose 
il-ity  it  is  to  set  an  example  of  a  correct 
life  and  to  instruct  the  young.  The  Shans 
are  much  like  the  Burmans,  but  are  high- 
landers  and  great  traders.  The  Karens 
used  to  be  nature- worshippers ;  but  now 
large  numbers  of  them  are  Christians, 
through  the  influence  of  Baptist  missions, 
which  have  been  among  the  most  successful 
of  modern  missions.  Both  the  Burmans  and 
the  Shans  have  long  had  a  written  language, 
and  there  are  now  a  number  of  native 
newspapers.  A  university  and  several  tech- 
nical schools  are  also  established  in  Lower 
Burma. 

History,  The  Burmans  are  believed  to 
have  come  into  the  valley  of  the  Irawadi 
about  2,000  years  ago.  Since  that  time 
various  powerful  Burman  dynasties  have 
risen,  flourished  and  fallen.  The  Chinese 
have  often  invaded  Burma  from  the  north. 
The  Burman  power  came  into  contact  with 
the  British  in  India  as  early  as  1820,  and,  piece 
by  piece,  the  British  have  been  compelled 
to  assume  control  over  Burma.  In  £885 
King  Thebaw  declared  war  and  tried  to 
drive  the  British  into  the  sea,  but  was 
overcome  and  carried  a  prisoner  to  India, 
and  in  1886  the  whole  of  Burma  became  a 
part  of  the  British  Indian  Empire.  It  is 
governed  by  a  commissioner  on  behalf  of 
the  viceroy  of  India.  The  capital  of  Upper 
Burma,  Mandalay,  has  a  population  of 
138,299;  of  Lower  Burma  the  capital  is 
Rangoon,  population,  293,316. 

Burne=Jones,  Sir  Edward  C.,  a  nota- 
ble English  painter,  much  admired  in 
his  day  as  a  fine  colorist,  and  clever 
also  as  an  artistic  stained-glass  de- 
signer. Born  at  Birmingham  in  1833  and 
educated  at  King  Edward's  School  there, 
he  entered  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  in  his 
twentieth  year,  but  shortly  afterwards  with- 
drew to  study  art  under  the  influence  of 
Dante  G.  Rossetti.  Settling  in  London,  he 
drew  much  from  real  life  both  in  water- 
colors  and  in  oil,  his  pictures  possessing 
much  brilliancy  as  well  as  purity  of  hue. 
He  is  classed  among  the  Pre-Raphaelites,  but 
himself  free  from  the  whilom  extravagances 
of  that  school  of  art.  In  1881  Burne-Jones 
received  from  Oxford  the  honorary  degree 
of  D.C.L.,  and  in  1885  was  elected  President 
of  the  Royal  Birmingham  Society  of  Artists 
and  made  an  Associate  of  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy of  Arts,  London.  The  latter  he  re- 
signed in  1893  when  he  became  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  New  Gallery,  where  and  at 
the  Grosvenor  Gallery,  in  the  British  metrop- 
olis, most  of  his  pictures  were  first  exhibited. 


In  1894  the  artist  was  made  a  baronet, 
elected  an  honorary  Fellow  of  Exeter  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  and  was  decorated  with  the 
French  Legion  of  Honor.  At  an  early 
period  in  his  career  he  came  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Ruskin;  while,  besides  his  varied 
and  magnificent  work  as  a  painter,  he  did 
much  as  a  designer  of  mosaics  for  church 
windows,  at  Oxford  and  elsewhere  in  Eng- 
and,  as  well  as  for  the  apse  of  the  American 
Church  at  Rome.  Among  his  best  known 
oil  paintings  are  King  Cophetua  and  Hie 
Beggar  Maid,  The  Resurrection,  The  An- 
nunciation, The  Golden  Stair,  Merlin  and 
Vivien,  Pygmalion  and  the  Image.  His 
principal  water-colors  include  The  Days  of 
Creation,  The  Wine  of  Circe  and  the  series 
known  as  Spring,  Summer,  Autumn,  Winter, 
Day  and  Night.  Sir  Edward  Burne-Jones 
died  in  London  in  1898. 

Burnett',  Frances  Hodgson,  an  Ameri- 
can novelist,  was  born  at  Manchester, 
England,  in  1849. 
In  1865  her  fam- 
ily came  to  Amer- 
ica and  settled  in 
Tennessee,  where 
she  began  writing 
stories.  Her  first 
story  was  pub- 
^Tlished  in  a  maga- 
e  in  1867.  In 
^1873  she  married 
Dr  L.  M.  Burnett, 
o  f  Knox  ville, 
Tenn.  They  re- 
moved later  to 
FRANCES  H.  BURNETT  Washington,  D.  C. 
Her  first  novel,  That  Lass  o'  Lowries,  was 
published  in  Scribner's  Magazine  in  1876-77, 
and  made  her  reputation.  Her  second 
novel,  Haworth's,  was  published  in  Scribner 
and  also  in  Macmillan's  Magazine  (London) . 
A  child's  story,  Little  Lord  Fauntleroy,  was 
very  popular,  and  has  appeared  also  as  a 
play  acted  on  the  stage.  Her  later  stories 
are  A  Lady  of  Quality,  His  Grace  of  Or- 
monde and  The  Shuttle. 

Burnham,  Sherburne  Wesley,  a  notable 
astronomer,  now  professor  of  practical 
astronomy,  in  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago, was  born  at  Thetford,  vt.,  in  1838. 
While  clerk  of  the  United  States  circuit 
court  in  Chicago,  he  early  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  the  heavens  and  made 
many  discoveries,  especially  of  double  stars, 
which  he  described  with  a  6-inch  refrac- 
tor. In  1876  his  devotion  to  astron- 
omy led  to  his  connection  first  with 
Chicago  Observatory  and  for  a  time 
with  the  Lick  Observatory  in  Cali- 
fornia. For  his  discovery,  measurement  and 
cataloguing  of  double  stars,  he  was  awarded 
the  gold  medal  and  made  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society  of  England. 

Burns,  Robert,  a  Scottish  poet  of  great 
genius  was  born  near  the  town  of  Ayr  in 


BURNSIDE 


294 


BURR 


1759.  His  father  was  a  poor  fanner  and 
Robert  was  brought  up  on  the  farm,  gaining 
most  of  his  education  between  his  hours  of 
work.  The  Bible  and  a  few  collections  of 
poems  were  the  books  he  read.  His  beauti- 
ful poem,  The  Cottar's  Saturday  Night,  is  a 
picture  of  his  simple  home  in  those  early 
days.  When  he  was  15  years  old,  he 
wrote  his  first  poem,  led  to  it  by  his  love 
for  a  little  girl  who  worked  with  him  in 
the  hay  field.  Through  all  his  life  Burns 
had  a  great  love  for  women,  and  many  of 
his  most  beautiful  pieces  are  love-poems. 
At  1 8  he  went  to  school  for  a  short 
time,  and  at  this  period  wrote  several  short 
poems.  A  few  years  later,  he  and  his 
brother  took  a  farm,  in  order  to  support 
their  parents,  but  he  still  kept  writing  bits 
of  poetry,  which  were  far  more  successful 
than  his  farming.  Finding  that  he  was  not 
succeeding  on  the  farm,  he  decided  to  go  to 
Jamaica,  and  published  a  volume  of  poems 
to  pay  his  way.  This  volume  at  once  made 
him  famous,  and  instead  of  setting  out  to 
Jamaica,  he  went  to  Edinburgh,  where  he 
remained  a  year  and  made  many  valuable 
acquaintances.  He  rented  a  farm,  and  was 
soon  after  given  a  small  government  office, 
with  a  salary  of  $350.  Unfortunately,  he 
was  of  intemperate  habits,  and  had  to  give 
up  his  farm.  He,  however, 'kept  on  writing, 
but  his  love  of  drink  and  the  disappointment 
of  his  hopes  of  success  injured  his  health, 
and  he  died  in  his  thirty-seventh  year,  in 
1796.  His  poems  are  the  most  musical  in 
the  language.  His  humor  is  great;  and 
many  of  his  poems  are  very  simple  and 
touching,  while  others  sparkle  with  life  and 
wit.  He  is  a  poet  of  nature,  and  few  have 
approached  him  in  simple,  clear  and  yet 
touching  descriptions  of  nature's  scenes, 
objects  and  life.  In  1813  a  monument 
was  erected  to  his  memory  at  the  town  of 
Dumfries,  and  his  birthday  is  still  celebrated 
among  Scotchmen.  More  people  visit  Ayr 
than  Stratford. 

Burn'side,  Ambrose  Everett,  an  Ameri- 
can general,  born  at  Liberty,  Ind.,  in  1824. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1847.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  held  the 
position  of  treasurer  of  the  Illinois  Central 
Railroad.  I  n 
1 86 1  he  was  ap- 
pointed colonel 
of  the  First  Regi- 
ment of  Rhode 
Island  volun- 
teers, and  com- 
manded a  brig- 
ade at  the  battle 
of  B  u  1 1  R  u  n. 
After  taking 
part  in  various 
engagements,  he 
succeeded  Gen- 
eral McClellan  GENERAL  BURNSIDE 
as  commander  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 


General  Lee  took  possession  of  the  heights  of 
Fredericksburg,  and  in  a  vain  attempt  to 
drive  him.  from  his  position  Burnside  was 
defeated  with  great  loss.  His  resignation 
of  the  command  was  accepted,  and  he  was 
given  the  generalship  of  the  department 
of  the  Ohio.  He  drove  the  Confederates 
out  of  East  Tennessee,  for  which  he  received 
the  thanks  of  Congress.  He  was  later  be- 
sieged in  Knoxville,  until  the  siege  was 
raised  by  the  approach  of  Sherman  with 
a  part  of  Grant's  army.  He  was  then 
transferred  to  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
and  took  part  in  its  closing  campaigns.  He 
resigned  in  1865,  and  the  next  year  was 
chosen  governor  of  Rhode  Island,  and  re- 
elected  in  the  two  following  years.  He 
was  elected  United  States  senator  from 
Rhode  Island  in  1875  and  again  in  1880. 
He  died  at  Bristol,  R.  I.,  September  13,  1881. 
Burr,  Aaron,  third  vice-president  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  at  Newark.  N.  J., 
in  1 756.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  College, 
and  entered  the  army,  where  he  won  distinc- 
tion and  attracted  the  favorable  notice  of 
Washington.  Soon  after,  however,  for  some 
unknown  reason  he  incurred  Washington's 
dislike.  After  the  Revolutionary  War,  he 
practiced  law  at  Albany,  and  married  the 
widow  of  a  British  officer.  He  was  ap- 
pointed attorney-general  of  New  York,  and 

in  1791  was  re- 
turned to  the 
United  States 
senate.  In  1800 
he  was  elected 
vice-president 
of  the  United 
States  by  the 
Democrat  ic 
party.  Four 
years  later  he 
was  the  Feder- 
alist candidate 
for  governor  of 
New  York ;  but 
many  of  the 
leading  men  of 
the  party  re- 
fused to  sup- 
port him,  and 
he  was  defeated.  This  led  to  his  duel  with 
Alexander  Hamilton,  in  which  Hamilton 
was  killed.  Burr  was  tried  for  murder, 
and,  though  acquitted,  never  regained  his 
place  in  popular  opinion.  The  next  year 
Burr  set  out  on  a  journey  to  the  southwest. 
He  was  suspected  of  plotting  to  found  a  new 
empire  out  of  Mexico  and  a  part  of  the  pres- 
ent southern  states,  and  was  arrested  and 
tried  at  Richmond,  Va.,  but  was  acquitted, 
He  went  to  Europe  in  the  following  year-  but 
returned  in  1812,  and  began  again  the  prac- 
tice of  law  in  New  York.  He  died  neglected 
in  1836,  his  only  child,  Theodosia,  having 
been  lost  at  sea.  His  success  was  largely 
due  to  his  attractive  and  polished  manners 


AARON    BURR 


BURROUGHS 


295 


BUTLER 


Burroughs  (bur'rdz),  John,  American 
naturalist,  essayist  and  man-of-letters,  was 
born  at  Roxbury,  N.  Y.,  April  3,  1837,  and 
received  an  academic  education.  For  a 
time  he  taught  school,  was  a  treasury  clerk 
at  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  afterwards 
examiner  of  national  banks.  Since  1874 
he  has  lived  on  a  farm,  devoting  himself 
to  literary  work  and  to  fruit -culture  and 
the  observation  of  nature,  of  which  he  is  an 
ardent  lover  and  keen  and  kindly  observer. 
His  studies  of  birds  and  of  field-life  have 
been  close  and  intimate;  and  his  books 
on  these  and  other  themes  make  delightful 
reading.  Among  his  publications  are  Wake- 
Robin;  Signs  and  Seasons;  Pepacton;  Riv- 
erby;  Birds  and  Poets;  Winter  Sunshine; 
Locusts  and  Wild  Honey;  Fresh  Fields; 
Indoor  Studies;  and  a  monograph  on  Walt 
Whitman. 

Burwash,  Rev'd  Nathaniel,  born  at 
St.  Andrews,  Quebec  in  1839.  A  graduate 
of  Victoria  University, 
ordained  1864.  Later 
studied  at  Yale.  In 
1867  appointed  profes- 
sor of  natural  history 
and  geology  at  Victoria 
University.  In  1887 
he  became  president  of 
the  University.  A  mem- 
ber of  each  general 
conference  of  the  Meth- 
odist Church  from  1874 
to  1894.  In  1889  pres- 
ident of  the  conference, 
CHANCELLOR  BUR-  contributed  largely  to 
WASH  bringing  about  the  fed- 

eration of  the  univer- 
sities which  was  effected  in  1885.  The 
author  of  a  treatise  on  Wesley's  Doc- 
trinal Standards.  Has  been  most  influential 
in  every  branch  of  educational  reform  in 
the  province  (Ontario).  A  leader  of  Meth- 
odism for  a  whole  generation. 

Business  College.  The  business  or 
commercial  college  is,  properly  speaking, 
a  trade  school  for  the  purpose  of  teaching 
those  desirous  of  securing  an  elementary 
position  in  business,  such  as  that  of  clerk 
or  bookkeeper,  the  things  of  immediate 
use  to  them  for  that  work.  It  is  a  private 
institution  usually,  without  endowment 
or  government  inspection. 

Conditions  of  admission  are  very  lenient, 
and  pupils  may  enter  at  any  time.  As 
pupils  differ  widely  in  age,  preliminary 
training,  etc.,  much  of  the  instruction  is 
given  individually  rather  than  in  classes. 
The  length  of  the  course  varies  from  three 
months  up  to  15  months  or  more,  and 
tuition  fees  range  from  five  dollars  per 
month  up  to  about  twenty  dollars.  Eve- 
ning classes  have  been  largely  taken  advan- 
tage of  by  those  who  were  obliged  to  pursue 
their  usual  occupation  during  the  day. 
Owing  to  the  introduction  of  commercial 


courses  into  the  public  schools  and  to 
competition  among  themselves,  the  busi- 
ness college  has  developed  from  the  type 
of  50  years  ago  with  one  or  two  teachers 
giving  elementary  instruction  in  arithmetic, 
keeping  of  accounts  and  ornamental  pen- 
manship, to  the  thoroughly  equipped  busi- 
ness college  of  to-day,  with  trained  teachers 
offering  first-class  courses  in  a  wide  range 
of  subjects,  such  as  stenography,  type- 
writing, commercial  law  and  geography, 
history  of  commerce,  business  practice 
and  office  methods,  advanced  bookkeeping, 
etc.  Present  tendencies  are  towards  longer 
courses,  with  more  instruction  both  in  the 
broader  general  studies,  such  as  English 
composition,  and  in  the  more  specialized 
technical  lines. 

The  business  college  has  been  of  immense 
value  in  giving  to  thousands  of  persons  in 
a  short  time  the  necessary  equipment  for 
a  business  position,  and  in  securing  suitable 
situations  for  them. 

Butcher-Bird.     See  SHRIKE. 

But'ler,  Benjamin  Franklin,  American 
lawyer,  soldier  and  statesman,  was  born 
at  Deerfield,  N.  H.,  November  5,  1818.  He 
entered  on  the  practice  of  law  in  Lowell, 
Mass.,  in  1840,  where  he  gained  a  high 
reputation.  He  served  in  the  state  legis- 
lature, both  in  the  house  and  in  the  senate 
(1853-59).  He  served  as  major-general  in 
the  Civil  War;  was  in  command  at  Fortress 
Monroe  in  1861;  at  New  Orleans  in  1862; 
and  of  the  department  of  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina  in  1863.  He  was  returned  to 
Congress  by  the  Republicans  in  1866,  where 
he  served  until  1879,  except  the  term  of 
1875-77.  In  1882  he  was  elected  governor 
of  Massachusetts  by  the  Democrats.  In 
1884  he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for 
the  presidency  in  the  Greenback  interest. 
He  died  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  January 
ii,  1893. 

But'ler,  Nicholas  Murray,  Ph.D., 
LL.  D.  Born  in  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  April  2, 
1862;  graduated  from  Columbia  College  in 
1882;  and  studied  in  the  Universities  of 
Berlin  and  Paris.  In  1885  Dr.  Butler  be- 
came an  instructor  in  Columbia  College, 
and  since  that  time  he  has  been  associated 
continuously  with  Columbia  College  and 
University.  He  was  president  of  Teachers' 
College  from  1886  to  1891,  and  in  1902  be- 
came president  of  Columbia  University. 
Dr.  Butler  has  been  connected  with  the 
administration  of  numerous  important 
boards  and  associations,  and  has  received 
several  honorary  degrees  from  both  Ameri- 
can and  foreign  universities  He  is  the 
editor  of  The  Educational  Rev^ew,  the  author 
of  The  Meaning  of  Education,  and  has 
made  other  valuable  contributions  to  the 
literature  of  education. 

Bur/ler,  Pa.,  the  chief  town  of  Butler 
County,  western  Pennsylvania,  33  miles 
north  of  Pittsburg.  It  has  a  number  of 


BUTTE  CITY 


296 


BUTTERFLY 


flour  and  silk  mills,  glass  and  oil  well  supply 
factories,  whose  motive  power  is  derived 
from  natural  gas.  Butler's  largest  in- 
dustry is  a  steel-car  works  employing  5,000 
men;  it  also  has  a  large  oil-refinery  and 
bedstead  factory.  Four  lines  of  railroads 
pass  through  it.  Population,  90,728. 

Butte  City,  Mont.,  the  capital  of  Silver- 
bow  County,  is  situated  in  the  southwestern 
portion  of  the  state,  in  the  midst  of  a  rich 
mineral  region.  It  is  the  largest  city  in  the 
state,  and  has  five  lines  of  railway.  It  de- 
rives its  name  from  the  Big  Butte,  a  high 
mountain  peak  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city. 
The  city  has  fine  public  buildings,  including 
court  house,  opera  house,  high  school  and 
many  churches,  hospitals  and  a  complete 
system  of  public  and  parochial  schools.  It 
has  a  public  library  containing  30,000  vol- 
umes; also  a  public  law-library.  Is  well 
supplied  with  water,  and  the  facilities  of 
electric  lighting  and  gas  and  a  very 
efficient  street  car  system.  The  ore  pro- 
duction of  the  Butte  district,  chiefly  copper, 
approaches  $60,000,000  per  year,  and  is 
rapidly  increasing.  The  population  of  the 
city  proper  is  now  estimated  at  over  40,000, 
but  Butte,  inclusive  of  its  suburbs  has 
about  70,000  people. 

Butter,  the  fatty  part  of  milk,  obtained 
from  milk  or  cream  by  churning.  Milk  is 
made  up  of  three  parts,  the  cheesy  portion  or 
curd,  the  whey  or  watery  part  which  con- 
tains milk-sugar,  and  the  butter;  and 
when  examined  by  the  microscope  is  seen 
to  consist  of  a  number  of  little  globules  of 
fat  floating  in  a  clear  liquid.  These  glob- 
ules collect  and  form  cream  after  the  milk 
has  stood  a  few  hours,  and  the  process  of 
butter  making  or  churning  is  simply  to 
cause  the  particles  of  fat  to  come  together 
in  a  mass.  After  churning,  the  butter  is 
washed  and  salt  added  to  prevent  the 
forming  of  certain  acids  which  give  old  but- 
ter its  rancid  taste.  Besides  the  common 
method  of  churning,  butter  is  made  in  parts 
of  South  America,  by  jolting  the  cream, 
which  is  put  in  gourds  or  skin  bags,  on  the 
backs  of  donkeys,  or,  as  in  Buenos  Ayres, 
by  dragging  it  in  a  skin-bag  behind  a  gallop- 
ing horseman.  Indeed,  butter  is  said  to 
have  been  discovered  by  carrying  milk  in 
skin  bottles  on  camels,  in  which  the  butter 
was  made  by  the  jolting.  It  takes  about 
two  quarts  of  cream  to  make  one  pound 
of  butter.  Artificial  butter,  called  oleo- 
margarine, is  now  made  from  beef-fat. 

Buttercup,  a  well-known  wild-flower, 
member  of  the  Crowfoot  family.  It  was 
brought  to  this  country  from  Europe  and 
is  generally  distributed  throughout  Canada 
and  the  United  States.  In  the  north, 
Buttercups  are  especially  abundant  and 
handsome.  Their  season  of  blooming  is 
from  May  to  September,  localities  preferred 
by  them  meadows,  fields,  roadsides  and 
grassy  places.  English  children  call  Butter- 


cups, King-Cups  or  Gold-Cups.  Shakes- 
peare speaks  of  them  as  "  cuckoo-buds  of 
yellow  hue,"  and  says  they  "do  paint  the 
meadows  with  delight."  There  are  many 
kinds,  but  the  first  comer  is  the  Bulbous  But- 
tercup, blooming  early  in  May,  lasting  till  the 
end  of  June ;  a  small,  erect  plant  of  meadow 
and  roadside,  the  blossoms  golden-yellow, 
leaves  bright  green.  The  Meadow  Butter- 
cup grows  in  field  and  by  roadside,  some- 
times rises  as  high  as  three  feet,  and  blooms 
from  May  to  August,  occasionally  until 
frost,  the  flower,  pale  yellow.  The  Swamp 
or  Marsh  Buttercup,  dots  with  gold  low 
meadow  lands,  blooming  from  April  to 
July,  its  blossoms  huge  and  satiny.  Chil- 
dren are  warned  not  to  bite  Buttercup  stem 
and  leaf,  as  a  blister  might  result.  Butter- 
cups, if  eaten  in  large  quantities  by  cows, 
might  prove  poisonous,  but  the  acrid  taste 
is  too  disagreeable  for  more  than  a  few 
nibbles. 

Butterfly,  the  common  name  for  a  group 
of  day-flying  insects.  Butterflies  and  moths 
form  a  natural  order  of  the  class  Insecta, 
and  are  so  closely  related  that  they  should 
be  considered  together.  Nearly  every  boy 
knows  that  a  sort  of  dust  sticks  to  the 
fingers  after  handling  butterflies  and  moths. 
This  dust,  examined  under  the  microscope 
is  seen  to  be  made  up  of  minute  scales, 
with  which  the  wings  of  these  insects  are 
covered,  and  this  circumstance  gives  them 


BUTTERFLY 

the  name  of  the  scaly-winged  (Lepid optera) . 
It  is  a  common  mistake  to  suppose  that  the 
moths  are  all  plain  and  somber  in  color, 
while  butterflies  are  more  brilliant.  The 
group  of  moths,  on  the  contrary,  embraces 
some  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful 
members  of  the  order.  The  butterflies  are 
day  fliers,  their  antennas  are  knobbed  at  the 
end,  and  they  fold  their  wings  vertically 
over  the  back  when  at  rest.  The  moths 
fly  mainly  at  night;  their  antennae  are  of 
various  forms;  and  their  wings  are  seldom 
elevated  in  repose. 

Butterflies  and  moths  make  an  attractive 
cabinet.  A  collection  can  be  started  with 
very  little  trouble.  The  requirements  are: 
a  net  spread  over  a  hoop  attached  to  a 
cane  or  pole;  a  killing  fluid,  as  chloroform 


MEXICAN    BUTTERFLIES 


BUTTERNUT 


297 


BUZZARD 


or  benzine ;  a  board  for  spreading  the  wings 
until  they  are  dried,  and  a  tight  covered 
box  in  which  the  specimens  may  be  kept. 
Hodge  in  Nature  Study  and  Life,  recom- 
mends a  home-made  glass  case,  specimens 
glued.  As  is  well  known,  butterflies  and 
moths  come  from  caterpillars  and  various 
other  larvae  forms.  The  eggs  are  laid  by 
the  full-grown  insects,  but  from  them  hatch 
worm-like  larvae  instead  of  winged  insects. 
After  feeding  and  moulting,  the  larvae  in 
turn  form  cocoons  or  cases  about  them- 
selves, from  which  they  emerge  as  butter- 
flies and  moths.  The  larvae  are  exceedingly 
varied;  the  common,  woolly  caterpillars, 
the  measuring  worms,  forming  a  group  of 
moths;  the  tomato  worm,  the  milkweed 
worm  are  familiar  examples.  From  the 
cabbage  worm  come  the  white  butterflies 
that  are  so  common.  Some  are  destructive 
to  crops,  as  the  army-worm;  some  to  fur 
and  woolen  fabrics,  as  the  small,  inconspic- 
uous larvae  of  the  woolen  moth;  and  some 
to  trees,  as  the  gypsy  moth.  (See  CATER- 
PILLAR.) 

Among  the  butterflies  of  the  United  States 
the  swallow-tailed  variety  (see  Fig.)  is  the 
largest  and  most  attractive.  The  common 
yellow  and  white  varieties  are  the  most 
numerous.  The  brownish  milkweed  butter- 
flies are  very  well  known.  The  promethea, 
Polyphemus  and  luna  moths  are  large  and 
beautiful,  as  are  also  the  moths  of  the  silk- 
worm. Some  of  the  common,  dark-colored 
butterflies  (euvanessa  antiopa)  live  through 
the  winter  in  sheltered  places  in  the  middle 
and  northern  states  and  come  out  on  warm 
days.  Some  of  the  large  tropical  butterflies 
are  exceedingly  brilliant  in  color,  and 
measure  upward  of  eight  inches  in  spread 
of  wings.  The  mouth  parts  of  butterflies 
and  moths  are  much  changed.  There  are 
no  bitvng  jaws,  but  a  long,  sucking  tube, 
coiled  like  a  watch-spring  when  not  in  use, 
Bucking  nectar  and  honey  from  flowers. 
Some  of  the  forms  resemble  leaves  when 
the  wings  are  folded  over  the  back,  and 
are  protected  from  their  enemies  by  this 
resemblance.  See  Scudder:  Everyday  But- 
terflies (1899) ;  French:  Butterflies  and  Moths 
oftheE.U.5.(iSo6);  Holland:  The  Butter- 
fly Books,  with  colored  plates  but  of  moder- 
ate price;  the  beautiful  and  extensive 
monographs  of  Edwards  and  Scudder; 
Weed:  Life -History  of  American  Insects; 
Comstock:  Insect -Life;  and  Crojin:  Our 
Insect  Friends  and  Foes. 

Butternut  or  white  walnut,  is  an  Ameri- 
can tree,  growing  to  a  height  of  20  to 
50  feet.  It  has  numerous  spreading 
branches  and  a  smooth,  ash-colored  bark. 
It  blossoms  in  May,  and  the  fruit  ripens 
in  September  and  October.  The  fruit  is 
an  oblong  nut,  covered  with  a  thin  husk 
or  hull,  dark-brown  when  ripe.  The  kernel 
is  sweet  but  oily.  The  bark  and  shells 
yield  a  dark-brown  dye,  and  a  poor  quality 


of  sugar  can  be  obtained  from  the  sap.  The 
half -grown  fruit  is  also  used  for  pickles. 
The  timber  is  valuable,  and  is  much  used 
for  cabinet-making,  gun-stocks,  etc. 

Butterworth,  Hezekiah  (1839-1905),  a 
well-known  writer  of  juvenile  books,  and 
a  poet  of  fair  ability,  was  a  native  of  Warren, 
R.  I.  Mr.  Butterworth  was  a  platform 
lecturer  of  repute,  speaking  at  times  upon 
education,  at  times  on  hymnology,  but  for 
the  most  part  upon  his  travels,  which  in- 
cluded tours  in  Europe,  South  America 
Cuba  and  Canada.  Among  the  works  of 
Butterworth,  most  of  them  books  for 
boys,  may  be  mentioned  several  volumes 
of  Zig-Zag  Journeys,  the  Knight  of  Liberty, 
In  the  Boyhood  of  Lincoln,  Great  Composers, 
The  Patriot  Schoolmaster,  Songs  of  History, 
Poems  and  Ballads  and  Boys  of  Greenway 
Court,  together  with  several  cantatas. 

Buttons,  useful  articles  of  wear,  used  as 
coat  and  dress  fasteners  or  as  mere  orna- 
ments, and  made  of  bone,  wood,  metal,  jet, 
¥apier  mache',  mother  ofj  pearl  or  glass, 
hey  are  manufactured  in  various  sizes, 
and  sometimes  covered  with  cloth  or  other 
material,  and  also  made  with  and  without 
shanks.  Birmingham,  England,  is  a  great 
seat  of  their  manufacture;  while  they  are 
extensively  turned  out  in  factories  in  this 
country,  in  the  different  varieties  of  the 
button  industry,  there  being  to-day  about 
250  button-making  factories  in  the  United 
States,  with  a  gross  value-output  of  close 
upon  $8,000,000.  The  process  of  manufac- 
turing them  is  chiefly  by  stamping  in  the 
case  of  metal  buttons ;  while  the  cast  button 
is  made  in  molds  by  pouring  molten  metal 
over  them,  the  loop  of  wire  which  forms  the 
shank  being  suspended  in  the  process  and 
pressed  into  the  bottom  of  the  button. 
Powdered  steatite,  saturated  with  soluble 
glass,  is  used  for  making  shirt  buttons  in 
molds,  the  buttons  being  afterwards  baked 
and  polished.  Other  kinds  of  buttons  are 
made  of  various  composites,  as  well  as  of 
vegetable  ivory  and  of  the  hoofs  of  cattle, 
boiled  down  and  turned  out  in  hydraulic 
presses  of  the  various  sizes  and  patterns. 

Buzzard.  The  term  is  used  in  a  loose 
way.  The  true  buzzards  include  the  hen- 
hawks  and  the  common  buzzard  of  Europe. 
The  hen-hawks,  embracing  the  red-tailed 
and  rough-legged  buzzards,  are  good  repre- 
sentatives of  the  group  as  to  general  ap- 
pearance and  average  size.  The  white- 
tailed  buzzard  of  South  America  and  the 
common  fish-hawk  or  osprey  are  other 
varieties.  The  true  buzzards  are  related  to 
the  eagles  and  falcons.  The  so-called  tur- 
key-buzzard belongs  with  the  vultures,  and 
not  with  the  buzzards.  In  the  south  this 
bird  is  protected  by  law,  both  whites  and 
negroes  appreciating  its  services  in  remov- 
ing decaying  matter.  Seen  floating  high 
up  in  the  air,  one  forgets  its  habits  and 
thinks  only  of  the  beauty  of  its  motion; 


BYRON 


298 


BYZANTINE  EMPIRE 


it  is  very  familiar  to  the  children  of  the 
south. 

Byron,    George   Noel   Gordon,   Lord,    a 

great  English  poet,  was  born  at  London  in 
1788.  His  father  died  when  he  was  three 
years  old,  and  he  was  brought  up  by  his 
mother,  a  woman  of  weak  mind.  He  at- 
tended Cambridge  University  in  1805.  Two 
years  after,  he  published  his  first  volume 
of  poems,  which  at  once  brought  him  into 
notice.  In  1808  a  criticism  of  his  poems 
appeared  in  the  Edinburgh  Review.  He 
replied  to  it  in  a  satire  called  English  Bards 
and  Scotch  Reviewers,  which  at  once  showed 
his  power  as  a  writer.  During  this  time 
he  was  living  at  Cambridge  and  in  London, 
and  spending  his  time  immorally  and  in 
frivolous  high-class  society.  Becoming  tired 
of  this  mode  of  living,  and  thinking  that 
his  genius  was  not  appreciated,  he  left 
England  and  traveled  in  Spain  and  Greece. 
During  his  travels  he  wrote  the  first  part 
of  his  greatest  work,  Childe  Harold's  Pil- 
grimage. While  in  Greece  he  performed 
the  famous  feat  of  swimming  across  the 
Hellespont,  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  story 
of  Hero  and  Leander.  On  his  return  to 
England  he  was  received  with  great  favor. 
His  Giaour,  Corsair  and  Lara  were  written 
soon  after.  He  married,  but  was  after- 
ward separated  from  his  wife,  and,  owing 
to  public  disfavor,  he  left  England  never 
to  return.  He  stayed  in  Geneva  for  a 
time,  where  he  wrote  his  Prisoner  of  Chilian. 
Later  on  he  lived  in  Venice,  where  he 
finished  Childe  Harold,  and  began  Don 
Juan,  one  of  his  inotable  works.  In  1822 
he  sent  money  to  the  Greeks,  who  were 
fighting  for  independence  from  the  Turks; 
and  soon  after  went  to  Missolonghi  to  join 
the  Greek  forces,  but  died  there  of  a  fever, 
in  1824.  He  is  now  considered  one  of  the 
greatest  of  English  poets.  His  power  of 
description  has  rarely  been  equaled.  See 
Life  of  Byron  by  Thomas  Moore. 

Byzan'tine  (bt-zan'ttn)  Empire,  also 
called  the  EAST  ROMAN,  EASTERN,  GREEK 
or  LOWER  EMPIRE,  was  founded  in  395  A.D., 
when  Theodosius  the  Great  divided  the 
Roman  empire  between  his  two  sons,  Hon- 
orius  and  Arcadius.  Arcadius  was  made 
emperor  of  the  eastern  division:  Syria, 
Asia  Minor  and  Pontus  in  Asia;  Egypt 
in  Africa;  and  Thrace,  Moesia  (now  Bulgaria) , 
Macedonia,  Greece  and  Crete  in  Europe. 
The  empire  thus  formed  lasted  for  more 
than  a  thousand  years,  and  underwent  a 
great  variety  of  fortune.  It  took  the  name 
Byzantine  from  Byzantium,  the  old  name  of 
its  capital,  which,  after  330  A.  D.,  was 
usually  called  Constantinople  or  New  Rome. 

The  period  of  Greek  revival  (395-716),  as 
it  is  called,  is  marked  by  the  victories  of 
Justinian  and  Heraclius  Justinian  (527— 
565)  is  celebrated  for  his  code  of  laws  and 
the  victories  of  his  great  generals,  Belisarius 
and  Narses.  Maurice  (582-602),  by  his 


weak  rule  brought  the  country  to  a  con- 
dition  of  lawlessness  from  which  it  was 
rescued  by  Heraclius,  who  overthrew  him, 
and  reigned  from  610  to  641.  Great  as 
his  genius  was,  he  suffered  12  years  of 
defeat  before  he  could  organize  a  victo- 
rious army.  In  622  he  began  those  splendid 
campaigns  in  which  Persia  was  crushed, 
and  which,  Gibbon  says,  were  equal  to  those 
of  Scipio  or  Hannibal. 

The  period  of  prosperity  lasted  from  716— 
1057,  and  was  marked  by  successful  defense 
against  Saracens  and  Bulgarians.  Leo  III, 
Constantine  V,  Leo  IV,  Basilius  I  and 
Nicephorus  Phocas  all  won  victories  over  the 
Saracens  and  Bulgarians.  The  dynasty 
founded  by  Basilius  held  the  throne  most  ot 
the  time  from  867  to  1056.  John  Zimices 
(969—976)  won  victories  over  Saracens, 
Bulgarians  and  Russians,  while  Basilius  II 
(976-1025)  conquered  the  Bulgarian  king- 
dom. At  the  beginning  of  the  nth  cen- 
tury the  Saracen  power,  which  had  so  long 
been  dangerous  to  the  empire,  broke  up, 
but  the  Seljuk  Turks,  a  yet  more  formidable 
enemy,  appeared  on  the  eastern  frontier. 

The  period  of  the  decline  (1057-1204)  was 
marked  by  the  crusades  and  the  advance  of 
the  Turkish  power.  With  Isaac  Com- 
nenus  (1057—1059)  the  Comnenian  dynasty 
began.  In  the  reign  of  Alexius  Comnenus 
(1081-1118)  began  the  crusades,  in  which 
the  Byzantine  emperors  had  a  hard  part 
to  play.  The  crusades,  however,  helped 
greatly  to  check  the  advance  of  the  Turks, 
whose  power  already  reached  to  the  Helles- 
pont. The  last  Comnenian  prince,  Andro- 
nicus,  was  killed  in  a  rising  excited  by  his 
own  cruelty,  in  1185,  and  left  the  country 
in  a  state  of  utter  confusion. 

The  period  of  Latin  occupation  lasted 
from  1204  to  1261.  In  1204  the  French 
and  Venetians,  together  called  Latins, 
marched  on  Constantinople  and  captured  it. 
The  European  part  of  the  empire  was  carved 
into  four  divisions;  the  first  part,  including 
Constantinople,  fell  to  the  lot  of  Baldwin, 
the  Count  of  Flanders.  In  Asia,  Theodoras 
Lascaris  set  up  a  government  at  Nicaea, 
and  Alexius  Comnenus  ruled  at  Trebizond. 
The  Latin  occupation  was  hurtful  to  the 
empire,  which  never  regained  its  lost  unity. 
Michael  (VIII)  Palaeologus,  one  of  the  rulers 
of  Nicaea,  captured  Constantinople  in  1261 
with  the  aid  of  the  Genoese,  and  so  put  an 
end  to  the  Latin  dynasty. 

The  period  of  the  fall  (1261-1453)  was 
marked  by  the  quick  oncoming  of  the  Turks. 
They  took  Nicsea  in  1339,  and  first  made  a 
settlement  in  Europe  by  capturing  Gallipoli 
in  1354.  Adrianople  fell  in  1361,  and  be- 
came the  Ottoman  capital.  By  1381  all 
that  was  left  of  the  Byzantine  empire  be- 
came tributary  to  the  Turks.  The  sultan, 
Bajazet,  by  defeating  the  Hungarians  in 
1396  forced  Manuel  II  to  cede  to  him  a 
street  in  Constantinople.  The  whole  city 


BYZANTINE  EMPIRE 


299 


BYZANTINE  EMPIRE 


would  soon  have  fallen  had  not  Timttr, 
the  Tartar  conqueror,  defeated  Bajazet 
at  Angora  in  1402.  At  last  the  capital  fell 
before  Mohammed  II,  May  29,  1453,  when 
the  Byzantine  empire  was  brought  to  a  close. 
On  the  throne  of  this  great  empire,  to 
which  modern  Europe  owes  its  moral  and 
intellectual  development  and  which  main- 
tained a  struggle  with  darkness  for  1,000 
years,  sat  76  emperors  and  five  empresses. 
Of  these,  15  were  put  to  death;  seven 
were  blinded  or  otherwise  mutilated;  four 
were  deposed  or  imprisoned  in  monasteries; 
and  ten  were  compelled  to  abdicate.  In  the 
4th  century  she  fought  the  Goths;  in  the  5th 


the  Huns  and  Vandals;  in  the  6th  the 
Slavs;  in  the  7th  the  Persians  and  Arabs; 
in  the  8th,  gth  and  xoth  the  Bulgars, 
Magyars  and  Russians;  in  the  nth  the 
Seljukian  Turks;  the  Ottomans,  Normans, 
Venetians,  Crusaders  and  the  Genoese. 
"  No  wonder  she  at  last  fell  exhausted." 

Reviewing  its  entire  annals,  the  history 
of  the  fall  of  the  empire  may  be  said  to  be 
the  record  of  a  noble  struggle  in  the  face  of 
overwhelming  odds.  For  many  centuries  it 
was  the  bulwark  of  Christian  culture.  See 
Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  and  Finlay's  and  Grote's  Histories 
of  Greece,  See  also  CONSTANTINOPLE. 


300 


CABLE-ROAD 


C  (stf),  the  third  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
represents  two  consonants:  5  and  k.  The 
s  sound  is  called  soft  c,  the  k  sound  hard 
c.  C  before  e,  i  or  y  is  a  hissing  5,  as  in 
cede.  When  e  or  i  is  followed  by  another 
vowel  in  the  same  syllable,  c  is  sh,  as  in 
oceanic.  In  a  few  words  c  is  z,  as  in  sac- 
rifice. C  before  a,  o,  u  or  a  consonant 
represents  the  k  sound,  as  in  call,  cold, 
'culminate,  climax.  C  after  a  syllable  not 
followed  by  e  or  i  also  equals  k,  as  in  arc. 
So,  too,  in  sceptic  and  scirrous.  It  is 
silent  in  corpuscle,  czar,  indict,  muscle, 
victuals.  Its  sound  conies  from  the  Latin. 
The  Romans  used  C  as  a  numeral  (100) 
as  well  as  a  letter. 

Cabal  (kd-baV),  a  word  used  to  denote 
a  small  party  united  for  political  purposes. 
Formerly  it  was  used  to  denote  a  secret 
committee  or  cabinet,  and  in  the  i7th 
century  was  especially  applied  to  the  in- 
famous ministry  of  Charles  II  of  England, 
which  was  made  up  of  five  members  whose 
initials  made  up  the  word  cabal.  They 
were  Clifford,  Ashley,  Buckingham,  Ar- 
lington and  Lauderdale.  The  word  goes 
back  through  the  French  to  a  Hebrew 
word  meaning  "something  received." 

Cab'inet,  a  committee  of  ministers,  so 
called  from  the  cabinet  or  room  in  which 
the  ruler  assembles  his  council.  In  the 
United  States  the  cabinet  is  made  up  of 
the  heads  of  departments;  namely:  the 
secretaries  of  state,  of  the  treasury,  of 
war,  of  the  navy,  of  the  interior,  of  agri- 
culture; the  attorney-general;  and  the  post- 
master-general. By  the  constitution  the 
president  has  the  power  to  require  the 
opinion  in  writing  of  the  heads  of  depart- 
ments, on  any  subject  relating  to  their 
special  duties.  Washington  started  the 
practice  of  consulting  all  the  heads  of 
departments  on  important  measures,  and 
later  presidents  have  usually  called  them 
together  in  joint  meeting  for  consultation, 
so  that  now  they  are  expected  to  be  pres- 
ent as  a  matter  of  course.  The  president 
presides  at  these  meetings,  and  he  is  re- 
sponsible for  all  the  measures  of  the  gov- 
ernment. There  is  in  this  country  no 
premier  or  chief  member  of  the  cabinet, 
though  the  position  of  secretary  of  state 
is  generally  regarded  as  the  leading  one. 
The  president  usually  selects  for  his  cabi- 
net those  who  agree  with  his  views.  The 
word  cabinet  was  first  used  as  a  political 
term  in  England.  The  modern  British 


cabinet  is  made  up  of  a  variable  number 
of  ministers,  usually  about  eighteen,  among 
whom  are  always  the  first  lord  of  the 
treasury  (who  is  prime-minister),  the  lord 
chancellor,  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
the  president  of  the  council  and  tne  five 
secretaries  of  state.  The  members  have 
seats  in  Parliament. 

Ca'ble,  George  Washington,  an  Ameri- 
can author,  was  born  in  New  Orleans  in 
1844,  and  after  a  short  career  in  business 
entered  the  Con- 
federate army.  At 
the  close  of  the 
war,  he  resumed 
business  in  New 
Orleans  and  while 
still  so  engaged 
began  his  work  as 
a  writer  in  connec- 
tion with  the  New 
Orleans  Picayune. 
His  first  stories 
were  collected  and 
published  under 
the  title  of  Old 
Creole  Days.  The 
GEORGE  w.  CABLE  Gr  a  n  di  ssim  e  s, 
Madame  Delphine  and  the  History  of  New 
Orleans  soon  followed,  and  in  1879  he  gave 
up  his  business.  In  1884  Mr.  Cable  set' 
tied  in  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  and 
devoted  himself  to  writing  and  lecturing. 
Dr.  Sevier,  The  Creoles  of  Louisiana,  The 
Silent  South,  The  Cavalier,  By-Low  Hill 
and  Strange  True  Stories  of  Louisiana  are 
among  his  later  works. 

Cable-Road,  a  railroad  on  which  the 
cars  are  moved  by  being  attached  to  an 
endless  wire  rope,  which  is  kept  in  motion 
by  mechanical  power.  Cable  traction  has 
been  used  in  mines  for  many  years,  but 
it  was  first  successfully  applied  to  street 
car  traction  by  A.  S.  Halliday  at  San  Fran- 
cisco in  1873..  For  heavy  street-car  traffic 
and  for  places  where  there  are  very  heavy 
grades  the  cable  system  has  been  sucess- 
fully  employed.  The  cable,  an  endless 
wire  rope  of  one  to  ij  inches  in  diameter, 
is  kept  in  continuous  motion  in  a  slotted 
groove  or  conduit  below  the  surface  and 
between  the  rails,  and  the  connection  with 
the  car  is  made  by  a  grip  which  ean  be 
controlled  from  the  car.  The  power  re- 
quired to  keep  the  cable  in  motion  witkout 
load  is  large — 35  to  75  per  cent,  of  the 
full  load — so  that  the  system  is  at  a  dis- 


CABLES 


301 


CACTUS 


advantage  where  the  load  is  not  heavy 
and  continuous.  The  cable  has  been  super- 
seded by  electric  systems  almost  entirely. 

Ca'bles,  Electric,  are  wires  especially 
prepared  for  carrying  electric  currents 
underground  or  under  water.  The  under- 
ground cable  consists  essentially  of  a  cylin- 
der of  insulating  material,  such  as  gutta- 
percha,  in  which  are  imbedded  one  or  more 
copper  wires.  These  coppper  wires  do  not 
touch  each  other  throughout  their  length. 
The  guttapercha  keeps  the  moisture  out 
and  keeps  the  electric  current  in.  The 
cable  is  generally  placed  inside  a  lead 
sheathing,  which  preserves  its  flexibility 
and  at  the  same  time  furnishes  protection 
from  mechanical  injury.  It  is  now  the 
custom  to  put  a  large  number  of  conductors 
— sometimes,  for  telephone  lines,  as  many 
as  a  hundred — in  one  lead  sheath. 

Ca'bles,  Ocean,  telegraph  lines  laid 
from  shore  to  shore  beneath  the  sea.  The 
first  Atlantic  cable  was  successfully  laid 
in  1866  by  Cyrus  W.  Field.  Submarine 
telegraph  lines  had  already  for  some  years 
been  in  operation  over  short  distances. 
Coney  Island  and  Fire  Island  had  been 
successfully  connected.  In  Europe  a  cable 
had  been  laid  from  Dover  to  Calais,  and 
many  others  over  distances  less  than  a 
hundred  miles.  In  deeper  waters,  also, 
cables  had  been  laid,  one  from  Newfound- 
land to  Cape  Breton  and  another  from 
Spezia  to  Corsica.  In  1857  Mr.  Field 
made  his  first  attempt  to  lay  a  cable  under 
the  Atlantic  from  Newfoundland  to  Val- 
entia  in  Ireland.  This  attempt  failed,  as 
.did  several  others.  In  1858  a  cable  was 
laid  which  worked  at  first  but  became 
silent  after  a  few  weeks.  In  1865  the 
Great  Eastern  took  on  board  a  vast  cable 
weighing  20,000  tons,  and  laid  1,200  miles 
of  it,  when  by  a  sudden  lurch  of  the  ship 
the  cable  was  snapped.  The  next  year's 
attempt  was,  however,  successful.  The 
cable,  2,000  miles  long,  was  safely  stretched 
across  the  ocean,  and  submarine  commu- 
nication was  an  accomplished  fact.  Its 
first  message  was  the  news  that  a  treaty 
had  been  signed  by  Prussia  and  Austria. 

By  1903  there  were  16  cables  carrying 
messages  through  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
besides  three  that  are  no  longer  used. 
But  the  greatest  triumph  of  cable-laying 
was  the  completion  of  the  British  Pacific 
cable,  7,800  nautical  miles  long,  which 
now  connects  British  Columbia  with  Aus- 
tralia. In  1903  an  American  cable  was 
laid  to  the  Philippines  from  San  Fran- 
cisco by  way  of  Hawaii.  Thus,  by  means 
cf  the  overland  telegraph  and  the  sub- 
marine cable,  it  is  now  possible  to  trans- 
mit a  message  in  a  few  hours  to  almost 
any  country  on  the  globe. 

Submarine  Cables  are  laid  on  the  bottom 
of  the  sea.  They  require  not  only  good 
insulation,  but  great  tensile  strength,  els« 


they  will  not  support  their  own  weights 
when  lowered  from  the  vessel  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sea.  This  tensile  strength  is 
acquired  by  wrapping  the  guttapercha  in- 
sulation with  a  sheathing  of  steel  wire. 
There  now  are  16  cables  of  this  type  across 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  each  carrying  two 
copper  conductors.  Each  of  these  con- 
ductors is  capable  of  transmitting  about 
20  words  a  minute.  See  TELEGRAPH. 

Cabot  (kab'iit},  John  or  Giovanni,  prob- 
ably the  discoverer  of  North  America. 
Very  little  is  known  of  the  life  of  this  sea- 
man. The  place  and  time  of  his  birth 
and  death  are  not  known.  Either  a  Vene- 
tian or  an  Englishman  naturalized  in  1476, 
he  was  living  in  England  in  1495.  It 
probably  was  the  voyage  of  Columbus  in 
search  of  the  East  Indies  which  started 
Cabot  westward  on  the  same  quest.  He 
with  his  three  sons  obtained  a  patent  in 
1496  from  Henry  VII,  giving  them  power 
to  search  for  lands  in  the  eastern,  western 
or  northern  seas  and,  as  vassals  of  Eng- 
land, to  occupy  any  lands  discovered,  with 
a  right  to  their  commerce  on  paying  the 
king  a  fifth  of  all  profits.  Accompanied 
by  his  three  sons  he  set  sail  in  1497,  and 
on  June  24th  sighted  Cape  Breton  Island 
and  Nova  Scotia.  He  planted  on  the 
coast  the  banners  of  England  and  Venice 
and  returned.  The  next  year  another 
patent  was  granted,  but  nothing  further 
is  known  of  his  life. 

Cab'ot,  Sebastian,  son  of  John  Cabot, 
was  probably  born  between  1474  and 
1477,  either  at  Bristol  or  at  Venice.  He 
accompanied  his  father  on  his  voyage  to 
Nova  Scotia,  and  in  1498  he  sailed  with 
two  ships  in  search  of  a  northwestern 
passage  to  India.  He  left  a  few  men  on 
the  bleak  shores  of  Newfoundland  and 
sailed  southward  along  the  American  coast 
as  far  as  Florida.  Later  he  entered  the 
service  of  Spain,  and  in  1526  commanded 
an  expedition  which  examined  the  coast 
of  Brazil  and  the  River  Plata,  and  there 
attempted  to  plant  colonies.  In  1547  he 
again  went  to  England  and  became  in- 
spector of  the  navy.  He  was  the  prime 
mover  of  the  expedition  of  merchant  ad- 
venturers which  opened  to  England  an 
important  trade  with  Russia.  He  was 
famous  as  the  maker  of  maps,  and  he  was 
probably  the  first  who  made  sure  that 
America  was  wholly  a  new  and  unknown 
continent.  He  died  at  London  in  1557. 

Cabul.     See   KABUL. 

Cac'tus.  The  general  name  of  a  well- 
known  family  called  the  Cactaceae.  The 
numerous  species  are  characteristic  of  the 
warm  and  dry  regions  of  America,  their 
display  being  greatest  in  Mexico.  There 
are  about  1,000  recognized  species,  and 
many  of  them  are  under  cultivation  on 
account  of  their  curious  forms.  They 
have  become  remarkably  adapted  to  con- 


CADE 


302 


CLEDMOtf 


tinuous  drouth.  Their  leaves  have  been 
abandoned  for  the  most  part,  and  the 
variously  shaped  stems  are  organized  to 
expose  the  least  amount  of  surface  and  to 
retain  water.  The  largest  forms  are 
species  of  the  genus  Cereus,  among  which 
are  the  giant  cacti,  whose  columnar  bodies 
with  clumsy  branches  rise  sometimes  to 
a  height  of  fifty  to  sixty  feet.  The  spheri- 
cal forms  mostly  belong  to  the  genera 
Mamiilaria  and  Echinocactus ;  the  flat  forms 


CACTI 

or  prickly  pear  belong  to  the  genus  Opuntia. 
The  common  prickly  pear  has  long  been 
naturalized  in  the  Mediterranean  region. 
Many  of  the  cactus  fruits  are  edible,  and 
certain  genera  are  very  useful  to  the  natives 
of  Mexico.  Recent  cultivation  has  pro- 
duced a  spineless  cactus  which  promises 
to  be  of  great  value  as  a  food  for  cattle. 
The  flowers  are  usually  very  showy,  and 
the  spines  are  also  often  brilliantly  colored. 
The  eastern  variety,  prickly  pear  or  In- 
dian fig,  is  distributed  in  this  country 
from  Massachusetts  to  Florida;  the  western 
cactus  ranges  from  Minnesota  to  Texas. 

Cade  (kdd),  Jack,  leader  of  the  rising 
in  England  of  the  men  of  Kent,  in  1450. 
He  took  the  name  of  Mortimer  and  the 
title  of  Captain  of  Kent,  and  marched  on 
London  with  over  15,000  followers  and 
encamped  at  Blackheath.  He  complained 
of  certain  grievances,  and  asked  the  king 
(Henry  VI)  to  change  his  counselors.  He 
was  forced  to  retreat,  but  later  gained  a 
victory  over  a  part  of  the  king's  forces, 
and,  entering  London,  beheaded  Lord 
Say,  one  of  the  king's  favorites.  But  his 
troops  soon  scattered,  a  price  was  set  upon 
his  head,  and  he  was  killed  in  a  garden 
near  Heathfield,  Sussex,  as  he  was  trying 
to  reach  the  coast. 

Cad  iliac,  Michigan,  a  city,  the  seat 
of  Wexford  County,  on  Lake  Cadillac, 
and  on  the  Grand  Rapids  &  Indiana  and 
the  Ann  Arbor  railroad,  96  miles  north 
of  Grand  Rapids.  It  is  in  a  region  of 
fine  hardwood  timber  and  has  large 
local  lumber  interests  as  well  as  consid- 
erable general  manufacturing.  It  has  a 
number  of  churches,  schools  and  attractive 
public  buildings.  Population,  10,000.  ,  , 


Cadiz  ( k&d'lz) ,  a  Spanish  city  in  An- 
dalusia, near  tne  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  capi- 
tal of  the  province  of  the  same  name.  It 
is  situated  at  the  extreme  end  of  a  narrow 
tongue  of  land  projecting  from  the  Island 
of  Leon.  It  is  washed  by  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Bay  of  Cadiz,  and  is  one  of  the 
best  fortified  cities  of  Spain.  The  shining 
granite  ramparts  and  the  whitewashed 
houses  give  it  a  bright  appearance;  but 
there  are  few  public  buildings  of  note. 
The  Alameda  is  a  pleasant  public  walk 
by  the  seaside.  After  the  discovery  of 
America,  Cadiz  reached  its  highest  pros- 
perity, becoming  the  depot  of  all  the  trade 
with  the  New  World.  When  the  South 
American  colonies  became  independent, 
the  city  declined  greatly,  but  has  since 
revived,  .owing  to  the  extension  of  the 
railroad  system  and  the  establishment  of 
new  lines  of  steamers.  About  3,800  ships 
enter  the  port  yearly.  There  also  are  a 
number  of  manufactures.  Cadiz  was  built 
by  the  Phoenicians,  about  noo  B.  C., 
under  the  name  of  Gaddir,  meaning  "for- 
tress." It  was  afterward  held  by  Car- 
thaginians, Romans,  Goths,  Moors  and 
Spaniards.  Here  Drake  destroyed  a  Spanish 
fleet;  Essex  burned  and  pillaged  the  city; 
the  French  blockaded  it;  and  the  Spanish 
revolution  of  1868  found  its  birthplace  at 
Cadiz.  Population,  67,174. 

Cad'mus,  in  classical  mythology  a  son  of 
Agenor,  king  of  Phoenicia,  and  brother  of 
the  beautiful  Europa.  When  the  latter 
had  been  carried  off  by  Zeus,  who  had 
become  enamored  of  the  beautiful  maid, 
Cadmus,  his  brothers  and  mother  were 
sent  in  search  of  her.  Not  finding  her, 
Cadmus  proceeded  to  Bceotia,  where, 
tradition  relates,  he  founded  Thebes  and 
built  the  Cadmeia.  Here,  the  myth  con- 
tinues, he  sowed  dragon's  teeth,  which 
sprang  up  as  armed  men  who  slew  each 
other,  save  a  few  from  whom  the  Thebans 
later  claimed  descent.  Subsequently,  Cad- 
mus married  Harmonia,  a  flute-player, 
and  both  were  changed  by  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
into  a  serpent;  though  another  account 
relates  that  he  went  to  Illyria.  The  in- 
troduction of  the  Phoenician  alphabet  into 
Greece  is  attributed  to  Cadmus,  while 
he  is  also  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of 
many  useful  arts. 

Csedmon  (ktid'm-iin),  the  earliest  Eng- 
lish writer  of  note  who  used  his  own  Anglo- 
Saxon  language,  and  the  first  religious 
poet  of  the  Teutonic  race.  The  account 
of  him  is  given  by  Bede.  He  was  a  cow- 
herd who  had  never  until  quite  old  learned 
any  poem,  and  often,  at  festivals,  when  it 
came  his  turn  to  take  the  harp  and  sing, 
he  would  rise  from  the  feast  and  go  home. 
Once  when  he  had  gone  from  the  feast  to 
the  stable,  there  appeared  to  him  in  sleep 
one  who  said  to  him:  "Caedmon,  sing  me 
some  song."  y"I  cannot  sing,",  was  the 


CAESAR 


303 


CffiSAREA  PHILIPPI 


answer;  "for  this  cause  left  I  the  feast." 
"  But  you  shall  sing  to  me."  "  What,"  asked 
Caedmon,  "shall  I  sing?"  "Sing  the  be- 
ginning of  created  things."  In  the  morn- 
ing he  told  his  dream  to  Hilda,  the  abbess 
of  Whitby,  and  he  put  into  verse  for  her 
a  part  of  the  Scriptures.  Men  believed 
him  to  be  inspired.  "Others  after  him 
strove  to  compose  religious  poems,  but 
none  could  vie  with  him,  for  he  learned 
the  art  of  poetry,  not  from  men,  but  from 
God."  He  was  educated  and  became  a 
monk,  spending  the  remainder  of  his  life 
writing  poems  on  the  Bible  histories  and 
on  other  religious  subjects.  He  died  about 
680  A.  D.  Some  of  his  poetry  still  exists. 

Caesar  (se'zer) ,  Augustus.     See  AUGUSTUS. 

Caesar,  Gaius  Julius,  was  born  July 
12,  ioo  B.  C.,  of  a  noble  Roman  family. 
He  studied  at  Rhodes  to  improve  his  elo- 
quence, and,  returning  to  Rome,  threw 
himself  earnestly  into  public  life.  Join- 
ing Pompey,  who  was  then  acting  with 
the  popular  party,  he  passed  rapidly 
through  the  different  grades  of  office.  He 
was  quaestor  in  Spain;  as  curule  aedile 
he  increased  his  popularity  by  lavishing 
vast  sums  of  money  on  public  buildings 
and  games;  as  praetor  he  was  accused  of 
being  concerned  in  the  famous  conspiracy  of 
Catiline,  but  probably  unjustly.  While  con- 
sul, with  rare  tact  and  wisdom  he 
reconciled  the  two  most  powerful  men  in 
Rome,  Pompey  and  Crassus,  and  formed 
an  alliance  with  them,  known  in  history 
as  the  first  triumvirate.  At  the  close  of 
his  consulship  he  obtained  the  province  of 
Cisalpine  Gaul  and  the  senate  added  that 
of  Transalpine  Gaul  for  five  years,  which 
were  later  increased  to  ten  years.  In  this 
field  Caesar  conducted  during  the  next  nine 
years  some  of  the  most  wonderful  cam- 
paigns in  history,  which  alone  would  have 
given  him  an  abiding  name.  In  seven 
successive  campaigns  he  subdued  the  Hel- 
vetii,  killing  over  150,000  of  them,  a  num- 
ber of  German  tribes,  the  Belgic  tribes, 
the  Veneti  and  other  tribes;  twice  invaded 
Britain;  built  a  bridge  across  the  Rhine; 
and  closed  his  brilliant  course  by  crushing 
a  wide-spread  rebellion  of  the  whole  of 
Gaul.  Twice  during  this  time  a  thanks- 
giving was  decreed  to  him  by  the  senate, 
one  for  15  days  and  the  other  for  20,  an 
honor  never  before  granted  to  any  general. 
He  now  was  the  most  popular  man  in 
Rome,  and  had  an  army  enthusiastically 
devoted  to  their  victorious  leader.  But 
Crassus  was  now  dead,  and  Pompey, 
jealous  of  the  power  of  Caesar,  had  veered 
around  to  the  party  of  the  senate.  Caesar 
was  ordered  to  disband  his  army,  but, 
knowing  that  this  meant  his  political  ruin, 
he  refused,  and,  crossing  the  Rubicon  (a 
small  stream  which  separated  his  province 
from  Italy  proper),  moved  swiftly  amid 
the  acclamations  of  the  people  toward 


Rome.  Pompey  and  the  senate  fled  to 
Greece,  and  in  three  months  Caesar  was 
master  of  Italy.  Pompey's  legates  in  Spain 
were  soon  conquered,  and  by  the  famous 
battle  of  Pharsalia,  48  B.  C.,  Pompey's 
powerful  army  was  utterly  routed.  Pom- 
pey himself  fled  to  Egypt  where  he  was 
murdered.  Caesar  next  settled  the  affairs 
of  Egypt,  and  defeated  the  generals  of 
Pompey  in  Africa.  His  power  was  now 
absolute,  but  he  did  not  use  it  for  bad  pur- 
poses, as  previous  conquerors  had  done, 
but,  declaring  that  he  had  no  enemies, 
gave  himself  to  curing  the  social  evils 
which  had  been  so  long  rife  in  the  republic. 
He  was  called  the  "Father  of  His  Country" 
and  "Imrjerator,"  from  which  comes  the 
modern  title  of  Emperor,  and  was  made 
dictator  for  life.  His  person  was  declared 
sacred  and  even  divine;  his  statues  were 
placed  in  the  temples;  his  portrait  was 
struck  on  the  coins;  the  month  Quintilius 
was  named  Julius  in  his  honor.  He  be- 
gan many  reforms,  but  was  cut  off  in  the 
midst  of  his  work  by  assassins,  and  Rome 
was  again  plunged  into  civil  war.  Brutus 
and  Cassius,  both  of  whom  had  received 
favors  from  Caesar,  and  a  band  of  con- 
spirators fell  upon  the  great  dictator  in 
the  senate  house.  At  first  he  defended 
himself,  but  when  he  saw  Brutus  with  a 
dagger  in  his  hand,  he  cried  Et  tu.  Brute? 
(Thou,  too,  Brutus?),  wrapped  his  cloak 
about  him,  and  fell  pierced  with  23  wounds 
at  the  foot  of  the  statue  of  Pompey.  He 
died  at  Rome,  aged  56,  in  44  B.  C.  Caesar 
was  one  of  the  greatest  men  that  ever  lived. 
In  everything  he  excelled.  He  not  only 
was  the  first  general  and  statesman  of  his 
age,  but  he  was  its  greatest  orator,  except 
Cicero.  He  also  was  a  great  historian  and 
scholar. 

Caesarea  (sez-d-re'a),  now  called  by  the 
natives  Kaisarieh,  was  once  a  proud 
and  splendid  seaport.  It  stood  on  the 
coast  of  Syria,  13  miles  north  of  Toppa. 
Built  by  Herod  about  22  B.  C.,  it  was 
named  in  honor  of  Augustus  Caesar.  It 
was  a  Greek  town,  with  its  temples,  am- 
phitheatre and  baths,  imported  into 
Syria.  A  mole  in  a  half  circle,  built  of 
large  blocks  of  stone,  protected  the  port  on 
the  north  and  west,  within  which  a  fleet 
might  ride  in  safety.  It  was  held  by  the 
crusaders,  who  built  a  cathedral  here. 
Afterward  the  city  fell  into  decay,  and  is 
now  a  heap  of  half-buried  ruins,  with  a 
few  miserable  stone  houses  inhabited  by 
fishermen.  There  is  a  small,  open  harbor. 

CaesareaPhilippi,  a  city  mentioned 
in  the  New  Testament,  stood  about  95 
miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  near  the  source 
of  the  Jordan.  The  name  Philipp1'  was 
given  in  honor  of  Philip  the  Tetrarch,  who 
repaired  the  city.  It  is  now  a  heap  of 
ruins.  On  its  site  is  a  small  village  called 
Paneas  or  Banias. 


CAIN 


304 


CAISSON 


HALL  CAINE 


Cain,  the  first-born  of  Adam  and  Eve. 
A  cultivator  of  the  soil,  he  killed  his  brother 
Abel,  because  his  brother's  sacrifices  were 
more  acceptable  to  God  than  his  own. 
For  his  crime  he  was  condemned  to  be  a 
fugitive  and  a  vagabond  on  the  earth.  He 
went  to  the  land  of  Nod,  on  the  east  of 
Eden,  where  he  built  a  city,  which  he  called 
Enoch  from  the  name  of  his  son. 

Caine,  Thomas  Henry  Hall,  an  emi- 
nent English  novelist  and  dramatist,  was 
born  of  Manx  parentage  in  Cheshire,  Eng- 
land, in  1853.  His  early  years  were  spent 
as  an  architect, 
from  which  he 
drifted  into  jour- 
nalism, thence 
into  the  writing 
of  essays,  poems 
and  lastly  novels. 
In  fiction  his 
first  successes 
were  in  the  writ- 
ing of  the  Manx 
stories  of  The 
Deemster,  The 
B ondman  and 
The  Manxman. 
C  o  n  t  e  mporary 
with  these  were 
The  Shadow  of 

a  Crime,  A  Son  of  Hagar  and  The  Scapegoat. 
All  of  his  stories  show  power,  with 
much  constructive  skill,  and  the  quali- 
ties that  attract  and  hold  the  reader's  in- 
terest. His  late  novels  are  The  Christian, 
which,  with  others  of  his  stories  has  been 
dramatized,  and  The  Eternal  City.  He 
has  also  published  Sonnets  of  Three  Cen- 
turies and  a  volume  of  Recollections  of 
Rossetti.  He  has  for  some  time  been 
actively  interested  in  the  government  of 
the  Isle  of  Man,  and  is  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Keys. 

Cairo  (kl'rS),  a  famous  city  and  capital 
of  modern  Egypt,  lies  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Nile,  near  the  commencement  of 
the  Delta.  The  modern  city  is  built  on 
the  remains  of  four  distinct  cities,  and  is 
surrounded  by  stone  walls  with  antique 
battlements.  It  is  divided  into  quarters, 
occupied  by  the  Moslems,  the  Jews,  the 
Christians,  etc.,  and  these  quarters  are 
separated  by  gates  closed  at  night.  The 
most  remarkable  buildings  are  the  mosques 
and  minarets,  which  include  some  o'f  the 
finest  remains  of  Arabian  architecture. 
The  great  pyramid  is  about  ten  miles 
from  the  city.  Cairo  is  also  the  site  of 
a  university,  founded  in  971,  to  which 
2,000  students  flock  annually  from  all 
parts  of  the  Mohammedan  world.  The 
streets  are  narrow  and  are  traversed  by 
an  endless  stream  of  horses,  asses,  camels 
and  human  b«ings.  A  few  broad  streets 
run  tkrougk  tha  newer  parts  of  the  city. 
With  am  area  of  about  seven  square  miles 


and  a  population  of  about  654,476,  Cairo 
is  the  largest  city  in  Africa,  and  second  only 
to  Constantinople  in  the  Turkish  empire. 

It  was  founded  by  the  Arabs  about  976 
A.  D.,  and  was  ruled  by  the  Fatimite 
caliphs  until  1171,  when  Saladin  became 
master  of  Egypt.  It  was  the  capital  of 
the  sultans  of  Egypt  until  it  was  captured 
by  the  Turks  in  1516.  Since  1882  Cairo 
has  been  the  center  of  British  influence  in 
Egypt.  It  is  under  the  control  of  a  special 
governor.  Of  the  races  which  compose 
tbe  population,  the  Arabs  are  the  most 
numerous.  There  are  about  35,000  Euro- 
peans. Railroads  and  telegraphs  connect 
the  city  with  Alexandria,  Suez,  etc.,  and 
steamers  ply  on  the  Nile.  There  is  a  busy 
trade,  but  few  manufactures.  There  are 
good  schools  and  a  public  library.  The 
name  Cairo  is  corrupted  from  El  Kahira, 
meaning  "the  victorious."  See  Ball's  Cairo 
of  To-Day. 

Cairo  (ka'ro),  a  city,  the  capital  of  Al- 
exander County,  in  southwest  Illinois, 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  Rivers,  about  midway  between 
Memphis  and  St.  Louis.  Its  wharves  are 
thronged  with  steamboats  and  shipping, 
as  it  is  the  shipping-point  for  southern 
markets  of  the  products  of  Illinois,  Iowa 
and  Indiana.  An  extensive  system  of 
levees  now  protects  it  from  inundation. 
It  is  well  served  with  railroads  and  main- 
tains excellent  public  schools,  and  has  a 
population  of  20,000. 

Caisson  (kds'son),  a  water-tight  box 
used  in  laying  foundations  on  bases  under 
water  or  undersurface  soils  which  are  sat- 
urated in  water.  There  are  two  kinds, 
the  crib  or  open  caisson  and  the  pneumatic 
caisson.  The  open  caisson  is  a  box  struct- 
ure of  wood  or  of  iron,  which  is  loaded  so  as 
to  sink  into  the  bed  of  the  stream;  the  earth 
is  then  removed  to  the  required  depth 
and  the  inside  of  the  caisson  is  filled  with 
masonry  or  concrete,  the  whole  forming  a 
portion  of  the  pier.  In  making  the  founda- 
tions for  the  Poughkeepsie  bridge,  the 
caissons  used  had  a  cross-section  of  60x100 
feet  and  a  depth  of  over  100  feet.  Pneu- 
matic caissons  are  all  on  the  principle  of 
the  diving  bell.  A  large  cylinder  of  boiler 
iron  with  closed  top  is  sunk  into  the  water, 
open  end  down.  The  water  is  kept  out  by 
keeping  the  caisson  chamber  filled  with 
compressed  air.  Communication  for  the 
passage  of  workmen  and  materials  is  through 
an  air  lock.  This  is  an  ante-room,  having 
air-tight  doors  both  to  the  atmosphere 
and  to  the  compressed  air  chamber.  The 
caisson  is  sunk  by  digging  out  the  soil  un- 
derneath the  caisson.  In  modern  pneu- 
matic caissons  the  air  chamber  is  a  steel 
arched  chamber  at  the  bottom  of  the 
caisson  tube,  and  the  masonry  or  concrete 
is  built  in  on  top  of  this  chamber  as  the 
caisson  sinks.  The  air  pressures  used  are 


CALAIS 


305 


CALCUTTA 


often  so  great  as  to  endanger  life.  Frequent 
shifts  of  workmen  are  required.  In  the 
Brooklyn  bridge  caissons  pressures  of  ten 
atmospheres  were  used.  Formerly  caissons 
were  used  only  for  foundations  in  water, 
but  within  recent  years  the  foundations 
for  many  of  the  tall  buildings  in  New  York 
city  have  been  laid  by  means  of  pneumatic 
caissons. 

Calais  (kd'ld'),  a  seaport  of  France,  is 
situated  on  the  Strait  of  Dover.  A  ring 
of  forts  and  regions  of  marshy  ground  on 
the  south  and  east  which  can  be  easily 
flooded  make  the  city  a  secure  fortress. 
Calais  has  a  good  harbor  and  is  connected 
with  Dover  by  steamer  and  by  a  submarine 
telegraph.  Calais  has  been  important  in 
history.  In  1347  it  was  captured  after 
a  siege  of  eleven  months  by  Edward  III 
of  England.  Calais  was  held  until  the  time 
of  Queen  Mary  (1558),  when  it  was  taken 
back  by  the  French.  It  had  been  called 
the  brightest  jewel  in  the  English  crown, 
and  the  boast  had  been  written  over  one 
of  its  own  gates, 

"Then  shall  Frenchmen  Calais  win, 

When  iron  and  lead  Hke  cork  shall  swim." 
Population,  72,322. 

Calcium  (k&l'si-um)  is  a  white,  or  as 
usually  prepared  in  the  laboratory,  yellow 
metal.  The  metal  is  of  no  practical  im- 
portance, but  its  compounds  are  very 
common.  Limestone,  marble  and  chalk 
as  well  as  coral,  shells,  etc.  are  compounds 
of  calcium  carbonate;  quick  lime  is  the 
oxide;  gypsum  and  plaster  of  paris  con- 
sist of  the  sulphate;  and  calcium  carbide 
is  a  manufactured  compound  used  for 
making  acetylene.  The  earthy  part  of 
bones  is  largely  made  up  of  calcium  phos- 
phate. It  is  chiefly  calcium  compounds 
that  make  water  hard. 

Calculating  Machine,  a  machine  for 
adding  and  subtracting  by  mechanical 


CALCULATING    MACHINE 

means.  There  are  various  forms  of  such 
machines,  some  of  them  being  very  com- 
plicated. One  constructed  by  Mr.  Babbage 
for  the  English  government  to  be  used  in 


preparing  logarithmical  and  trigonomet- 
rical tables  is  said  to  have  cost  $100,000. 
Practically  all  these  machines  are  con- 
structed upon  one  principle.  There  are  a 
number  of  dial  faces  on  wheels  alongside 
each  other,  each  with  the  first  ten  figures 
on  them.  These  wheels  correspond  to 
units,  tens,  hundreds,  etc.,  and  are  so  inter- 
locked that  ten  steps  on  the  units  dial 
move  the  tens  dial  one  step  and  so  on. 
By  some  mechanism  any  number  that  can 
be  set  up  on  the  dials  qan  be  added  to  itself 
any  number  of  times,  and  recorded  on  the 
same  or  another  set  of  dials.  Multiplica- 
tion is  taken  as  a  successive  addition  and 
division  as  a  successive  subtraction.  The 
best  known  of  these  machines  are  the 
Grant  and  the  Thomas.  They  can  be  made 
to  multiply  or  divide  any  number  of  figures 
by  any  other  number,  but  with  increased 
number  of  figures  the  machinery  becomes 
more  complicated.  In  a  common  form 
of  Grant  machine  any  number  up  to  five 
figures  can  be  multipled  by  any  other  num- 
ber up  to  five  figures.  Thirteen  figures 
are  the  limit  of  a  common  form  of  the 
Thomas  machine.  Forms  of  calculating 
machines  are  now  used  in  banking  work 
as  well  as  in  engineering  and  statistical  work. 

Calculus  ( k&l'kil-lus )  means  any  method 
of  making  mathematical  investigations  by 
means  of  algebraic  symbols.  There  are 
several  sorts  of  calculus,  but  the  term  com- 
monly means  the  infinitesimal  calculus, 
that  is,  the  principles  of  mathematical 
reasoning  by  the  use  of  symbols  that  rep- 
resent and  express  the  infinitesimal  in- 
creases (variations)  of  quantities.  Arith- 
metic and  algebra  consider  numbers  to  be 
finite  and  discontinuous,  but  calculus  deals 
with  them  as  capable  of  growth  continuous 
and  infinite.  Hence  calculus  investigates 
quantities  whose  va1ues  constantly  change. 
Such  quantities,  for  example,  are  the  mo- 
tions of  bodies,  as  of  planets  in  their  orbits, 
or  the  amounts  of  force  in  the  performance 
of  work,  neither  of  which  are  identically 
the  same  at  any  two  instants.  Before 
calculus  was  invented  modern  science  made 
but  slight  progress,  but  since  Newton  in 
1665  and  Leibniz,  in  1675,  both  indepen- 
dently discovered  it,  science  has  progressed 
rapidly.  (Leibniz  published  his  discovery 
in  1684,  Newton  his  in  1687,  but  Newton 
was  the  prior  discoverer.)  Differential 
calculus  investigates  the  infinitesimal  changes 
of  quantities  when  the  relations  between 
the  quantities  are  given.  Integral  calculus 
deduces  relations  between  quantities  from 
those  between  their  infinitesimal  varia- 
tions. The  influence  of  the  calculus  on 
nearly  all  branches  of  mathematics  has 
been  extensive,  rendering  possible  most 
important  advances  in  astronomy,  me- 
chanics and  physics. 

Calcut'ta,  the  capital  of  the  province 
of  Bengal  and  the  metropolis  of  British 


CALDERON 


306 


CALENDAR 


India,  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Hdgli 
River,  an  arm  of  the  Ganges,  about  80  miles 
by  the  river  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The 
East  India  Company  founded  Calcutta  in 
1686,  and  it  had  gained  some  importance 
as  a  town  when,  in  1736,  Sura  j  ah 
Dowlah,  the  Nawab  of  Bengal,  captured 
the  city,  and  the  horrible  tragedy  known 
as  the  Black  Hole  followed.  One  hun- 
dred and  forty-six  English  prisoners  were 
thrown  into  a  cell,  18  feet  square,  on  a  hot 
night  in  June.  There  were  only  two  small 
windows,  and  these  were  obstructed  by  a 
veranda.  The  crush  of  the  unhappy  suffer- 
ers was  horrible;  and  after  a  night  of  ter- 
rible agony  from  pressure,  heat,  thirst 
and  want  of  air  there  were  in  the  morning 
only  23  survivors,  the  ghastliest  forms 
ever  seen  on  earth.  Seven  months  later 
the  English  recaptured  the  city.  It  was  the 
seat  of  the  central  government  of  India  from 
1772  to  1911,  when  it  was  transferred  to 
Delhi.  The  population  of  the  city  in 
191 1,  with  fort  and  suburbs,  was  1,216,514. 
Besides  these,  thousands  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  surrounding  districts  flock  during 
the  day  into  Calcutta  on  foot,  by  boat  or 
by  railway  to  their  daily  toil.  The  city 
extends  for  about  five  miles  along  the  river, 
with  an  area  of  nearly  ten  square  miles; 
while  other  villages  across  the  Hugli  con- 
tain many  of  the  government  buildings. 
The  city  presents  a  striking  appearance 
as  it  is  approached  by  the  nver.  On  the 
left  are  the  botanical  gardens  and  the 
Bishop's  College,  and  in  the  rear  the  sub- 
urb of  Howra.  On  the  right  are  the  gov- 
ernment dockyards  and  the  arsenal,  and 
beyond  is  the  Maidan  esplanade,  which 
has  been  called  the  Hyde  Park  of  India. 
Here,  near  the  river,  lies  Fort  William,  the 
largest  fortress  in  India,  occupying  with 
its  outworks  an  area  of  two  square  miles. 
Among  other  fine  buildings  there  is  the 

government  house,  a  magnificent  palace, 
eyond  this,  along  the  river  bank,  is  the 
Strand,  two  miles  in  length,  adorned  by 
buildings  and  lined  with  a  splendid  series 
of  jetties  for  ocean  steamers.  Calcutta 
has  many  modern  conveniences.  There 
are  four  theaters,  several  large  European 
hotels,  half  a  dozen  daily  newspapers,  street 
railroads,  etc.  Although  the  native  quar- 
ter is  far  behind  the  European  quarter,  it 
is  fast  improving.  There  are  several  lines 
of  railroad  to  various  parts  of  India,  and 
the  city  is  the  headquarters  of  the  Indian 
telegraph  department.  Steamers  and  sail- 
ing vessels  supply  connection  with  foreign 
countries.  Besides  the  University  of  Cal- 
cutta, there  are  a  large  number  of  colleges, 
schools  and  learned  societies.  Calcutta 
is  the  commercial  center  of  Asia.  Both 
its  sea  trade  and  its  inland  trade  are  enor- 
mous. Opium,  raw  cotton,  jute,  grain, 
hides,  etc.  are  the  principal  articles  of  ex- 
port. 


Calderon  (kal'der-on]  de  la  Barca, 
Pedro,  a  celebrated  Spanish  dramatist 
and  one  of  the,  greatest  dramatists  of  all 
nations,  was  born  at  Madrid  in  1600,  and 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Salamanca. 
At  fourteen  he  had  written  his  third  drama. 
He  entered  the  army  and  served  several 
campaigns  in  Italy  and  in  Flanders,  gain- 
ing a  knowledge  of  men  and  things  which 
he  afterward  made  use  of  in  his  plays.  He 
became  a  priest  and  royal  chaplain,  and 
died  in  1681,  still  working  at  his  literary 
labors.  He  wrote  about  500  dramas. 
Among  his  greatest  works  are  The  Constant 
Prince,  Love  is  No  Joke,  Life  is  a  Dream 
and  The  Physician  of  His  Own  Honor.  In 
later  life  he  wrote  many  religious  plays. 
His  imagination  was  brilliant  and  his  writ- 
ings abound  in  beautiful  passages.  He  is 
called  the  Spanish  nightingale. 

Caledonia.     See  SCOTLAND. 

Calendar,  Correction  of.  The  cal- 
endar is  based  on  three  natural  movements: 
the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  giving 
the  day;  the  revolution  of  the  moon  around 
the  earth  in  about  29^  days,  giving  the 
month  and  the  movement  of  the  earth 
around  the  sun,  which,  in  connection  with 
the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis  to  the 
plane  of  revolution,  gives  the  succession 
of  the  seasons  in  a  period  of  about  36  5  J 
days.  The  month  was  the  earliest  standard, 
and  the  year  was  said  to  consist  of  1 2  lunar 
months  or  354  days.  Of  course  this  ar- 
rangement did  not  keep  pace  with  tne 
actual  changes  of  the  seasons.  Conse- 
quently the  Jews  and  the  ancient  Greeks, 
who  adopted  this  form  of  calendar,  used 
to  put  in  a  month  every  now  and  then—- 
the Jews  seven  times  in  every  19  years, 
the  Greeks  three  times  in  every  eight  years 
The  old  Roman  method,  however,  is  of 
more  interest  to  us,  because  it  is  from 
them  we  get  the  names  of  our  months. 
At  first  they  had  ten  months,  beginning 
with  March  and  ending  with  December, 
which  means  the  tenth  month.  Finding 
this  did  not  work  well,  they  put  in  two 
more  months,  January  and  February. 
This  made  their  year  355  dajrs  long,  or 
10^  days  short.  Of  course  this  also  did 
not  keep  pace  with  the  seasons,  so  they 
let  the  priests  put  in  a  month  whenever 
they  thought  it  advisable;  and  the  priests 
played  all  sorts  of  tricks  with  the  year  to 
suit  themselves.  Then  the  great  Julius 
Caesar  called  in  a  clebrated  astronomer, 
Sosigenes  of  Alexandria,  and  between  them 
they  made  what  is  called  the  Julian  cal- 
endar. To  do  this  they  lengthened  the 
year  46  B.  C.  to  445  days,  and  arranged 
that  thereafter  the  year  should  be  365 
days  long,  except  every  fourth  year  (which 
we  call  leap  year),  which  is  to  have  366 
days.  The  priests  did  not  follow  Caesar's 
directions,  and  so  Augustus,  his  successor, 
had  to  straighten  things  out  again  in  8 


CALGARY 


CALHOUN 


B.  C.  These  two  calendar  reformers  gave 
their  names  to  the  months  of  July  and 
August.  The  names  and  lengths  of  the 
months  have  been  the  same  ever  since. 
There  was  still  a  small  error,  however,  for 
the  real  year,  the  circle  of  the  seasons,  is 
ii  minutes  and  a  few  seconds  less  than 
365^  days.  Consequently,  by  making  every 
fourth  year  366  days  long  the  calendar  in 
every  four  years  runs  more  than  44  min- 
utes ahead  of  the  seasons.  By  1500  this 
error  amounted  to  about  10  days.  Then 
Pope  Gregory  XIII,  on  March  i,  1582, 
decreed  that  10  days  should  be  taken  out 
of  that  year,  so  that  October  5  should  count 
as  October  15.  Moreover,  in  order  that 
the  mistake  might  not  occur  again,  he 
decreed  that  years  ending  with  two  ciphers 
should  not  count  as  leap  years,  unless  the 
first  two  digits  formed  of  themselves  a 
number  divisible  by  four.  _  Thus  1900  is 
not  a  leap  year,  but  2000  is.  This  means 
that  in  every  four  hundred  years  three 
leap  years  will  be  dropped,  that  is,  three 
days  omitted.  We  are  now  dating  every- 
thing according  to  this  Gregorian  calendar. 
But  it  was  not  until  1751  that  England 
adopted  the  Gregorian  reform;  and  by  that 
time  the  error  in  the  Julian  calendar  had 
increased  to  12  days.  Parliament  then 
decreed  that  the  day  after  September  2, 
1752,  should  count  as  September  14,  omit- 
ting ii  days,  greatly  to  the  consternation 
of  ignorant  people.  At  the  same  time  it 
was  decreed  that  the  year,  which  had  be- 
fore commenced  with  March  25  should 
henceforth  begin  with  January  i.  There 
have  been  no  reforms  since  then  in  our 
calendar.  Around  1752  it  is  not  unusual 
to  find  two  dates  given,  one  according  to 
the  old  or  Julian  style,  and  the  other  ac- 
cording to  the  new  or  Gregorian.  The 
only  countries  that  still  adhere  to  the  old 
style  are  those  that  belong  to  the  Greek 
Church,  such  as  Russia,  Greece,  Servia, 
Bulgaria,  etc.  At  the  time  of  the  French 
Revolution  the  French  invented  a  new 
calendar,  but  Napoleon  I  restored  the 
Gregorian  calendar  to  France. 

Calgary  (kal'ga-ri),  situated  at  the  con- 
fluence of  Bow  and  Elbow  Rivers,  is  the 
largest  and  most  important  city  in  the 
Canadian  middle  west.  It  is  only  70 
miles  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Its 
situation  seems  to  guarantee  for  it  a  con- 
tinuance of  its  phenomenal  growth.  Years 
ago  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  authori- 
ties regarded  it  as  a  fixed  commercial  center. 

As  a  ranching  center  Alberta  is  unsur- 
passed in  the  whole  world.  For  a  con- 
siderable time  southern  Alberta  was  little 
else  than  an  immense  ranch.  The  west 
continued  to  grow,  the  railways  extended 
farther  and  farther  in  all  directions.  Wheat- 
growing  was  tried  with  astonishing  success 
and  all  was  changed.  A  grain  of  wheat 
planted  in  the  autumn  and  ripening  in  the 


summer  brought  about  the  change.  Win- 
ter wheat  has  made  Alberta  famous.  This 
fact  is  one  of  the  guarantees  of  the  growth 
and  prosperity  of  Calgary,  the  population 
of  which  is^  now  about  44,000.  Another 
is  the  irrigation  system  which  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway  constructed  on  a  scale 
.larger  than  anything  heretofore  attempted 
on  this  continent.  In  this  case  irrigation 
is  another  word  for  intensive  agriculture 
and  a  growing  population.  Forty  thousands 
of  acres  of  grazing  lands  are  proving  through 
irrigation  to  be  valuable  winter-wheat 
lands. 

The  Canadian  Pacific  gives  good  service 
to  Calgary.  The  Canadian  Northern  is 
fast  approaching  it  from  two  directions. 
A  road  to  Hudson  Bay  is  more  than  a 
mere  possibility.  The  Grand  Trunk  Pacific 
will  reach  Calgary  before  the  end  of  1909. 
The  Great  Northern  (Mr.  Hill's  road)  is 
to  come  to  Calgary,  and  will  bring  the 
southwest  part  of  Alberta  in  touch  with 
it.  This  road  will  bring  cheaper  coal. 
In  a  word,  more  railroads  are  projected 
into  Calgary  than  to  any  point  west  of 
Winnipeg. 

Extensive  coal-beds  surround  Calgary 
on  all  sides.  The  Canadian  Northern 
Railway  is  using  this  coal,  and  it  contributes 
to  make  Calgary  a  successful  manufactur- 
ing center.  West  of  Winnipeg,  Calgary 
is  the  leading  place  for  wholesale  houses. 
Its  custom  receipts  grew  from  $176,134,000 
in  1904  to  $604,358,000  in  1907.  The 
freight  receipts  of  the  city  (C.  P.  Ry.)  in 
1903  amounted  to  94,000  tons  and  in  1907 
to  291,000  tons.  Its  educational  facili- 
ties are  a  credit  to  its  spirit  of  foresight 
and  enterprise.  Its  normal  school  (a 
handsome  well-equipped  structure)  fur- 
nishes adequate  professional  training  for 
the  district  surrounding  it.  It  also  has 
prosperous  churches  and  a  good  hospital. 
It  bids  fair  to  be  a  considerable  city  in  the 
near  future.  Calgary  is  the  headquarters 
of  the  British  Columbia  Land  and  Irriga- 
tic>n  Departments  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway. 

Calhoun  (kal-hoon'),  John  Caldwell 
an  American  statesman,  was  born  in  Ab- 
beville County,  South  Carolina,  in  1782. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  with  high 
honors,  studied  law  and  after  serving  in 
the  state  legislature  was  sent  to  Congress. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  urging  the  war 
with  England  in  1812  and  many  other 
measures.  After  six  years  in  the  house 
of  representatives,  he  became  secretary 
of  war  in  the  cabinet  of  President  Monroe, 
and  in  1824  was  elected  vice-president  of 
the  United  States,  and  four  years  later  was 
again  elected  to  the  same  office.  He  be- 
came about  this  time  an  advocate  of  free- 
trade,  and  believed  in  the  doctrine  of  state 
sovereignty  or  state  rights.  He  was  the 
author  of  the  South  Carolina  Exposition* 


CALICO 


30S 


CALIFORNIA 


which  declared  that  any  state  can  make 
null  and  void  unconstitutional  laws  of  con- 
gress. Calhoun  resigned  before  the  close 
of  his  term,  and  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  senate.  He  was  secretary  of  state 
for  a  short  time  under  President  Tyler, 
and  negotiated  the  so-called  Tyler  treaty 
for  the  annexation  of  Texas.  He  returned 
to  the  senate,  where  he  remained  until 
his  death  at  Washington,  March  31,  1850. 
Calhoun  was  one  of  the  foremost  of  American 
debaters.  He,  Webster  and  Clay  were 
called  The  Great  Trio.  His  debate  with 
Webster  in  1833  on  the  nature  of  federal 
government  was  one  of  the  most  noted  for 
eloquence  and  ability  in  the  annals  of  any 
country. 

Cal'ico,  a  white  cotton  cloth,  received 
its  name  from  Calicut,  a  seaport  on  the 
west  coast  of  India,  whence  it  was  first 
imported  to  Europe.  The  word  calico  has 
come  to  be  used  to  include  colored  cot- 
ton cloths,  which  are  not  sufficiently  fine 
to  be  classed  with  muslins.  Calico-print- 
ing or  the  art  of  printing  colored  patterns 
upon  cloth  is  a  process  not  limited  to  cotton 
cloths.  It  is  applied  also  to  woolen,  wor- 
sted, silk  and  linen  fabrics.  This  process 
was  known  in  Egypt  in  the  first  century; 
and  in  India  perhaps  at  an  earlier  date. 
Although  calico-printing  was  not  practiced 
in  Europe  until  the  iyth  century,  the  chief 
center  of  the  industry  now  is  Lancaster, 
England.  The  older  form  of  calico-print- 
ing was  by  means  of  wooden  blocks  pressed 
upon  the  cloth  by  hand.  At  present  en- 
graved cylinders  of  copper  are  used,  upon 
which  the  cloth  is  made  by  machinery  to 
revolve  rapidly.  It  is  possible  to  print 
in  several  colors  from  the  same  cylinder 
and  at  the  same  time.  The  manufacture 
of  cotton-goods  is  a  rising  industry  in  the 
south  of  the  United  States,  where  1,000,000 
bales  of  cotton  are  now  annually  woven 
into  cloth. 

California.  Excepting  Texas,  California 
is  the  largest  state  in  the  Union.  It  extends 
from  the  Oregon  line  on  the  north  to  the 
Mexican  boundary  on  the  south,  a  length  of 
nearly  a  thousand  miles;  and  from  the 
waters  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  west  to 
the  crest  line  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tains on  the  east,  a  width  of  over  two 
hundred  miles.  It  is  two  and  one  half  times 
as  large  as  all  New  England,  containing  158,- 
360  square  miles. 

The  population  of  the  entire  state  is  now 
2,983,843.  The  largest  city  is  San  Francisco, 
with  a  population  of  416,912.  Los  Angeles 
is  a  close  second,  having  now  passed  the 
400,000  mark.  Other  chief  cities  in  the 
order  of  size  are  Oakland,  San  Jose,  Sacra- 
mento (the  state  capital),  San  Diego,  Stock- 
ton and  Fresno. 

Surface  and  Qlimate.  The  Coast  Range 
Mountains  are  a  series  of  parallel  ridges  run- 
ning north  and  south  the  entire  length  of  the 


state  and  distant  from  the  sea  forty  miles 
or  less.  The  peaks  rise  to  five  thousand  feet 
in  altitude.  The  parallel  ranges  of  the  Coast 
Range  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  extending 
lengthwise  through  the  state  divide  it  into 
long,  narrow  regions  quite  different  in  phys- 
ical character.  The  coast  regions  extend 
from  the  sea-board  to  the  Coast  Range;  the 
interior  is  the  trough-like  depression  between 
the  Coast  Range  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  foot- 
hills, sometimes  called  the  great  valley  of 
California;  and  the  Sierran  region  embraces 
the  mountain  areas  along  the  eastern  border. 

It  is  a  state  of  striking  contrasts.  It  con- 
tains the  highest  land  in  the  United  States 
(excluding  Alaska)  in  the  summit  of  Mt. 
Whitney,  14,500  feet  above  sea-level;  and 
also  the  lowest  land,  in  the  bottom  of  Death 
Valley,  some  300  feet  below  the  level  of  the 
sea.  In  the  southeastern  corner  are  the  vast 
areas  of  the  Colorado  Desert,  the  hottest 
and  driest  region  of  our  country,  where  there 
is  practically  no  rainfall,  and  the  thermom- 
eter rises  to  130°  in  the  shade;  and  in  the 
opposite  or  northwestern  corner  are  the  dark 
and  dripping  forests  of  Del  Norte  County, 
where  the  rainfall  is  eighty  inches  per  year. 
There  are  alpine  climates  in  the  Sierran 
counties;  marine  climates  in  the  coast 
counties;  humid  climates  in  the  northern 
counties;  arid  climates  in  the  eastern  coun- 
ties; semi-tropic  climates  in  the  southern 
counties.  There  are  many  thermal  belts  and 
local  areas  of  special  climatic  conditions,  as 
for  instance,  Boulder  Creek  in  Santa  Cruz 
County,  where  the  rainfall  is  eighty  or  ninety 
inches,  although  surrounded  by  lands  where 
it  is  only  twenty  inches  or  less;  and  Imperial 
County,  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  where 
melons  and  apricots  ripen  in  the  open  air  in 
May,  peaches  and  grapes  in  June;  and  the 
orchards  of  Butte  County  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  state,  where  great  orange  groves 
produce  abundantly  in  the  latitude  of  Ohio 
and  New  York. 

Products  and  Industries.  This  variety  in 
surface  and  climate  makes  a  corresponding 
variety  in  the  soils,  the  crops  and  the  activi- 
ties and  occupations  of  man.  Thus,  the 
north  coast  is  devoted  to  lumbering.  Three 
hundred  million  feet  of  lumber  per  year  are 
made  from  the  splendid  redwood  trees  (Se- 
quoia Sempervirens)  and  shipped  to  the  mar- 
kets of  the  world,  particularly  to  the  ports 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  middle  coast  is  devoted  to  dairying. 
The  cool,  even  temperature  and  abundant 
moisture  produce  fine  pasturage  nearly  all 
the  year.  Swiss,  Italian  and  Portuguese  set- 
tlers are  found  in  large  numbers,  and  butter 
and  cheese  are  the  staple  products. 

The  southern  coast  is  a  vast  summer  re- 
sort. The  soft,  luxurious  climate,  the  sea- 
bathing, the  picturesque  scenery,  the  fruits 
and  flower?  form  attractions  that  draw 
countless  thousands  of  people  from  all  parts 
of  the  United  States  and  from  foreign  coun- 


CALIFORNIA 


CALIFORNIA 


tries  as  well.  Santa  Barbara,  San  Buena- 
ventura, Venice,  Newport,  Long  Beach, 
Naples,  Ocean  Park,  Huntington  Beach,  San 
Diego,  Oceanside,  Coronado  and  Santa  Mo- 
nica are  some  of  the  best  known  towns. 

The  interior  of  California  on  the  north  con- 
sists of  the  Sacramento  Valley,  an  empire  of 
agricultural  land.  It  is  abundantly  watered 
by  the  streams  flowing  down  from  the  neigh- 
boring mountains  in  to  the  Sacramento  River. 
The  soil  is  deep  and  rich  and  is  adapted  to 
all  the  agricultural  and  horticultural  prod- 
ucts of  the  temperate  zone.  Sacramento 
ships  each  year  6,000  carloads  of  fruit  to  the 
eastern  states,  principally  peaches,  straw- 
berries, pears  and  grapes.  Wheat,  barley, 
potatoes  and  asparagus  are  produced  in  great 
quantities  for  the  world's  markets. 

The  central  interior  consists  of  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley,  which  is  cu^  off  from  the 
southern  part  of  the  state  by  the  Tehachapi 
Mountains,  a  transverse  range  connecting  the 
Sierras  and  Coast  Range.  This  valley  rivals 
the  Sacramento  in  its  great  extent  and  its 
fertility,  but,  lying  further  south,  it  is  not 
so  abundantly  watered.  Wheat  and  raisins 
are  its  staple  crops.  Fresno  ships  5,000  car- 
loads of  raisins  per  year.  The  oil  fields  of 
Kern  County  are  assuming  great  importance. 
There  is  a  Standard-Oil  pipe-line  leading  two 
hundred  miles  northerly  to  San  Francisco. 

The  southern  interior  is  largely  devoted 
to  growing  citrus  fruits,  Riverside,  Red- 
lands,  Ontario,  Pomona,  Azusa  and  High- 
lands are  some  of  the  centers  for  the  orange 
and  lemon  groves.  Riverside  alone  ships 
6,000  carloads  of  oranges  per  year.  This 
region  depends  upon  irrigation  for  its  pros- 
perity. It  virtually  is  a  reclaimed  desert. 
All  the  fruits  and  flowers  of  the  temperate 
and  semitropic  regions  thrive.  In  one  or- 
chard may  be  grown  oranges,  lemons,  citrons, 
pomelos,  apples,  peaches,  pears,  apricots, 
nectarines,  plums,  prunes,  pomegranates, 
guavas,  quinces,  figs,  olives,  grapes  of  more 
than  a  hundred  kinds,  blackberries,  rasp- 
berries, strawberries,  loganberries,  walnuts, 
chestnuts  and  almonds.  The  wealth  of  orna- 
mental trees  and  flowering  plants  is  too 
great  to  catalogue.  A  number  of  ostrich 
farms  raise  plumes  for  the  market.  Hundreds 
of  apiaries  produce  honey  in  hundreds  of  tons. 

The  chief  products,  with  the  approximate 
annual  output,  are  as  follows:  fruit  products, 
90  thousand  carloads;  lumber,  600  million  feet; 
wool,  25  million  pounds;  wheat,  17  million 
bushels;  petroleum,  33  million  barrels.  Of 
vinuous  liquors  the  State  of  California  alone 

Produces  68.1%  of  the  total  for  the  United 
tates,   and   California  champagne   took  the 
Grand  Prize  in  Paris  in  1912. 

The  Sierran  region  yields  the  gold  that 
makes  California  the  golden  state.  It  in- 
cludes great  lumbering  interests  in  pine, 
cedar  and  giant-redwood  forests.  It  affords 
pasturage  for  innumerable  flocks  and  herds. 
Its  streams  and  waterfalls  are  the  source  of 


power  sufficient  to  gridiron  the  entire  state 
with  electric  railways  and  to  turn  the  wheels 
and  light  the  lamps  of  a  thousand  industries. 
The  central  part  of  this  great  mountain  mass 
is  known  as  the  High  Sierras,  and  affords  the 
playground  for  the  continent.  Nineteen 
peaks  are  above  10,000  feet  in  height.  There 
are  many  hundreds  of  lovely  lakes,  of  which 
Tahoe  is  the  largest.  There  are  scores  of 
magnificent  waterfalls,  such  as  those  of  the 
Yosemite  Valley.  There  are  stupendous 
chasms  bordered  by  minarets  and  towers,  as 
King's  River,  Hetch-Hetchy  and  Kern  River 
Canyons. 

There  are  rich  mountain  meadows  and 
clear,  cold  trout-streams  and  snow-covered 
mountain  tops  above  the  timber  line.  The 
botanist,  the  fisherman,  the  hunter,  the  lover 
of  out  door  nature  may  wander  for  months 
in  this  wide  wonderland  among  the  clouds, 
traveling  all  the  time  and  never  seeing  the 
same  thing  twice.  The  exquisite  golden 
trout  of  Volcano  Creek  is  here.  The  big-tree 
groves  of  Sequoia  Gigantca  are  here,  with 
single  trees  325  feet  high,  120  feet  in  circum- 
ference. There  are  canyons  with  perpendic- 
ular walls  4,000  feet  deep. 

The  whole  region  should  be  set  apart  as 
the  great  pleasure-ground  of  America,  to  be 
held  and  cared  for  by  the  nation  through  all 
generations. 

Minerals.  There  is  a  very  wide  range  in 
mineral  products.  Gold  has  already  been 
spoken  of.  Silver  and  lead  are  produced  in 
the  south.  Shasta  County  has  great  copper 
smelters.  Mercury  is  produced  by  Santa 
Clara  and  Lake  Counties.  The  gem-mines  of 
San  Diego  County  are  becoming  famous  for 
their  tourmalines,  beryls,  kunzites  and  gar- 
nets. Opals,  jade,  turquoise,  diamonds  and 
chrysoprase  are  found  in  merchantable  quan- 
tities within  the  state.  There  are  great  slate- 
quarries  and  asbestos  mines  in  El  Dorado 
County.  Iron  is  being  smelted  in  an  electric 
furnace  in  Shasta  County.  Lithia  rock  is 
mined  in  San  Diego  County,  and  lignite  coal 
in  Contra  Costa  County.  The  borax,  soda 
and  salt  deposits  of  the  southern  deserts  are 
important  exports.  Manganese,  molybde- 
num, onyx,  gypsum,  serpentine,  talc,  graph- 
ite, marble,  magnesite,  fluor  spar,  heavy 
spar,  lime,  cement,  potters'  clay,  glass  sand, 
infusorial  earth,  mica,  asphaltum,  tin  and 
antimony  also  are  found  in  different  parts 
of  the  state.  The  total  value  of  mineral 
products  was  over  86  million  dollars  in  1910. 
The  petroleum  output  was  largest,  amount- 
ing to  over  35  millions.  Gold  stands  next  in 
importance,  and  Portland  cement  third. 

Transportation.  In  commerce,  California 
is  the  gate  to  the  Orient.  The  spacious  and 
noble  harbor  of  San  Francisco  floats  the 
ships  of  the  world.  Second  in  excellence  is 
the  harbor  of  San  Diego  in  the  south.  Hum- 
boldt  Bay,  San  Pedro  Bay  and  Tomales  Bay 
afford  good  harbors.  The  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  Rivers  are  navigable  into  the 


CALIFORNIA,  GULF  OF 


310 


CALIGULA 


heart  of  the  agricultural  interior,  making 
cheap  freight  rates  for  farm-products.  Five 
transcontinental  railroads  come  into  the 
state  from  the  east.  There  are  6,000  miles 
of  steam  railroads  within  the  state.  Sub- 
urban electric  lines  for  passengers  and  freight 
reach  for  trade  in  every  direction,  stimulated 
by  the  abundant  power  of  the  mountain 
waterfalls. 

The  completion  of  the  Panama  Canal  has 
added  greatly  to  California's  commercial  ad- 
vantage, extending  her  markets  and  lowering 
the  freight  rates  to  the  eastern  states  and  all 
Atlantic  ports. 

Manufactures.  The  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments are  mostly  found  in  San  Francisco 
and  around  the  shores  of  San  Francisco  Bay. 
They  include  sugar  refineries,  oil  refineries, 
flour  mills,  powder  mills,  reduction  works, 
tanneries,  machine  shops,  chemical  works. 
There  are  extensive  canneries  for  fruit  and 
vegetables  in  all  parts  of  the  state.  There 
are  nine  large  beet-sugar  factories,  producing 
more  than  40  thousand  tons  of  sugar  per 
year.  The  value  of  manufactured  products 
is  over  five  hundred  million  dollars  per 
year. 

Education.  The  educational  system  stands 
very  high.  It  undertakes  to  provide  as  good 
a  teacher  and  as  well  equipped  a  school  for 
the  small  remote  rural  communities  as  for 
the  larger  centers  of  population.  Every  dis- 
trict must  maintain  a  free  school  for  at  least 
six  months  every  year.  Sixty  dollars  per 
month  are  a  minimum  salary  for  the  rural 
teacher.  Thirty  dollars  per  year  per  pupil 
are  raised  for  the  schools  by  public  taxation 
on  the  state  and  the  county.  The  rural 
school  houses  and  grounds  throughout  the 
state  are  remarkably  handsome  and  well 
improved.  Few  of  them  cost  less  than 
$2,000  each.  The  county  is  the  unit  in 
school  administration,  presided  over  by  a 
county  superintendent  of  schools  and  a 
county  board  of  education.  Over  the  whole 
state  there  are  a  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  and  a  state  board  of  education. 
By  way  of  higher  education  there  are  eight 
state  normal  schools,  over  two  hundred  high 
schools,  one  polytechnic  school,  a  state 
university  with  3,000  students,  the  famous 
Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University,  with  an  en- 
dowment of  thirty  million  dollars,  and  a  large 
number  of  sectanan  and  private  institutions. 
There  are  two  state  reform-schools  and  about 
forty  orphan  schools. 

History.  The  coast  was  visited  by  Sir 
Francis  Drake  in  1579.  The  first  settlement 
was  made  at  San  Diego  in  1769  by  Spanish 
priests  coming  from  Mexico.  A  chain  of 
twenty-one  missions  for  christianizing  the 
Indians  was  built  along  the  coast  by  the 
Franciscan  fathers  during  the  next  fifty 
years,  among  them  San  Luis  Rey,  San  Juan 
Capistrano,  San  Gabriel,  San  Buenaventura, 
Santa  Barbara,  Santa  Ynez,  San  Luis  Obispo 
and  Monterey,  reaching  from  San  Diego  in  the 


south  to  Sonoma  in  the  north.  These  mis- 
sions became  rich  in  flocks  and  herds  and 
choicest  lands.  The  social  life  and  the  polit- 
ical history  of  California  revolved  around 
them.  The  Mexican  government  secularized 
the  missions  in  1834,  and  during  the  next 
few  years  the  Mexican  governors  of  Cali- 
fornia granted  their  rich  lands  to  Spanish  and 
Mexican  families.  These  grants  form  the 
basis  of  the  land-system  to  the  present  day. 
California  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
United  States  in  1848,  at  the  close  of  the 
Mexican  War,  by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe 
Hidalgo.  Gold  was  discovered  at  Coloma  in 
the  Sacramento  Valley  the  same  year.  This 
at  once  brought  a  rush  of  population  that 
was  the  wonder  of  the  world.  In  1850  the 
state  was  admitted  full  fledged  to  the  Union. 
Since  that  time  its  history  has  been  merged 
in  that  of  the  United  States. 

Califor'nia,  Gulf  of,  a  gulf  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean  between  the  peninsula  of  Lower 
California  and  Mexico.  It  is  about  700 
miles  long  and  from  40  to  100  miles  wide. 
The  Colorado  River  and  several  other 
streams  empty  into  it  from  the  east.  Many 
small  bays  indent  its  coasts,  while  several 
islands  stud  its  surface.  On  its  shores 
are  the  ports  of  Loreto,  La  Paz  and  Guay- 
mas.  The  northern  harbor  is  full  of  shoals, 
hidden  rocks  and  dangerous  currents,  but 
the  southern  part  is  safer.  The  west  coast 
abounds  in  pearl  oysters,  but  the  fishing 
is  now  little  pursued,  though  formerly  it 
was  important. 

Califor'nia,  Lower  or  Old,  is  a  peninsula 
and  territory  of  Mexico,  and  is  separated 
from  the  remainder  of  Mexico  by  the  Gulf 
of  California.  Its  area  is  58,328  square 
miles,  a  little  more  than  a  third  of  the 
state  of  California.  Its  capital  is  La  Paz. 
The  surface  of  the  country  is  mostly  moun- 
tainous, the  climate  is  dry,  and  little  farm- 
ing is  done  except  in  some  of  the  valleys. 
Whale-fishing  on  the  west  coast  and  pearl 
fishing  on  the  gulf  are  carried  on  to  some 
extent;  but  mining  enterprises  have  met 
with  little  success.  Salt  and  orchil,  a 
violet  dye,  are  also  obtained.  The  vintage 
of  parts  of  the  country  is  highly  esteemed. 
Lower  California  was  probably  discovered 
by  Corte"s  in  1536.  In  1866  part  of  it 
was  granted  to  the  Lower  California  Com- 
pany with  considerable  privileges.  Cortes 
named  it  California,  *.  e.,  Hot  Furnace,  on 
account  of  its  heat.  Population,  52,244. 

Caligula  (kd-Kg'u-ld),  Gaius  Caesar 
Augustus  Germanicus,  Roman  emperor 
from  37  to  41  A.  D.,  was  born  12  A.  D.. 
the  son  of  the  popular  Germanicus.  In 
the  camp  he  was  nicknamed  Caligula  or 
Little  Boot,  from  the  soldier's  boots  which 
he  wore.  On  the  death  of  Tiberius  he  was 
appointed  heir,  together  with  the  grandson 
of  the  emperor;  but  the  senate  made  him 
sole  emperor.  At  first  he  was  lavishly 
generous  and  merciful,  though  at  the  same 


CALORIC 


CALYPSO 


time  very  sensuous,  but  he  soon  became 
mad,  and  his  cruelty  knew  no  bounds. 
He  banished  or  murdered  his  relatives  and 
many  of  his  subjects,  victims  were  tortured 
and  slain  in  his  presence  while  dining, 
and  he  uttered  the  wish  that  all  the  Roman 
people  had  but  one  neck,  that  he  might 
strike  it  off  at  one  blow.  He  built  a  bridge 
across  the  Bay  of  Baize,  and  planted  trees 
and  built  houses  upon  it,  that  he  might 
say  he  had  crossed  the  sea  on  dry  land. 
In  the  middle  of  the  bridge  he  gave  a  ban- 
quet, and  at  the  close  had  a  great  number 
of  the  guests  thrown  into  the  sea.  He 
made  his  favorite  horse  a  priest  and  then 
consul,  and  also  declared  himself  a  god, 
and  had  temples  built  in  his  honor.  At 
length  his  subjects  could  stand  him  no 
longer.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  against 
him,  and  he  was  assassinated. 

Calor'ic,  a  hypothetical  fluid  formerly 
employed  to  explain  the  phenomena  ob- 
served in  the  study  of  heat.  When  the 
temperature  of  a  body  was  raised,  it  was 
supposed  that  caloric  was  added  to  the 
body;  when  the  temperature  fell,  it  was 
explained  by  saying  that  caloric  had  been 
taken  from  the  body.  Caloric  was  sup- 
posed to  be  indestructible,  uncreatable 
and  imponderable.  In  having  no  weight, 
it  differed  from  ordinary  matter.  When 
heat  was  added  to  a  body — such  as  melting 
ice  or  boiling  water — without  changing 
its  temperature,  the  fact  was  explained  by 
saying  that  the  caloric  became  latent  and 
inactive,  so  that  it  could  not  be  detected 
by  a  thermometer. 

Cal'vary,  the  Latin  translation  of  the 
Hebrew  name  Golgotha,  a  skull.  It  is 
situated  north  of  Jerusalem  and  outside 
the  walls.  The  place  took  this  name  either 
from  being  mound-shaped  like  a  skull 
or  from  its  being  the  place  of  public  execu- 
tions It  was  the  scene  of  the  crucifixion 
of  Christ,  and  his  body  was  placed  in  a 
tomb  in  a  garden  near  by.  In  Catholic 
countries  the  term  Calvary  is  given  to  a 
mound  or  hill  crowned  with  one  and  some- 
times with  three  crosses,  bearing  life-like 
figures  of  Christ  and  the  two  thieves,  and 
occasionally  surrounded  by  figures  repre- 
senting those  who  took  part  in  the  cruci- 
fixion. 

Calve  (kdl'vd'),  Emma  de  Roquer,  a 
soprano  opera-singer,  of  Franco-Spanish 
origin,  who  has  achieved  great  fame  on 
the  stage,  was  born  in  France  in  1866.  In 
1882  she  made  her  debut  at  Brussels  in 
Gounod's  Faust,  and  since  then  her  career 
has  been  one  long  triumph.  Her  chief  suc- 
cesses have  been  in  the  r61es  of  Santuzza, 
in  Cavalleria  Rusticana,  in  L'  Amico  Fritz 
and  in  Carmen.  She  has  made  successful 
tours  through  most  of  the  capitals  of  Europe, 
as  well  as  through  the  chief  cities  of  the 
United  States. 

Calvert,  Cecil.     See  BALTIMORE,  LORD. 


Cal'vin,  John,  one  of  the  most  noted 
reformers  of  the  i6th  century,  was  born 
at  Noyon,  in  Picardy,  July  10,  1509.  He 
was  well-educated,  directing  his  attention 
first  to  the  study  of  law.  While  a  law 
student  at  the  University  of  Orleans,  he 
first  became  acquainted  with  the  Scriptures 
through  a  relative,  Pierre  Robert  Olivetan, 
who  was  making  a  translation  of  them. 
He  began  preaching  the  reformed  doctrines 
at  Bourges.  In  1533  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  the  new  doctrines  were  popular  under 
the  influence  of  the  queen  of  Navarre, 
sister  of  Francis  I.  The  king,  however, 
soon  took  active  measures  against  the  new 
religion,  and  Calvin,  with  others,  fled  for 
their  lives.  He  went  to  Basel,  where  he 
is  thought  to  have  prepared  his  Institutes 
of  the  Christian  Religion  and  to  have 
written  the  celebrated  preface  addressed  to 
Francis  I.  He  visited  his  native  town, 
sold  the  home,  and  with  a  younger  brother 
and  sister  set  out  for  Strassburg.  The 
direct  road  was  dangerous,  because  of  the 
armies  of  Charles  V,  and  Calvin  took  a 
route  that  led  him  through  Geneva.  Here 
he  met  Farel,  who  was  struggling  to  pro- 
mote the  Reformation  in  that  city,  and 
induced  him  to  give  up  the  journey  to 
Strassburg  and  join  with  him  in  the  Refor- 
mation. At  first  Farel  and  Calvin  were 
successful  in  their  work  at  Geneva.  A 
Protestant  confession  of  faith  was  drawn 
up  and  approved  by  the  Council  of  Two 
Hundred,  the  largest  governing  board  of 
the  city,  and  made  binding  upon  all  the 
citizens.  But  the  party  opposed  to  their 
rule  triumphed,  and  expelled  Calvin,  who 
then  proceeded  to  Strassburg.  Here  he 
busied  himself  with  his  studies  on  the  New 
Testament.  He  was,  however,  recalled  to 
Geneva  by  the  people,  and  after  a  15 
years'  struggle  his  rule  was  firmly  estab- 
lished. The  condemnation  of  Servetus  and 
his  death  by  fire  belong  to  this  period  of 
Calvin's  life.  His  share  in  the  tragedy  is 
uncertain.  It  is  certain  that  he  forwarded 
to  the  authorities  private  documents  which 
Servetus  had  intrusted  to  him,  and  also 
certain  that  he  used  his  influence  to  have 
the  mode  of  death  changed.  Calvin  died 
at  Geneva,  May  27,  1564.  Besides  his 
well-known  Institutes  of  the  Christian  Reli- 
gion, he  wrote  commentaries  on  nearly  all 
of  the  Old  Testament  and  on  most  of  the 
New  Testament,  except  Revelation,  so  that 
he  ranks  as  one  of  the  greatest  commen- 
tators. 

Calypso  (kd-Kp'sd),  in  Greek  legend,  a 
daughter  of  Atlas,  who  dwelt  in  the  solitary 
wooded  isle  of  Ogygia  far  apart  from  gods 
and  men.  Odysseus  (Ulysses)  being  thrown 
upon  her  island  by  shipwreck,  she  treated 
him  kindly  and  promised  to  make  him 
immortal  if  he  would  marry  her.  Though 
fascinated,  he  refused  to  desert  his  wife 
and  his  native  island.  She  detained  him, 


CALYPTRA 


3X3 


CAMBRIDGE 


FORMS    OF    CALYX 


however,  seven  years,  and  on  his  departure 
died  of  grief. 

Calyp'tra  (in  plants),  a  loose  hood 
which  rests  upon  the  apex  of  the  spore- 
case  of  mosses.  See  Musci. 

Ca'lyx  (in  plants),  the  outer  set  of  floral 
leaves,  each  leaf 
being  called  a  sepal. 
See  FLOWER. 

Camb'ium  (in 
plants),  the  layer  of 
living  cells  between 
.the  wood  and  bark, 
'which  has  the  power 
of  making  additions 
to  both.  Such  cells 
have  the  power  of 
dividing  and  thus 
forming  new  cells,  on 
the  inside  adding  new 
wood  cells,  thus  adding  each  year  to  the 
rings  of  wood,  and  on  the  outside  new  bark 
cells.  Cells  with  this  power  of  division  are 
generally  knows  as  meristematic  cells,  and 
cambium  is  merely  a  meristem  which  occurs 
between  wood  and  bark.  These  delicate 
cells  are  exposed  when  bark  is  peeled  from 
a  tree,  forming  the  glairy,  mucilaginous 
substance  which  makes  the  line  of  easy 
cleavage. 

Cambo'dia,  a  state  in  Indo-China  under 
French  control,  on  the  lower  course  of  the 
Mekong  River  south  of  Siam.  It  is  220 
miles  long  and  150  miles  broad,  with  an 
area  of  37,400  square  miles,  not  including 
the  region  ceded  to  France  in  1907  by 
Siam.  Along  the  coast  are  several  islands, 
one  bay  and  but  one  port,  Kampot.  Its 
external  trade  is  carried  on  mostly  through 
Saigon  in  Cochin  China.  The  mountains 
in  the  north  and  west  contain  iron,  lime- 
stone, sandstone  and  some  copper.  The 
greater  part  of  the  country  consists  of 
plains  of  rich  loam,  which  yield  abundantly 
with  almost  no  cultivation.  The  main 
river,  the  Mekong,  flows  through  the  coun- 
try in  a  generally  southwesterly  direction. 
Great  Lake  has  an  area  of  100  miles  by  25. 
and  its  greatest  depth  is  65  feet.  Rice, 
cotton,  indigo,  betel,  tobacco,  maize,  cin- 
namon, pepper,  sugar-cane,  etc.  are  raised; 
and  among  the  animals  are  the  elephant, 
tiger,  panther  and  rhinoceros.  Crocodiles 
are  found  in  most  of  the  rivers.  The  people 
are  tall  and  robust,  copper-colored,  with 
long  skull,  flat  nose  and  eyes  slightly 
oblique.  They  are,  however,  indolent  and 
passive  from  long  oppression  and  because 
of  the  little  work  required  for  subsistence. 
Fishing  in  Great  Lake  is  the  main  industry. 
Lines  of  steamers  ply  on  the  Mekong. 
Pnom-Penh,  the  capital,  has  a  population 
of  50,000.  Here  is  a  large  school,  with 
two  French  professors  and  a  native  teacher. 
The  religion  is  developed  from  Buddhism, 
the  worship  of  ancestors  forming  an  im- 
portant part.  The  language  is  much  like 


those  of  Siam  and  Anam.  The  ancient 
kingdom  of  Cambodia  or  Khmer  extended 
over  a  large  part  of  Indo-China.  In  the 
1 7th  century  it  was  dismembered,  and 
Anam  and,  later,  Siam  acquired  large  por- 
tions of  it.  The  Portuguese  in  the  i6th 
century  were  the  first  Europeans  to  enter 
the  country,  and  were  followed  by  the 
Spaniards  and  the  Dutch.  In  1858  France 
first  appeared  in  Indo-China,  and  in  1863 
made  a  treaty  with  Norodom,  king  of 
Cambodia,  by  which  Cambodia  was  placed 
under  a  French  protectorate.  Cambodia  has 
now  placed  over  it  a  resident-general  under 
the  governor-general  of  Indo-China.  The 
most  remarkable  thing  in  Cambodia  is 
the  splendid  ruins  of  the  architecture  of 
the  Khmer  kingdom.  The  temples,  palaces 
and  monuments  scattered  everywhere  are 
wonderful  for  their  size  and  artistic  gran- 
deur. In  a  single  temple  there  are  1,532 
columns.  Among  the  ruins  are  also  mas- 
sive stone  bridges,  one  measuring  470  feet 
in  length,  with  34  arches.  The  present  in- 
habitants look  upon  these  structures  of  their 
ancestors  as  the  work  of  angels  or  giants. 
Population  about  1,500,000  See  COCHIN 
CHINA 

Cambon  (kdn'b6nr),  Jules  Martin, 
French  diplomat,  and  plenipotentiary  to 
Washington  in  the  interest  of  peace  with 
Spain  at  the  close  of  the  Spanish-American 
war,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1845.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  French  army  during 
the  Franco-Prussian  War  of  1870,  and 
later  served  his  government  as  confidential 
adviser  in  Algeria,  where  he  became  (1891- 
97)  governor-general.  In  August,  1898,  he 
signed  at  Washington  the  peace  protocol 
on  behalf  of  Spain,  and  was  rewarded  by 
being  made  a  commander  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor.  His  elder  brother,  Pierre  Paul 
Cambon,  is  French  ambassador  in  London. 

Cam'bridge,  a  suburb  of  Boston,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  subway  under  the  Charles 
River.  Harvard  University,  for  which  the 
city  is  largely  noted,  is  in  Cambridge,  and  its 
fine  buildings  and  its  campus  filled  with  beauti- 
ful old  elm  trees  are  among  the  most  interesting 
sights  in  the  city.  Cambridge  is  also  the  seat 
of  Radcliffe  College  and  Massachusetts  In- 
stitute of  Technology.  It  has  many  points  of 
historic  interest  such  as  the  old  elm  tree  under 
which  Washington  took  command  of  the 
American  army;  the  house  in  which  the  poet 
Longfellow  lived  and  which  once  was  Wash- 
ington's headquarters;  the  home  of  James 
Russell  Lowell;  the  church  in  which  Lord 
Cornwallis  is  said*to  have  stabled  his  hoises; 
and  Mount  Auburn  Cemetery,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  burial-places  in  America.  Cambridge 
is  now  known  as  one  of  the  principal  industrial 
cities  of  New  England.  The  leading  indus- 
tries are  baking,  the  manufacture  of  auto- 
mobiles, automobile  accessories  and  other 
machine  parts,  printing,  publishing  and  book- 
binding, confectionery,  musical  instruments, 


CAMBRIDGE 


313 


CAMEL 


furniture  and  pianos.  The  first  book  published 
in  the  United  States  was  published  in  Cam- 
bridge. The  public  schools  are  among  the 
best  in  the  country,  and  the  city  has  an  excel- 
lent free  public  libra-y  well-stocked  with  books. 
Cambridge  was  settled  in  1630  by  Governor 
Winthrop  and  other  prominent  men.  The 
first  ministers  of  the  place,  as  well  as  most  of 
the  educated  men,  were  graduates  of  Cam- 
bridge University,  England.  The  American 
army  was  encamped  here  during  the  Revolu- 
tion, while  the  British  had  possession  of 
Boston.  The  tax  for  wooden  palisades  around 
Cambridge  in  1632  led  Watertown  Township 
to  make  the  first  protest  in  America  against 
taxation  without  representation.  Population, 
in  ,000. 

Cam'bridge,  Ohio,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Guernsey  County,  55  miles  north  of  Mar- 
ietta. In  the  surrounding  region  are  coal, 
pottery-clay  and  natural  gas.  Cambridge 
manufactures  glass  and  pottery,  iron  and  steel 
products.  The  city  is  served  by  two  railroads 
and  suburban  electric  line,  was  settled  in  1 804, 
and  incorporated  in  1887.  Population,  15,000. 

Cam'bridge, Ada.  SeeCnoss, MRS. GEORGE 
FREDERICK. 

Cam'bridge,  University  o>,  an  English 
seat  of  learning  in  the  city  of  Cambridge, 
on  the  river  Cam,  58  miles  north  of  Lon- 
don. Tradition  places  the  beginnings  of 
the  university  as  far  back  as  the  ?th  cen- 
tury; but  its  definite  history  begins  in 
the  1 2th  century.  Like  Oxford,  it  differs 
in  many  ways  from  the  universities  of  the 
European  continent  and  of  the  United 
States,  but  especially  in  what  is  called  its 
college  -  system.  It  is  at  present  made 
up  of  1 8  colleges,  each  of  which  has  its 
special  students,  teachers  and  governing 
body,  but  is  at  the  same  time  subject  to 
the  general  laws  of  the  university.  The 
governing  body  of  the  university  is  the 
senate,  which  is  made  up  of  graduates 
who  possess  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts, 
which  is  had  without  examination  about 
four  years  after  graduation.  The  relation 
between  the  colleges  and  the  university 
is  much  like  that  between  the  individual 
states  of  this  country  and  the  Union  as 
a  whole.  The  course  in  any  college  covers 
three  years,  during  which  the  students 
are  called  freshmen,  junior  sophomores 
and  senior  sophomores.  The  students  are 
also  divided  into  four  classes,  each  class 

Eaying  a  different  tuition;  noblemen, 
;llow  commoners,  who  receive  their  name 
from  the  privilege  of  dining  or  "  having 
their  commons"  at  the  table  of  the  fellows 
of  the  university;  the  pensioners;  and  the 
sizars.  The  sizars  formerly  had  to  do  all 
sorts  of  menial  tasks;  but  this  practice 
has  ceased.  While  there  is  a  rivalry  be- 
tween the  different  colleges,  all  unite  and 
act  as  a  university,  and  are  known  not  as 
members  of  the  different  colleges,  but  as 


"Cambridge  men."  There  are  now  about 
126  of  a  teaching  staff,  including  readers, 
assistants,  etc.,  and  the  students  number 
a  little  over  3,200.  There  are  over  400 
fellowships,  the  fellows  being  elected  from 
those  who  have  distinguished  themselves 
in  examinations.  The  university  sends 
two  members  to  Parliament,  who  are  elected 
by  the  senate.  Women  are  admitted  to 
the  examinations  for  honor  students,  and 
reside  mostly  in  Newnham  and  Girton 
Colleges.  There  are  a  number  of  fine 
buildings,  the  chief  being  the  senate  house, 
the  university  library  with  over  400,000 
volumes,  the  Pitt  press,  the  observatory, 
besides  the  gardens  and  the  museums. 
The  old  Gothic  chapel  in  King's  College 
is  of  remarkable  beauty.  Among  the  emi- 
nent men  who  have  studied  at  Cambridge 
are  Chaucer,  Bacon,  Spenser,  Ben  Jonson, 
Milton,  Dryden,  Newton,  Pitt  and  Byron. 

Cambyses  (kdm-bl'sez) ,  king  of  the  Medes 
and  Persians,  the  son  of  Cyrus  the  Great, 
who  became  king  in  529  B.  C.  He  added 
Egypt  to  the  Persian  territory,  but  an 
army  which  he  sent  to  take  possession  of 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon  perished 
in  the  desert,  and  another  army  which  he 
led  against  the  Ethiopians  was  depleted 
by  hunger  and  disease.  These  disasters 
seem  to  have  made  him  a  madman.  He 
killed  his  brother  Smerdis  and  one  of  his 
sisters,  and  treated  the  Egyptians  with 
great  cruelty.  But  a  revolution  arose,  and 
one  of  the  Magians  assumed  the  character . 
of  the  murdered  Smerdis  and  seized  the 
Persian  throne.  Cambyses  marched  against 
him  from  Egypt,  but  died  on  the  way, 
in  Syria,  from  an  accidental  wound  in 
the  thigh,  in  522  B.  C. 

Cam'den,  county-seat  of  Camden  County, 
New  Jersey,  lies  on  the  Delaware  River 
opposite  Philadelphia,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  several  steam  ferries.  It  is 
the  terminus  of  a  number  of  railroads, 
has  extensive  shipyards  and  immense  market 
gardens.  It  also  has  foundries,  cotton 
and  woolen  mills  and  manufactures  of 
machinery,  iron  works,  paints,  oil-cloths, 
boots,  shoes,  etc.  There  are  many  public- 
school  buildings,  a  private  and  a  public 
high  school,  hospitals,  churches,  etc.  Cam- 
den  has  three  national  banks  and  all  the 
adjuncts  of  a  modern  city.  The  rapid 
growth  of  the  city  in  recent  years  is  shown 
by  the  increase  of  population  from  58,813 
in  1890  to  75,935  in  1900.  Population, 
now.  94,538. 

Camel,  a  cud-chewing  animal  of  the  Old 
World,  especially  adapted  by  nature  to 
travel  waste  deserts  with  scarcity  of  food 
and  water.  They  therefore  are  of  great 
use  to  man,  both  as  baggage  carriers  and 
for  riding.  There  are  two  kinds,  th« 
dromedary  or  single-humped  camel  of 
Arabia,  Syria  and  Africa,  and  the  Bactrian 
camel  with  two  humps — native  of  Asia. 


CAMELOT 


314 


CAMEO 


The  feet  are  provided  with  a  spongy  pad, 
that  makes  them  well  fitted  to  travel  over 
the  soft,  yielding  sand  and  also  especially 
sure-footed  in  other  localities.  The  hump 
is  a  special  provision  of  nature  for  prolonged 
periods  of  fasting.  It  is  only  during  a 
part  of  the  year  that  the  camel  has  abun- 
dant moist  food;  this  is  taken  in  greater 
quantities  than  is  needed  for  immediate 


i  and  2  Arabian  Camels  and  Camel  drivers.     3  Bactrian  or  two-humped  Camel. 


uses,  and  the  rest  is  stored  in  the  hump  in 
the  form  of  fat  as  reserve  food.  This  is 
drawn  on  when  food  is  scarce.  The  camel 
will  pick  up  a  living  where  other  animals 
would  starve,  even  dry  twigs  being  chewed 
and  turned  to  account  as  food.  The  walls 
of  the  stomach  are  provided  with  small  pock- 
ets, in  which  water  is  stored,  and  they  can 
travel  several  days  in  the  hot,  dusty  desert 
without  drinking.  Camels  are  further  adapted 
to  desert  travel  by  their  nostrils,  which  can 
be  tightly  closed  against  sand  storms. 

The  average  value  of.  a  baggage  camel 
among  Sudanese  Arabs  is  about  $15,  but 
a  good  riding  dromedary  is  worth  from 
$50  to  $150.  The  motion  of  the  ordinary 
camel  is  said  to  be  very  trying,  but  that 
of  the  best  riding  kinds  is  easy  and  soothing. 
The  latter  are  also  swifter.  They  go, 
ordinarily,  50  miles  a  day  for  five  days 


and  tail,  but  absent  on  the  breast  and 
knees,  where  the  skin  is  naked  and  provided 
with  pads.  The  Bactrian  camel  is  easily 
distinguished  from  the  dromedary  by  its 
two  humps.  It  is  domesticated  and  also 
known  in  a  wild  state  or,  at  least,  wander- 
ing at  liberty.  It  is  of  larger  size  than  the 
dromedary,  and  is  found  in  Siberia,  Tibet 
and  China.  A  few  years  before  the  Civil 
^^  War,  some  camels 
were  imported  by 
the  government  of 
the  United  States 
for  use  on  the  great 
American  plains. 
They  were  neglected 
and  allowed  to  run 
free.  Some  r  e  m- 
nants  of  this  im- 
portation are  now 
found  in  parts  of 
Texas,  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico.  The 
alpaca  and  llama  of 
South  America  be- 
long to  the  same 
family  as  the  cam- 
els, but  differ  from 
their  Old  World  rel- 
atives. 


more  ground.  The  baggage  camels  are 
slower.  In  Africa  they  are  expected  to 
carry  five  or  six  hundred  pounds'  burden, 
and  march  25  miles  a  day.  It  is 
expected  that  they  shall  be  watered  after 
four  days'  travel.  They  are  not  docile 
and  patient,  as  those  who  do  not  know 
them  are  disposed  to  believe,  but  perverse 
and  stupid.  They  will  eat  poison  herbs  and 
bushes,  if  not  closely  watched,  and,  although 
they  kneel  to  be  loaded,  they  complain  and 
groan  as  the  burden  is  laid  on. 

The  Arabian  dromedary  is  ten  or  eleven 
feet  long  and  seven  or  eight  feet  high  at 
the  shoulders.  It  has  fine,  reddish-brown 
hair,  abundant  around  the  neck,  throat, 


Cam'elot.  Tennyson  in  Idylls  of  the 
King  speaks  thus  of  Camelot: 

The  dim  rich  city,  roof  by  roof, 

Tower  after  tower,  spire  beyond  spire, 

By  grove  and  garden  lawn  and  rushing  brook 

Climbs  to  the  mighty  hall  that  Merlin  built . . . 

And  over  all  one  statue  in  the  mold 

Of  Arthur,  made  by  Merlin,  with  a  crown. 

Camelot  is  the  name  that  the  minstrels 
and  historians  of  the  middle  ages  gave  to 
a  city  that  was  situated  in  Mommouthshire, 
Wales,  on  the  River  Usk,  where  there  are 
still  the  ruins  of  a  great  amphitheater  and 
of  baths,  pavements,  etc.  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth  (about  1150)  supposed  that 
this  was  the  place  where  Arthur  had  held 
his  court,  for  the  people  still  call  the  am- 
phitheater King  Arthur's  Round  Table. 
Tennyson  preserves  the  tradition.  But, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  not  likely  that 
Arthur  had  much,  if  anything,  to  do  with 
this  city.  It  is  called  Caerleon,  which  means 
castle  of  the  legion,  and  was  so-called 
because  the  Romans,  finding  there  a  small 
British  town,  made  it  an  army  post  for 
the  Second  Augustan  Legion.  It  was 
a  considerable  town  in  Roman  days,  and 
after  the  Romans  had  gone  it  was  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric  and  abbey.  It  is  now 
a  village  with  about  1,000  inhabitants. 

Cam'eo,  an  engraved  gem  in  which  the 
figure  or  subject  is  carved  in  relief.  It  i£ 
distinguished  from  an  intaglio,  in  which 
the  engraved  subject  is  sunk  or  hollowed 
out  like  a  seal.  Probably  dating  back  to 
the  Egyptians,  the  art  of  cameo-cutting 


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CAMERA 


315 


CAMPANIA 


was  brought  to  a  high  state  of  perfection 
among  the  Greeks.  The  stones  used  by 
the  ancient  engraver  were  agates,  with 
various  strata,  and  are  known  as  onyx 
stones,  the  different  kinds  of  strata  giving 
rise  to  special  names.  Alternate  layers 
of  black  and  white  make  the  simple  onyx; 
white  and  ruddy  brown  make  sardonyx; 
and  white  and  gray  make  chalcedony,  etc. 
Frequently  there  are  three  different  colored 
layers,  or  the  ground  may  be  obtained 
in  one  color,  the  figure  in  a  second  and 
wreaths  or  other  ornaments  in  the  third. 
Cameos  have  been  used  not  only  for  orna- 
ments, but  for  adorning  cups,  vases,  etc., 
and  cups  were  often  worked  out  of  a  single 
stone,  around  which  was  engraved  a  series 
of  figures.  A  vast  number  of  ancient 
cameos  have  been  preserved.  One  of  the 
most  celebrated  is  the  Gonzaga  cameo, 
a  sardonyx  of  three  strata,  now  in  the  im- 
perial cabinet  of  St.  Petersburg.  It  repre- 
sents Nero  and  Agrippina  One  of  the 
largest  and  most  famous  cameos  is  in  the 
National  Library  at  Paris,  which  repre- 
sents Augustus  and  the  princes  of  the 
house  of  Tiberius  as  they  are  being  num- 
bered among  the  gods.  It  contains  20 
figures.  Italian  cameo-cutters  introduced 
shell-cameos.  Imitation  cameos  are  made  in 
glass  of  different  colors,  and  are  called  pastes. 

Cam 'era  is  an  Italian  word  meaning 
room,  and  is  etymologically  the  same  as 
the  English  word  chamber.  It  has 
come  to  mean,  however,  only  a  portable 
dark  box  used  by  photographers.  The 
front  of  this  box  is  provided  with  a  flange, 
into  which  is  screwed  a  lens.  The  rear 
of  the  camera  is  made  to  receive  either  a 
ground-glass  plate  or  a  sensitive  photo- 
graphic plate,  upon  which  the  lens  pro- 
jects the  picture  which  is  to  be  photo- 
graphed. In  a  typical  camera  the  remain- 
ing four  walls  are  made  of  folded  leather 
and  are  called  the  bellows.  This  enables 
the  operator  to  vary  the  distance  between 
the  lens  in  front  and  the  plate  in  the  rear. 
In  recent  times  this  typical  camera  has 
undergone  many  modifications.  Some  are 
made  to  fold  up,  some  are  made  without 
bellows,  some  are  made  so  small  as  to  be 
carried  in  the  pocket,  while  the  spectro- 
scopist  at  times  uses  cameras  made  entirely 
of  metal,  and  at  other  times  he  converts  an 
entire  room  of  his  laboratory  into  a  camera. 

Cam'eron,  Simon,  an  American  senator, 
was  born  in  Pennsylvania,  March  8,  1799. 
He  was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate 
in  1845,  and  acted  with  the  Democratic 
party.  After  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise  he  allied  himself  with  the  Re- 
publican party,  and  was  again  elected  to 
the  senate.  His  name  was  proposed  for 
president  in  the  Republican  convention 
of  1860,  and  under  President  Lincoln  he 
became  secretary  of  war.  After  two  years 
be  resigned  and  was  appointed  minister 


to   Russia.    Again  elected  to  the  senate 

he  became  chairman  of  the  committee  on 
foreign  relations.  In  1877  he  resigned, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  J.  Donald 
Cameron.  He  died  June  26,  1889. 

Cameroon'.     See  KAMERUN, 

Camoens  (kam'o-ens),  Luiz  de,  the 
greatest  poet  of  Portugal,  was  born  at 
Lisbon  in  1524.  His  chief  poem,  the 
Lusiads,  named  from  the  fabled  hero 
Lusus,  who,  in  company  with  Ulysses,  is 
said  to  have  visited  Portugal,  is  the  national 
epic  of  the  Portuguese.  Camoens  died  in 
poverty  in  a  public  hospital  in  1580. 

Camp  Fire  Girls,  an  organization  among 
girls,  somewhat  similar  to  the  Scout  move- 
ment among  boys.  Corresponding  to  "Scout 
Masters"  are  "Guardians  of  the  Fire." 
To  secure  admission  or  advancement  a 
girl  must,  among  other  things,  learn  to 
prepare  and  serve  meals,  mend  garments, 
keep  accounts,  average  'at  least  half  an  hour 
daily  outdoor  exercise,  name  the  chief 
causes  of  infant  mortality  in  summer  and 
how  to  deal  with  them,  know  what  a  girl 
of  her  age  needs  to  know  about  herself, 
understand  the  principles  of  elementary 
bandaging  and  what  to  do  in  the  following 
emergencies:  Clothing  on  fire,  person  in 
deep  water  who  cannot  swim,  one  who  has 
fainted,  and  how  to  deal  with  an  open  cut 
or  a  frosted  foot.  Girls  from  twelve  to 
twenty  are  eligible  for  membership.  There 
are  organizations  in  every  state  and  territory. 
The  headquarters  of  the  organization  is  in  New 
York  City,  and  Dr.  L.  H.  Gulick,  formerly 
director  of  physical  training  of  the  New  York 
public  schools. 

Campagna  di  Roma  (cdm-p&n'ya).     See 

ROME. 

Campania  (kdm-pdn'$a)  (Latin  Campus^ 
a  plain),  a  volcanic  but  otherwise  attrac- 
tive district  in  Italy  lying  inland  from  the 
Tyrrhenian  Sea,  in  the  region  of  Naples, 
and  covering  an  area  of  6,289  square  miles, 
with  a  population,  by  latest  census  (1911), 
3,347,925.  It  was  a  province  of  ancient 
Italy,  and  today  it  embraces  the  districts 
of  Caserto,  Benevento,  Napoli,  Avellino 
and  Salerno,  extending  from  the  region 
of  the  Volurno  River  on  the  north  to  the 
Gulf  of  Policastro  on  the  south.  The 
province,  originally  settled  by  people  of 
Oscan  race,  was  subsequently  under  Greek 
and  Etruscan  dominion,  until  it  was  over- 
run, in  340  B.  C.,  by  the  Romans  who 
called  it  Campania  Felix  (Happy  Cam- 
pania), in  allusion  to  its  great  fertility  and 
delightful  climate  and  scenery,  in  spite 
of  its  ill-omened  volcanic  character  and 
its  stretches  ot  sulphur  fields.  Mount 
Vesuvius,  overlooking  the  beautiful  Bay 
of  Naples,  is  its  most  striking  physica' 
feature;  while  anciently  it  embraced  Her- 
culaneum  and  the  gloomy  Lake  Avernus, 
the  entrance,  as  th«  Romans  averred,,-  to 


CAMPBELL 


316 


CANADA 


the  infernal  regions  The  province  was  in  the 
classic  period  traversed  by  the  Appian  Way. 
The  chief  towns  of  the  district  are  Naples, 
Salerno,  Capua,  Avellino,  Benevento  and 
Caserta.  After  Sulla's  day  the  coast  towns 
of  Campania  were  much  frequented  by  the 
literati  and  wealthy  sybarites  of  ancient 
Rome.  See  CAMPAGNA  DI  ROMA  (plain  of 
Rome),  under  ROME. 

Campbell  (kam'bel),  Alexander,  an 
American  theologian,  was  born  at  Shane's 
Castle,  Ireland,  in  June,  1788.  After 
attending  Glasgow  University,  he  came 
to  the  United  States  and  served  as  pastor 
of  a  Presbyterian  church  in  Washington 
County,  Pa.  Later  he  became  a  Baptist, 
and  as  early  as  1810  he  adopted  the  Bible 
as  the  sole  recognized  creed  of  his  church. 
But  it  was  not  till  1827  that  he  founded  the 
Disciples  of  Christ,  a  church  that  grew 
rapidly  and  now  has  a  large  member- 
ship in  America  and  foreign  countries. 
His  followers  are  also  known  as  Christians, 
Church  of  Christ  and  Campbellites.  In 
1841  Mr.  Campbell  founded  and  became 
the  first  president  of  Bethany  College, 
at  Bethany,  W.  Va.,  which  has  280  students. 
Besides  his  work  as  pastor  and  teacher, 
he  founded  and  edited  the  denominational 
organ  of  his  church.  He  died  March  4,  1866. 

Campbell=Bannerman,  Right  Hon.  Sir 
Henry,  G.C.B.,  M.P  ,  head  of  the  Liberal 
ministry  in  the  British  Parliament,  was 
born  in  Scotland  in  1836,  and  educated  at 
Glasgow  and  Cambridge.  He  entered  Par- 
liament in  1868,  and  served  for  a  time 
as  financial  secretary  at  the  war  office, 
and  in  Mr.  Gladstone's  administration  was 
chiel  secretary  for  Ireland  and  secretary 
of  state  for  war.  In  1894-95  he  filled  the 
latter  post,  also,  under  Lord  Rosebery; 
and  in  February,  1898,  on  the  retirement 
of  Sir  Wm.  Vernon  Harcourt  as  leader  of 
the  Liberal  party  in  the  house  of  commons, 
Sir  Henry  was  chosen  to  succeed  him. 
Jn  Dec.  1905,  he  became  Liberal  Prime 
Minister.  His  death  occurred  April  22,1908. 

Campbell,  Thomas  (born  1777,  died 
1844),  a  noted  British  poet,  was  born  at 
Glasgow,  and,  as  a  student  at  the  university 
there,  was  distinguished  for  his  knowl- 
edge of  Greek  literature.  His  early  poem, 
The  Pleasures  of  Hope,  gave  him  a  name  as 
a  poet.  He  traveled  on  the  continent, 
where  he  witnessed  the  battle  of  Hohen- 
linden,  which  forms  the  subject  of  one  of 
his  finest  lyrics.  He  wrote,  besides  poems, 
articles  for  the  magazines  and  papers  and 
for  the  Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia,  and  also 
published  a  magazine.  He  was  at  one 
time  lord  rector  of  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow. He  died  at  Boulogne,  France,  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  a  Polish 
nobleman  scattering  dust  on  his  coffin 
*rom  the  grave  of  Kosciusko.  Gertrude 
of  Wyoming  and  the  short  poem.  The  Last 
Man,  are  well  known;  but  it  is  for  his  war 


lyrics  that  Campbell  will  be  most  remem- 
bered, such  as  Hohenlinden,  Ye  Mariners  of 
England  and  The  Battle  of  the  Baltic. 

Canada.  Canada  comprises  the  northern 
half  of  North  America.  Its  southern  bound- 
ary is  the  United  States,  on  the  east  is  the 
Atlantic,  on  the  west  the  Pacific  and  on  the 
north  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Its  area  is  three 
and  a  half  millions  of  square  miles,  about 
the  same  as  that  of  the  United  States  and 
nearly  equal  to  that  of  Europe.  The  popu- 
lation is  over  eight  millions  or  nearly  one- 
quarter  less  than  that  of  Belgium.  From 
Halifax  on  the  Atlantic  to  Vancouver  on 
the  Pacific  is  3,740  miles  by  rail.  From 
Victoria  on  the  Pacific  to  Dawson  on  the 
Yukon  River  is  1,550  miles  by  ocean  and 
river  steamer  and  rail.  From  Fort  William 
at  the  head  of  Canadian  navigation  on  Lake 
Superior,  by  the  water  way  of  the  Great  Lakes 
and  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  to  the  tidal 
seaport  of  Quebec  is  1,400  miles,  and  from 
Quebec  city  to  the  extreme  Atlantic  coast, 
at  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  is  850  miles. 
Its  most  southerly  portion  is  in  the  latitude 
of  northern  Spain  and  Italy,  and  the  most 
northerly  portion  is  in  the  latitude  of 
northern  Norway. 

Older  and  Newer  Canada.  The  eastern 
and  older  part  of  Canada  occupies  chiefly  a 
vast  peninsula  lying  between  the  water- 
system  of  the  St.  Lawrence  on  the  south 
and  the  Hudson  Bay  on  the  north.  This 
peninsula  is  of  very  irregular  shape,  and  is 
2,200  miles  in  length  from  east  to  west,  with 
a  breadth  of  from  300  to  1,200  miles.  The 
western  or  newer,  and  much  the  larger, 
portion  of  Canada  is  compact  in  form.  It 
extends  from  the  western  end  of  the  Great 
Lakes  and  the  west  shore  of  Hudson  Bay 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  a  distance  of  1,500 
miles,  and  from  the  United  States  boundary 
(the  49th  parallel  of  latitude)  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  a  distance  of  1,600  miles. 

The  provinces  and  territories  of  Canada 
may  be  grouped  as  maritime,  eastern,  cen- 
tral, western  and  northern.  Maritime:  British 
Columbia,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick 
and  Prince  Edward  Island.  The  easterly 
portion  of  the  province  of  Quebec  on  the 
shores  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  may  be 
included  as  a  part  of  maritime  Canada. 
The  eastern  provinces  are  Ontario  and 
Quebec,  which  lie  along  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  and  its  Great  Lakes,  and  extend 
along  Hudson  Bay  as  shown  on  accom- 
panying map.  The  central  provinces  are 
Manitoba,  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta,  which 
occupy  the  prairie  area  lying  between  the 
wooded  region  of  eastern  Canada  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  The  western  or  Pacific 
province  is  British  Columbia,  which  lies  be- 
tween the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Pacific 
Coast.  Northern  Canada  is  the  territory 
lying  between  the  northern  limits  of  the 
eastern,  central  and  western  provinces, 
already  mentioned,  and  the  Arctic  Ocean. 


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CANADA 


West  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  Yukon 
Territory.  In  the  redivision  of  Canadian 
territory  (1912),  Franklin,  Mackenzie,  and  a 
portion  of  Keewatin  were  added  to  Northwest 
Territories,  Ungava  to  Quebec  and  a  portion 
of  Keewatin  to  Ontario  and  Manitoba. 

Climate.  The  vast  extent  of  Canada  neces- 
sarily involves  a  wide  range  of  climatic  con- 
ditions. Except  on  and  near  the  ocean 
coasts,  the  general  characteristic  of  the 
climate  of  Canada  as  compared  with  that 
of  Europe  is  that  the  summer  is  shorter, 
warmer,  and  has  less  moisture,  and  the 
winter  longer  and  somewhat  colder  than 
in  corresponding  European  latitudes.  It 
is  bracing  and  healthy,  and  in  all  respects 
suited  to  the  fullest  development  of  the 
races  of  the  British  Isles  and  northwestern 
Europe  generally. 

On  the  Pacific  coast,  owing  to  the  Japan- 
ese current,  the  climate  is  identical  in 
temperature  with  that  of  the  British  Isles, 
which  lie  in  the  same  latitude.  The  influ- 
ence of  this  warm  current  on  the  Pacific 
coast  extends  eastward  across  the  western 
and  into  the  central  provinces,  so  that  the 
winter  climate  of  the  western  part  of  the 
central  provinces  is  considerably  milder 
than  that  of  the  eastern  part.  On  the 
Atlantic  coast,  and  inland,  the  climate  is 
colder  than  in  corresponding  latitudes  of 
Europe,  because  of  the  Arctic  current  which 
flows  southward  along  the  coast. 

Surface.  The  important  physical  features 
of  Canada  are  its  mountains,  lakes,  rivers, 
forests  and  prairies  and  the  great  inland 
sea  of  Hudson  Bay.  The  Rocky  Mountains 
extend  from  the  United  States  boundary 
northward  to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  They 
bound  the  central  plains  on  the  west,  and 
are  the  highest  of  the  several  parallel 
mountain  ranges  of  the  western  province. 
They  contain  immense  deposits,  and  in  the 
parallel  ranges  between  the  Rockies  and 
the  Pacific  coast  are  to  be  found  the  precious 
metals  in  great  abundance,  especially  gold. 
The  Laurentian  Range  of  hills  extends  from 
the  Atlantic  coast,  at  the  Strait  of  Belle 
Isle,  westerly  and  northerly,  a  distance  of 
2,300  miles,  to  the  east  end  of  Great  Bear 
Lake  near  the  Arctic  coast.  In  the  east 
the  Laurentian  Range  divides  the  waters 
flowing  south  into  the  St.  Lawrence  from 
those  flowing  north  into  Hudson  Bay,  and 
in  the  northwest  it  divides  those  flowing 
westward  into  Mackenzie  River  from  those 
flowing  eastward  into  Hudson  Bay.  But 
midway  between  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
Mackenzie  water-systems,  the  joint  waters 
of  the  Red  and  Saskatchewan  Rivers  break 
northward  through  the  Laurentian  Range 
by  way  of  Nelson  River  into  Hudson  Bay. 
The  Laurentian  Range  carries  iron  in  great 
abundance,  but  no  coal.  Silver,  nickel, 
cobalt  and  many  other  valuable  metals  are 
also  found,  although  the  region  has  as  yet 
been  very  little  explored. 


Drainage,  The  Laurentian  district  is 
remarkable  for  its  numerous  lakes,  and 
especially  for  the  succession  of  great  lakes, 
which,  forming  part  of  three  separate  river 
systems,  lie  almost  continuously  along  its 
southern  side  all  the  way  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Arctic.  The  many  streams  and 
rivers  which  have  their  origin  in  the  Lauren- 
tian Range  afford  unlimited  opportunities 
for  the  creation  of  water  power,  and  more 
than  replace  the  lack  of  coal  for  all  pur- 
poses for  which  power  is  required.  The  St. 
Lawrence  and  its  tributary,  the  Ottawa, 
are  the  great  rivers  of  eastern  Canada;  the 
Red  and  Saskatchewan  of  central  Canada; 
the  Eraser  and  Columbia  of  western  Canada; 
and  the  Mackenzie  and  the  Yukon  of  north- 
ern Canada.  The  St.  Lawrence,  Mackenzie 
and  Yukon  are  among  the  largest  rivers  in 
the  world. 

The  forests  of  Canada  are  one  of  the  great- 
est sources  of  the  national  wealth.  Maritime, 
eastern  and  western  Canada  were  entirely 
covered  by  forest,  of  which  only  a  small 
proportion  has  as  yet  been  displaced  by 
settlement  and  cultivation.  The  northern 
part  of  central  Canada  is  also  very  con- 
siderably forested. 

The  prairies,  which  comprise  the  south- 
erly portion  of  the  central  provinces,  lie  in 
an  irregular  triangle  formed  by  the  2pth 
parallel  and  the  United  States  boundary  on 
the  south;  the  Rockies  on  the  west;  and 
the  Laurentian  Range  on  the  northwest. 
They  are  watered  in  the  southeastern  part 
by  the  Red  River,  in  the  south  and  west 
by  the  Saskatchewan,  and  in  the  north- 
west by  the  Athabasca  and  Peace  Rivers, 
branches  of  the  Mackenzie. 

Manufacturing  and  Commerce.  With  her 
vast  mineral,  fish,  timber  and  other  re- 
sources Canada  is  destined  to  become  a 
great  industrial  and  commercial  country. 
During  the  last  ten  years  the  growth  of  her 
manufactures  has  been  marvellous.  The 
record  of  foreign  commerce  for  the  past 
few  years  shows  that  Canada's  foreign  trade 
is  increasing  more  rapidly,  proportionately, 
than  that  of  any  other  country.  The  rate 
of  gain  for  a  period  of  ten  years  has  been 
132  per  cent.  The  total  of  Canada's  exports 
in  1913  was  $393,232,057,  of  which  the  amount 
to  Great  Britain  was  $177,982,002  and  that 
to  the  United  States  $167,110,382.  Total 
imports  $692,032,392  in  1911.  From  the 
United  States  came  $455,322,555  and  from 
Great  Britain  $139,653,587.  Much  of  the 
Canadian  wheat  is  shipped  direct  to  Europe. 
In  1913  the  value  of  the  wheat  exported  was 
$88,608,730;  of  flour  $19,970,689;  of  cheese 
$20,697,144;  and  of  pork,  bacon  and  ham 

$5,731,474- 

The  total  value  of  lumber  exports  in  1913 
was  $33,433,089,  much  of  it  going  to  Great 
Britain.  Thirty-five  mills  are  converting 
spruce  into  wood-pulp. 

Minerals.      British    Columbia    and    Nova 


CANADA 


318 


CANADA 


Scotia  are  the  chief  mining  provinces. 
Important  mineral  deposits  are  found  also 
in  Ontario  and  Quebec.  Extensive  coal 
areas  have  been  found  in  western  Canada, 
and  new  railways  are  continually  opening 
additional  territory. 

In  1912  Canada's  total  mineral  production 
was  valued  at  $135,048,296.  The  value  of 
the  coal  was  about  $36,019,044;  gold  $12,- 
6481794;  and  silver  $19,440,165. 

The  Vancouver  Island  (British  Columbia) 
mines  produce  a  coal  of  excellent  quality. 
The  coal  deposits  of  Nova  Scotia  underlie 
an  area  of  about  635  square  miles.  The 
chief  workings  are  in  the  Sydney,  Pictou 
and  Cumberland  fields.  The  Nova  Scotia 
mines  are  the  largest  producers  in  Canada. 

At  Lethbridge,  a  town  of  8,000  people, 
a  mine  has  been  opened  on  a  large  seam 
of  bituminous  coal,  the  output  of  which 
has  been  traced  for  many  miles.  The 
Estevan  mines  (in  the  Souris  fields)  and 
the  Lethbridge  mines  supply  the  provinces 
of  Manitoba  and  Saskatchewan.  The  coal- 
beds  extend  far  down  the  Saskatchewan 
and  northward  into  the  valley  of  Peace 
River.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  in  this 
district  to  see  the  agricultural  settler  driv- 
ing up  to  the  pit's  mouth  for  his  house- 
hold supply  of  coal,  easily  obtained  at 
prices  ranging  from  $1.00  to  $2.00  per  ton. 

In  Nova  Scotia  iron  is  found  near  the 
coal,  thus  permitting  economical  smelting. 
Large  areas  of  iron-ore  have  been  found 
north  of  Lake  Superior  in  Ontario,  in 
eastern  Ontario,  in  Quebec  and  in  Ungava. 
Large  steel-works  have  been  established  at 
Sydney  and  Terrona,  Nova  Scotia,  and  at 
Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Ontario.  There  are  iron 
smelters  at  Rawdon  (Quebec)  and  at  Dese- 
ronto,  Hamilton  and  Midland  (Ontario). 
Nickel  ores  are  of  great  and  growing  im- 
portance, particularly  as  there  are  only 
two  producing  localities  of  consequence  in 
the  world — the  Sudbury  district  in  Ontario 
and  the  French  colony  of  New  Caledonia. 
The  Ontario  mines  contain  enough  ore  to 
supply  the  needs  of  the  world  for  all  time. 
Most  of  the  copper  output  of  Ontario  is 
produced  as  a  by-product  of  nickel.  In  1902 
British  Columbia  produced  about  30,000,000 
pounds  of  copper,  most  of  which  was  mined 
in  the  west  of  the  Kootenay  district. 

Practically  all  of  the  first-quality  asbestos 
that  is  marketed  in  the  world  is  produced 
at  the  Thedford,  Black  Lake  and  Dan- 
ville mines  in  southeastern  Quebec.  Large 
quantities  of  mica  are  mined  in  Quebec 
and  Ontario.  The  Yukon  placer  gold- 
mines are  producing  more  gold  than  any 
other  placer  mines  in  the  world,  and  since 
the  wonderful  Klondike  rush  in  1897,  when 
60,000  people  sought  this  far-away  northern 
country,  gold  to  the  value  of  $100,000,000 
has  been  taken  out.  One  of  the  richest 
silver  camps  in  the  world  is  at  Cobalt, 
Ontario.  See  YUKON  and  COBALT. 


Fisheries.  Canada  has  become  the  fishing 
ground  of  North  America.  On  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  are  extensive  fisheries,  while 
countless  lakes,  with  their  tributary  streams, 
teem  with  fish  of  the  greatest  value  as  food. 

Hundreds  of  foreign  vessels,  including 
many  from  the  United  States,  come  to  the 
Canadian  waters  to  share  in  these  treasures. 
It  is  estimated  that  78,000-  Canadian 
fishermen  thus  find  employment.  Their 
boats,  nets  and  gear  are  valued  at  $11,- 
500,000  and  their  annual  catch  at  $29,- 
629,000.  There  are,  moreover,  extensive 
waters  yet  unfished,  which  in  the  near 
future  will  add  to  the  value  of  the  catch. 

The  vast  salmon  industries  on  the  Pacific 
coast  are  in  some  respects  the  most  re- 
markable in  the  world.  In  the  season  when 
fish  are  running  up  stream,  the  flow  of 
water  actually  is  impeded  in  shallow  places 
by  their  numbers.  Standing  on  the  bank, 
one  sees  the  whole  river  red  with  the  gleam 
of  their  sides.  Canning  factories  are  built 
on  these  streams,  and  each  year  9,000,000 
to  10,000,000  fish  are  canned. 

Hudson  Bay  and  the  coast  waters  from  the 
Ungava  to  Mackenzie  River  are  the  richest 
whaling  grounds  in  the  world.  The  walrus 
and  many  valuable  fish,  such  as  sea-trout, 
salmon  and  cod,  are  found  in  these  waters. 

The  Department  of  Marine  and  Fisheries 
carries  on  fish-culture,  introducing  fish  into 
new  waters  and  preventing  the  exhaustion 
of  the  present  supply.  There  are  sixteen 
government-hatcheries  which,  in  some  years, 
distribute  over  400,000,000  fry. 

Railways.  With  the  exception  of  the  Inter- 
colonial (1,463  miles)  and  the  Prince  Edward 
Island  Railway  (279  miles)  all  railways  in 
Canada  are  owned  by  private  companies. 

The  Canadian  Pacific  extends  to  Montreal 
and  then  crosses  Canada,  passing  through 
the  world's  granary  to  Vancouver  on  the 
Pacific.  Cities,  towns  and  over  400  stations 
are  passed  en  route.  It  also  runs  from 
Quebec  to  Montreal  and  on  to  Toronto. 
The  system  has  a  mileage  of  11,507  miles, 
the  only  transcontinental  railway  in  Amer- 
ica under  one  management.  Its  steamers 
ply  between  England  and  Canada,  and  be- 
tween Canada  and  China  and  Japan. 

The  Grand  Trunk  runs  from  Portland 
(Maine),  on  the  Atlantic,  westward  to  Mon- 
treal, through  Ontario  to  Sarnia,  and 
thence  to  Chicago.  It  passes  under  St. 
Clair  River — the  outlet  of  Lake  Huron — 
by  the  famous  St.  Clair  tunnel.  With  a 
mileage  of  3,104  it  reaches  practically  all 
Ontario.  It  has  several  famous  bridges, 
the  Victoria  Jubilee  at  Montreal  (over  the 
St.  Lawrence);  the  Niagara,  the  lar^e^t 
steel-arch  railway-bridge  in  the  world,  jv.st 
below  the  Falls;  and  also  the  International 
near  Buffalo. 

(See,  also,  CANADIAN  NORTHERN  RAIL- 
WAY and  GRAND  TRUNK  PACIFIC  RAIL.TAV, 
both  t«  be  transcontinental  lines). 


CANADA 


CANADA 


Steamships  and  Canals.  There  are  sev- 
eral Canadian  transatlantic  steamship  lines, 
notably  the  Allan,  the  Dominion  and  the 
Canadian  Pacific.  The  Canadian  Pacific 
steamers  ply  to  China,  Japan  and  Australia. 
There  are  also  important  lines  on  the  lakes 
and  rivers. 

The  magnificent  St.  Lawrence  is  the 
greatest  water-way  in  the  world.  Canals 
have  been  built  wherever  the  rapids  obstruct 
navigation.  Canada  has  spent  nearly  one 
hundred  millions  of  dollars  on  her  canals. 
On  the  Welland  Canal  alone  (24  miles  long) 
$28,000,000  have  been  spent. 

The  St.  Lawrence  has  been  so  deepened 
as  to  allow  the  largest  ocean  steamers  to 
sail  up  to  Montreal.  Above  Montreal 
vessels  of  fourteen  feet  draught  can  ascend 
to  Lake  Erie,  and  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake 
Superior  20  feet  of  water  are  available. 
By  this  route  a  vessel  can  load  at  an  upper- 
lake  port  to  over  fourteen  feet,  lighter  to 
this  draught  at  the  east  end  of  Lake  Erie 
(Port  Colborne),  and  carry  the  remainder 
of  her  cargo  to  Montreal,  1,230  miles  from 
Fort  William. 

Water-Powers.  Canada's  water-powers 
are  certain  to  play  a  tremendous  part  in 
her  industrial  development.  Many  indus- 
tries are  now  supplied  with  electrical  power. 
It  has  been  well  said  that  the  Laurentian 
Highland  constitutes  "a  gathering  ground 
for  many  large  and  almost  innumerable 
small  rivers  and  streams  which,  in  the 
sources  of  power  they  offer  in  their  descent 
to  the  lower  adjacent  levels,  are  likely  to 
prove  of  greater  and  more  permanent  value 
to  the  industries  of  the  country  than  an 
extensive  coal  field." 

At  Sault  Ste.  Marie  the  largest  pulp-mill 
in  Canada  is  operated  by  electricity  locally 
developed.  One  hundred  and  seventy-five 
thousand  horse-power  has  been  developed. 
See  NIAGARA  FALLS,  at  which  place  the 
ultimate  development  of  electrical  power 
will  reach  425,000  H.  P.  At  that  point 
many  millions  of  dollars  have  been  spent 
by  the  three  power-companies.  The  city  of 
Toronto,  more  than  80  miles  distant,  gets 
its  supply  from  one  of  them.  Within  50 
miles  of  Ottawa  there  is  an  available  water 
power  energy  of  900,000  H.  P.  That  at 
Niagara  Falls  is  six  times  as  great. 

Schools  The  provinces  control  the 
schools,  and  each  of  them  as  to  system  and 
methods  and  machinery  generally  is  work- 
ing out  its  own  ideal.  The  Royal  Military 
College  at  Kingston,  Ontario,  is  a  Dominion 
institution  All  the  others  are  provincial 
or  controlled  by  local  corporations.  Al- 
berta, one  of  the  new  provinces,  has  made 
provision  for  a  university  of  its  own.  Mc- 
Gill  University,  Montreal,  is  doing  collegiate 
work  in  British  Columbia.  The  elementary 
schools  (public  schools,  common  schools) 
are  free  all  over  Canada.  Every  province 
oiak*G  generous  provision  for  their  up- 


keep.  There  are  more  than  20,000  free 
public  schools  in  Canada,  and  about  1,250,- 
ooo  pupils  attend  them. 

For  the  secondary  schools  (high  schools, 
and  some  of  these  having  a  certain  number 
of  teachers  who  are  specialists  and  a  cer- 
tain specified  strong  equipment,  are  called 
collegiate  institutes)  a  fee  is  charged  in 
some  instances.  Not  a  few  of  these  even 
are  free.  In  Ontario  and  Quebec  especially 
there  are  several  residential  schools  modelled 
after  the  great  public  schools  in  England 
(such  as  Harrow,  Rugby,  Eton )  with  large 
attendance  and  doing  most  useful  work. 

Canadians  are  proud  of  their  universities. 
McGill  and  Toronto,  for  example,  are  well 
and  favorably  known  the  world  over. 
These  and  other  universities  are  specially 
referred  to  elsewhere  in  these  volumes.  The 
sketches  of  the  provinces  contain  fuller 
details  as  to  their  educational  work. 

The  educational  work  done  by  the  five 
Dominion  experimental  farms  is  of  great 
value  and  interest.  The  central  farm  is 
located  at  Ottawa  (the  capital);  two  are 
in  the  northwest  (at  Brandon  and  Indian 
Head);  one  at  Agassiz  (British  Columbia); 
and  one  at  Nappan  (Nova  Scotia).  Spe- 
cialists carry  on  experiments  in  all  branches 
of  agriculture,  the  results  being  published 
in  bulletin  form.  During  the  last  few  years 
seeds  and  specimens  have  been  sent  out 
through  the  mails  to  about  200,000  farmers. 
Less  than  1 5  per  cent,  of  the  total  population 
of  all  Canada  is  illiterate.  In  1910  $27,800, 
ooo  were  spent  for  purposes  of  education, 
and  there  were  1,289,000  pupils  registered. 

Population.  Canada  now  has  a  popula- 
tion of  over  eight  millions.  Two  and  one- 
half  millions  live  in  Ontario;  over  two  mil- 
lions in  Quebec;  nearly  a  million  in  the 
maritime  provinces  (New  Brunswick,  Nova 
Scotia  and  Prince  Edward  Island) ;  over  i  ,- 
300,000  in  Manitoba,  Alberta,  Saskatchewan 
and  the  territories;  and  nearly  400,000  in 
British  Columbia. 

History.  The  territories  which  now  con- 
stitute the  Dominion  of  Canada  came  under 
the  British  flag  at  various  times,  some  by 
settlement  and  others  by  conquest  or 
cession.  Nova  Scotia  (Acadia)  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Cabots,  in  the  service  of 
King  Henry  VII,  in  1497.  The  colony  of  Hal- 
ifax was  founded  in  1749.  By  the  Treaty 
of  Utrecht  (1713)  Acadia  and  the  Hudson 
Bay  Territory  were  acknowledged  to  be 
British  territory.  The  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany's charter,  conferring  right  of  govern- 
ment over  the  territory  now  known  as  the 
provinces  of  Manitoba,  Saskatchewan,  Al- 
berta and  the  Northwest  Territories,  was 
granted  in  1670.  The  old  French  colony 
of  Canada  was  surrendered  by  the  capitula- 
tion of  Montreal,  signed  September  8,  1760, 
and  with  Prince  Edward  Island  and  part  of 
the  present  province  of  New  Brunswick, 
was  formally  ceded  to  Great  Britain  bv 


CANADIAN  NORTHERN  RAILWAY     3*O 


CANAL 


France  under  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  signed 
Feb.  10,  1763.  Vancouver  Island  was 
acknowledged  to  be  British  by  the  Oregon- 
Boundary  Treaty  of  1846,  and  British 
Columbia  was  occupied  in  1858. 

As  originally  constituted,  the  Dominion 
of  Canada  was  composed  of  the  provinces 
of  Ontario,  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick.  They  were  united  under  the 
provisions  of  an  act  of  the  imperial  Parlia- 
ment passed  in  1867  and  commonly  cited 
as  The  British  North  America  Act  1867. 
Provision  was  made  in  the  act  for  the 
admission  of  British  Columbia,  Prince  Ed- 
ward Island,  the  Northwest  Territories  and 
Newfoundland  into  the  Dominion.  New- 
foundland alone  has  not  availed  itself  of 
such  provision.  In  1869  the  extensive 
region  known  as  Rupert's  Land,  the  Hud- 
son Bay  Territory  and  the  Northwest 
Territories  was  added  to  the  Dominion  by 
purchase  from  the  Hudson  Bay  Company. 
The  province  of  Manitoba  was  set  apart 
out  of  a  portion  of  it,  and  admitted  into 
the  Confederation  on  July  15,  1870.  On 
July  20,  1871,  the  province  of  British 
Columbia  and  on  July  i,  1873,  the  province  of 
Prince  Edward  Island,  respectively,  entered 
the  Confederation.  The  provinces  of  Al- 
berta and  Saskatchewan  were  formed  from 
the  provisional  districts  of  Alberta,  Atha- 
baska,  Assiniboia  and  Saskatchewan,  and 
were  admitted  to  the  Union  as  provinces 
on  September  i,  1905. 

The  Dominion  adopted  the  same  form  of 
government  as  existed  in  the  mother-land. 
There  are  a  governor-general  appointed  by 
the  king  to  represent  him,  two  houses  of 
parliament  and  a  cabinet.  As  each  province 
has  a  legislature  of  its  own  to  manage  its 
local  affairs,  it  is  as  if  England,  Scotland, 
Wales  and  Ireland  had  separate  parliaments 
in  addition  to  that  at  Westminster.  Canada 
has  thus  become  really  a  daughter-nation  of 
Great  Britain.  The  mother-land  leaves 
her  free  to  manage  all  her  own  local  affairs. 

For  fuller  details  concerning  Canada,  her 
educational  equipment  and  natural  re- 
sources, see  ONTARIO,  QUEBEC,  NOVA 
SCOTIA,  NEW  BRUNSWICK,  PRINCE  EDWARD 
ISLAND,  MANITOBA,  ALBERTA,  SASKATCHE- 
WAN, BRITISH  COLUMBIA,  MACKENZIE,  YU- 
KON, UNGAVA,  LABRADOR  and  FRANKLIN. 

Canadian  Northern  Railway,  The.  Its 
main  line  from  Winnipeg  to  Edmonton 
enters  the  province  of  Manitoba  on  the 
east  1 60  miles  north  of  the  boundary, 
running  across  the  province  a  little  north 
of  west  and  crossing  the  Regina-Prince 
Albert  branch  of  the  same  road  at  War- 
man.  It  crosses  the  North  Saskatchewan 
twice  before  leaving  the  province  at  Lloyd- 
minister,  a  noted  English  colony.  The 
Prince  Albert  branch  of  this  railway  is 
further  north,  leaving  Manitoba  at  its 
northwest  corner  and  running  almost  due 
west  to  Prince  Albert.  The  Regina-Prince 


Albert  branch,  recently  acquired  by  this  com- 
pany, runs  from  Regina  in  a  northwesterly 
direction  via  Saskatoon  to  Prince  Albert. 
Canadian    Pacific    Railway,    The, 

crosses  Canada  from  east  to  west.  Its 
completion  saw  the  beginning  of  the  real 
development  of  Canada.  It  enabled  those 
who  lived  in  eastern  Canada  to  realize  that 
our  western  prairies  and  unexplored  north- 
west comprise  a  rich  tract  of  about  600,000 
square  miles.  The  train  of  inflowing  settle- 
ment since  1900  has  become  a  rush.  Each 
year  thousands  of  well-to-do  immigrants 
from  all  lands  reach  this  great  fertile  coun- 
try via  the  C.  P.  R.  Along  its  main  line 
are  rapidly  growing  cities,  and  its  branch 
lines  are  bordered  with  thrifty  and  grow- 
ing settlements.  In  three  provinces  alone 
crossed  by  this  road,  viz.  Manitoba,  Alberta 
and  Saskatchewan,  the  population  has 
grown  from  420,000  in  1901  to  1,322,000  in 
1911.  The  railway  management  is  enter- 
prising and  progressive.  Some  years  ago 
its  directors  decided  to  undertake  the 
irrigation  of  a  tract  30,000,000  acres  in 
extent,  40  miles  wide  and  extending  150 
miles  east  of  Calgary  (Alberta).  Construc- 
tion was  well-begun  in  1904  on  this  work 
which,  when  completed,  will  be  the  largest 
irrigation  system  on  the  American  con- 
tinent. The  settler  pays  50  cents  an  acre 
for  the  water  his  land  requires.  About  one 
third  of  the  work  is  now  satisfactorily  com- 
pleted. Along  the  main  line  of  this  road 
we  reach  North  Bay,  Port  Arthur,  Fort 
William,  Kenora,  Winnipeg,  Brandon,  Port- 
age La  Prairie,  Banff,  Regina,  Kamloops, 
Medicine  Hat  and  Vancouver  and  other 
well-known  prosperous  places. 

The  Canadian  Pacific  also  has  a  magni- 
ficent steamship  service  on  both  oceans 
(Atlantic  and  Pacific).  Its  steamships  on 
the  Montreal- Liverpool  route  are  palatial. 
It  furnishes  a  highway  round  the  world. 

It  has  a  coast  fleet  including  15  vessels 
plying  between  coast  points  from  Victoria, 
Vancouver,  Seattle,  Nanaimo,  Ladysmith, 
Crofton  and  Comox  to  northern  British 
Columbia  and  Alaskan  ports.  Its  royal- 
mail  "Empress"  liners  make  regular  trips 
from  British  Columbia  to  China  and  Japan, 
and  its  Canadian-Australian  boats  serve 
Hawaii,  Fiji,  New  Zealand  and  Australia. 

Canal,  an  artificial  water-course.  Canals 
are  used  principally  for  navigation,  but 
also  for  drainage,  for  irrigation  and  for 
supplying  cities  and  towns  with  water. 

Navigation  canals  are  of  two  kinds:  (a) 
ordinary  canals  which  are  only  a  few  feet 
deep  and  are  traversed  principally  by 
special  canal  boats  and  barges,  and  (b) 
ship  canals  which  admit  sea-going  vessels. 
A  canal  must  be  built  in  a  series  of  level 
stretches.  Where  a  change  of  level  is 
made,  the  boats  are  generally  raised  by 
means  of  locks,  but  sometimes  by  lifts 
and  cars.  Canals  for  inland  navigation 


CANAL 


321 


CANARY  BIRD 


have  been  used  for  many  centuries.  The 
Grand  Canal  of  China  was  built  in  the 
8th  century,  is  650  miles  long  and  is  still 
in  use.  Canal  systems  in  Europe  are  very 
extensive.  In  Russia  the  system  of  canals 
was  started  by  Peter  the  Great,  and  St. 
Petersburg  is  connected  with  the  Caspian 
and  Black  Seas.  Sweden  has  800  miles 
of  canals.  Both  Germany  and  Austria 
have  their  principal  rivers  connected  by 
canals,  and  Austria  has  recently  planned 
a  large  increase  of  its  canals.  The  canals 
of  Holland  are  almost  the  roads  of  the 
country.  In  Great  Britain  there  are  about 
5,000  miles  of  navigable  canals,  so  that 
every  town  in  the  island  is  within  a  few 
miles  of  navigable  water.  The  first  canal 
in  the  United  States  was  built  in  1793 
around  the  falls  of  the  Connecticut  River 
at  South  Hadley,  Mass.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  i gth  century  a  very  extended  sys- 
tem of  canals  was  planned,  but  of  the  5,000 
miles  planned,  less  than  3,000  miles  were 
constructed,  and  many  of  these  have 
since  been  abandoned.  This  is  due  to 
the  building  of  railroads  and  the  great 
reduction  in  the  cost  of  overland  trans- 
portation in  recent  years,  owing  to  im- 
provements in  railroad  service.  Most  en- 
gineers are  agreed  that  the  ordinary  canal 
can  never  be  made  to  compete  with  the 
railroads  in  the  United  States.  Now,  how- 
ever, the  tremendous  growth  of  the  coun- 
try's commerce  has  made  it  absolutely 
indispensable  to  improve  all  our  water- 
ways and  make  new  canals.  The  rail- 
roads cannot  carry  the  freight.  An  un- 
official inland  waterways  commission  ap- 
pointed by  the  government  in  March, 

1907,  has  made  a  careful  study  of  the  rivers 
and  canals  of  the  whole  country.     In  May, 

1908,  the  governors  of  all  the  states  in  the 
Union,     together    with    private     delegates 
from  every  state,  conferred  on  the  subject 
at   Washington  with  the  national  govern- 
ment, and  Congress  is  considering  a  bill  to 
create    an    official   inland   waterways   com- 
mission.    Several  of  the  canals  built  in  the 
early  part  of  the  century  are  noteworthy 
on  account  of  the  effect  they  have  had  on 
trade    relations.     The    principal    of    these 
canals  is  the  Erie  Canal,  built  by  the  state 
of  New  York  and  opened  in  182.5.     It  ex- 
tends from  Buffalo  to  Albany,  connecting  Lake1 
Erie  with  Hudson  River,  a  distance  of  352 
miles.     Originally  it  was  but  four  feet  deep, 
but  the  canal  system  of  the  state  has  been 
extensively  improved  and  the  old  Erie  Canal 
is  now  a  part  of  the  waterway  unofficially 
known  as  the  "Barge  Canal,"  which  accom- 
modates boats  of  1 2 -foot  draft.    Other  notable 
canals  are  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal 
(1824-29)   and  the  Delaware   and   Rantan 
Canal  (1831-34),  which  connect  the  cities  of 
New  York,  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore. 

Ship-canals    are    built     to    connect    two 
bodies  of  water  so   as  to   shorten    routes. 


The  most  notable  of  these  canals  is  the 
Suez  Canal  connecting  the  Mediterranean 
and  Red  Seas.  It  was  opened  in  1869 
and  reduced  the  distance  of  water  trans- 
portation between  Europe  and  India  from 
over  11,000  miles  to  about  7,500  miles, 
and  caused  a  saving  of  36  days  in  the  jour- 
ney. The  canal  is  about  100  miles  long, 
and  had  originally  a  depth  of  26  feet  and  a 
width  at  bottom  of  72  feet.  The  depth 
has  been  increased  to  28  feet  and  the  width 
to  over  200  feet,  so  as  to  accommodate 
the  enormous  traffic.  The  total  cost  of 
the  canal,  including  the  approaches  at 
both  ends,  is  said  to  have  been  $100,000,000. 
Other  notable  ship  canals  are  the  Caledo- 
nian Canal  (a  minor  ship  canal),  the  Corinth 
Canal,  the  Kiel  Canal,  opened  in  1895, 
63  J  miles  long  and  connecting  the  Baltic 
and  North  Seas,  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal, 
the  Panama  Canal  now  under  construc- 
tion to  connect  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Oceans  and  the  Welland,  Huron  and  "Soo" 
Canals,  the  last  of  which  has  more  traffic  in 
seven  months  than  the  Suez  Canal  in  a  year. 

Drainage-canals  are  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  off  the  sewerage  of  cities.  The 
most  notable  of  these  canals  is  the  Chicago 
drainage  canal  connecting  the  Chicago 
River  with  the  Illinois  River  by  the  way  of 
the  Desplaines  River.  The  current  in  the 
Chicago  River  is  thus  turned  backward 
and  300,000  cubic  feet  per  minute  are  thus 
taken  from  Lake  Michigan  and  reach 
finally  the  Mississippi  River  instead  of 
the  St.  Lawrence.  The  cost  of  the  work 
has  been  over  $63,000,000,  and  owing  to 
the  effect  of  the  current  on  navigation  in 
the  Chicago  River,  a  large  additional 
sum  will  have  to  be  expended  to  enlarge 
the  river  channel  to  provide  an  additional 
inlet.  It  has  been  in  the  plans  of  the  con- 
struction of  this  canal  to  make  it  a  ship- 
canal,  so  as  to  connect  Chicago  with  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  for  large  vessels,  and  as 
engineers  who  have  studied  the  problems 
and  prepared  plans  pronounce  the  project 
feasible,  and  the  entire  country  is  enter- 
ing on  an  era  of  building  canals  and  im- 
proving waterways,  it  is  not  improbable 
that  this  will  be  done. 

Canary  Bird,  the  most  common  yellow 
cage-bird,  highly  prized  as  a  singer.  It  is 
one  of  the  finches,  and  is  a  native  of  the 
Canary,  Madeira  and  Cape  Verd  Islands. 
In  the  wild  state  its  plumage  is  gray  or 
greenish  yellow  tinged  with  brown.  The 
yellow  color  of  tame  birds  is  produced  by 
special  breeding.  Mama  Canary  builds  the 
nest  and  hatches  the  babies.  Papa  Canary  does 
most  of  the  work  of  feeding  them.  (Watch 
canaries;  also  robins  and  other  wild  birds.)  Its 
powers  of  imitation  are  great,  and  it  may  be 
taught  various  notes  and  simple  airs.  Excep- 
tionally good  singers  are  kept  by  the  train- 
ers as  instructors  for  the  young  ones.  The 
breeding  and  training  of  this  familiar 


CANARY  ISLANDS 


33* 


CANKERWORM 


bird  of  the  household  are  carried  on  ex- 
tensively in  the  Harz  Mountains  in  Ger- 
many, and  also  in  northern  England, 


THE    CANARY 

Scotland  and  Belgium.  The  Harz  canaries 
are  famous  songsters;  the  Saint  Andreasberg 
birds  are  the  most  choice  of  all  the  canaries. 

Cana'ry  Islands,  a  group  of  islands 
which  form  a  province  of  Spain  in  the  At- 
lantic Ocean,  off.  the  northwest  coast  of 
Africa.  The  group  (usually  called  the 
Canaries)  consists  of  seven  large  and  several 
small  islets,  with  a  joint  area  of  2,807 
square  miles — less  than  a  fourth  of  Mary- 
land— with  a  population  of  419,809.  Lan- 
zarote,  Fuerte- Ventura,  Gran  Canaria,  Ten- 
eriffe,  Gomera,  Palma  and  Hierro  are  the 
main  islands.  The  distance  from  the  near- 
est one,  Fuerte- Ventura,  to  the  African 
coast  is  about  62  £  miles.  The  coasts  are 
steep  and  rocky,  and  mountains  are  scat- 
tered over  the  islands,  the  highest  being 
the  famous  peak  of  Teneriffe,  about  12,182 
feet  in  height.  Cones,  craters,  beds  of 
pumice  and  streams  of  lava  show  that  all 
the  islands  are  volcanic,  though  eruptions 
have  been  known  in  history  in  only  three 
of  them.  There  are  no  rivers,  and  on  sev- 
eral of  the  islands  water,  which  is  supplied 
by  springs,  is  very  scarce.  Over  900 
species  of  wild  flowering  plants  have  been 
found  on  these  islands,  of  which  420  are 
peculiar  to  the  group.  The  lower  lands 
produce  sweet  potatoes,  bananas  and  other 
native  plants  of  hot  climates,  while  above, 
to  the  height  of  about  3,000  feet,  the  vine 
and  various  grains  are  raised.  Some  of 
the  towns  are  becoming  resorts  for  invalids, 
and  the  whole  group  of  islands  is  being 
opened  up.  Harbors  are  being  built, 
where  many  steamers  touch,  and  telegraph 
cables  connect  the  islands  with  Europe  and 
Africa.  The  Canaries  are  believed  to  have 
been  the  Fortunate  Islands  of  the  ancients. 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  knew  their  posi- 
tion; but  for  many  centuries  they  were  lost 
sight  of,  ufttil  in  1334  they  were  redis- 


GENERAL  CANBY 


covered  by  a  French  vessel  which  was 
driven  among  them  by  a  storm.  They 
were  occupied  by  Spain  about  the  open- 
ing of  the  1 5th  century,  and  have  been 
her  possession  ever  since.  The  natural 
products  of  the  islands  are  wine,  sugar,  veg- 
etables and  cochineal.  The  capital  is  Santa 
Cruz  de  Santiago,  a  seaport  on  the  island  of 
Teneriffe;  population  (1900),  38,419. 

Canby,  Edward  Richard  Sprigg,  an 
American  general,  was  born  in  Kentucky, 
in  1819.  A  graduate  of  West  Point,  he 
served  in  the  Flor- 
ida War,  where  he 
was  twice  brev- 
etted  for  gallantry. 
At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War, 
he  was  stationed 
at  Fort  Craig  in 
New  Mexico,  where 
he  displayed  abil- 
ity and  energy  in 
defending  the  fort 
against  the  Texan 
troops.  He  fought 
the  battles  of  Val- 
verde  and  Peralta, 
and  was  made 
brigadier  -  general. 

After  service  in  the  war  department  and 
in  putting  down  the  draft  riots  in  New 
York,  he  was  made  major-general  and  be- 
came commander  of  the  armies  west  of 
the  Mississippi.  In  1865  he  captured 
Mobile.  After  the  close  of  the  war  he 
held  several  important  and  onerous  posi- 
tions, and  in  1869  took  command  of  the 
department  of  the  Columbia  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  While  holding  a  parley  with  the 
Modoc  Indians,  who  were  giving  trouble, 
he  was  treacherously  shot  by  a  chief  called 
Captain  Jack,  April  n,  1873. 
Candahar'.  See  KANDAHAR. 
Candy-Making,  a  large,  varied  and  im- 
portant industry  in  this  and  many  Euro- 
pean countries.  About  the  middle  of  the 
past  century  ^a  great  impetus  was  given 
to  the  trade  in  the  United  States  by  the 
machinery  designed  for  the  manufacture  of 
confectionery  including  the  revolving  steam- 

gan  and  lozenge-making  machines.etc.,  which 
ave  largely  displaced  the  making  of  candy 
by  hand.  As  in  other  branches  of  trade,  that 
of  the  confectioner  and  manufacturer  of 
bonbons,  nougats,  caramels  and  the  myriad 
varieties  of  sweets  has  in  our  modern  day 
come  under  the  influence  of  scientific  methods 
in  the  candy-maker's  factory. 

Cankerworm,  commonly  known  as  inch 
or  measuring  worm,  sometimes  called 
fireworm,  is  a  caterpillar,  that  is  very  de- 
structive to  fruit  and  shade  trees.  An 
army  will  devastate  a  large  grove  in  a  few 
days,  sweeping  ,over  a  locality  like  fire 
and  leaving  ruin  behind.  It  was  to  arrest 
their  work  that  the  English  sparrow  was 


CANNAE 


323 


CANNON 


brought  into  the  country  —  with  the  un- 
fortunate result  familiar  to  all.  There  are 
two  species:  the  fall  cankerworm  (Anisop- 
teryx)  and  the  spring  cankerworm  (Palea- 
crita,  or  A.  vernata).  The  fall  species  lays 
her  eggs  after  the  summer  birds  have 
flown,  and  may  come  forth  on  an  inviting, 
warm  winter  day.  The  spring  species 
lays  her  eggs  early  in  the  spring,  before 
many  of  the  birds  are  back.  The  female 
is  wingless,  and  crawls  up  the  trunk  of  a 
tree  to  deposit  her  eggs  on  bark  or  twigs. 
To  stop  her  progress,  about  the  trunk  of 
the  tree  should  be  fastened  a  band  of  coal- 
tar  mixed  with  oil  or  printer's  ink,  which 
should  be  put  on  very  early  in  spring  and 
moistened  when  dry  in  winter.  The  win- 
ter birds  are  a  valuable  aid  in  keeping 
down  the  cankerworm  pest;  the  chickadee 
is  an  especial  enemy,  eating  immense  num- 
bers of  eggs  and  also  the  female  moths. 
With  the  bursting  of  the  buds  the  eggs 
hatch,  and  when  the  larvae  get  through 
devouring  foliage  they  spin  themselves 
down  to  the  ground,  burrow  into  the  earth 
two  or  three  inches,  there  undergo  trans- 
formation, and  come  forth  as  moths  in 
April,  occasionally  in  March.  See  Hodge : 
Nature  Study  and  Life;  Cragin :  Our  In- 
sect Friends  and  Foes. 

Can'nse  (kdn'-i),  a  town  of  ancient 
Apulia  in  Italy,  on  the  bank  of  the  River 
Aufidus,  now  Ofanto,  famous  as  the  scene 
of  Hannibal's  greatest  victory  over  the 
Romans,  Aug.  2,  216  B.  C.  With  about 
50,000  men  the  Carthaginian  leader  took 
up  his  headquarters  at  Cannae.  The  Roman 
consols,  ^Emilius  Paulus  and  Terentius 
Varro,  at  the  head  of  a  fresh  army  of  86,000 
men  marched  against  him.  The  consuls 
commanded  on  alternate  days,  and  while 
-ffimilius  did  not  wish  to  risk  an  open  bat- 
tle with  the  victorious  enemy,  Varro  on 
his  day  of  command  joined  battle  on  the 
plains  near  the  town.  Hannibal  skillfully 
forced  the  Romans  to  take  up  a  position 
with  their  faces  toward  the  sun  and  toward 
a  fierce  wind  which  blew  the  dust  against 
them.  In  this  plight  he,  with  his  veteran 
troops,  quickly  threw  them  into  confusion, 
almost  surrounded  them,  and  completely 
cut  them  to  pieces.  His  own  loss  was  small, 
^milius  fell  in  battle,  but  Varro  partly 
atoned  for  his  rashness  by  skillfully  con- 
ducting the  retreat  of  the  remnant  of  the 
army  to  Canusium. 

Can'ning,  George,  an  English  states- 
man and  orator,  was  bom  in  London  in 
1770.  At  college  he  showed  ability  as  a 
writer  and  speaker.  He  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1794,  and  his  first  speech  made  a 
marked  impression.  He  also,  in  company 
with  others,  published  the  Anti-Jacobin,  a 
political  newspaper,  in  which  he  wrote  the 
well-known  poem,  The  Needy  Knife-Grinder. 
He  helped  in  the  abolition  of  the  slave- 
trade,  was  treasurer  of  the  navy,  and  twice 


secretary  of  foreign  affairs.  His  career 
as  foreign  secretary  conferred  lasting  benefits 
on  his  country.  He  was  subsequently 
made  prime  minister;  but  his  health  gave 
way,  and  he  died  at  Chiswick  Aug.  8,  1827, 
in  the  same  room  in  which  Fox  had  died  2 1 
years  earlier.  He  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey  near  the  tomb  of  the  older  Pitt. 

Canning  =  Industry.  The  principle  of 
canning  goods  rests  on  the  destruction  of 
the  bacteria  of  decomposition  within  the 
can  and  the  keeping  put  of  air  through 
which  such  bacteria  might  come  in.  The 
purpose  of  canning  was,  in  the  first  place, 
to  preserve  food ;  but  now  it  is  used  largely 
to  save  people  the  trouble  of  cooking  their 
food  themselves.  The  number  of  canning 
factories  is  now  counted  by  the  tens  of 
thousands;  the  number  of  people  directly 
employed  is  probably  near  two  millions. 
These  include  many  children.  The  cen- 
ters of  fish  and  oyster  canning  are  Mary- 
land, Maine,  Washington  and  Alaska. 
Fruit  is  largely  canned  in  New  York,  Illi- 
nois and  Virginia;  beef  in  Chicago  and  St. 
Louis.  The  essential  machinery  of  a  can- 
ning factory  includes  the  heating  apparatus 
for  boiling  and  scalding  the  material  to 
be  canned,  and  for  blanching  the  vege- 
tables; the  exhaust  apparatus  for  taking 
the  air  out  of  the  can  before  sealing;  and 
the  heating  apparatus  for  sealing  the 
openings  by  which  the  air  was  removed. 
These  operations  are  most  profitably  per- 
formed with  the  use  of  a  great  deaf  of 
machinery  to  handle  large  quantities  with 
as  few  workers  as  possible.  Other  ma- 
chinery is  used  for  the  special  kinds  of 
canning.  In  canning  peas,  the  peas  are 
taken  from  the  pods  by  machinery  and 
sorted  into  different  sizes  by  machinery. 
Corn  is  taken  from  the  cob  and  cleaned 
from  the  silk,  etc.,  cooked  and  placed  in 
the  cans,  all  by  machinery.  In  the  case 
of  soups  and  other  liquids  the  cans  are 
dipped  and  filled  by  the  use  of  machinery. 
It  therefore  is  possible  to  attain  to  great  clean- 
liness and  purity  in  the  manufacture  of 
canned  goods,  and  by  an  act  of  Congress, 
passed  in  1906,  it  is  believed  that  a  system 
of  inspection  has  been  established  that 
will  insure  purity  in  all  canned  meats 
manufactured  since  that  time.  The  canning 
industry  has  transformed  our  diet,  mak- 
ing it  possible  to  eat  all  kinds  of  fruit  and 
vegetables  at  all  times  of  the  year  with- 
out destroying  the  flavor  by  the  use  of 
sugar  or  other  preservatives.  The  con- 
densed-milk industry  has  made  it  possible 
to  keep  cows  with  profit  at  a  great  distance 
from  towns,  where  there  are  no  facilities 
for  making  and  selling  butter  or  cheese. 

Cannon  are  arms  or  artillery  that  can- 
not be  fired  by  hand  but  must  be  fired 
from  fixed  rests.  They  were  first  used  in 
the  1 4th  century.  The  first  were  clumsy, 
wider  at  the  mouth  than  the  chamber  and 


CANNON 


324 


CANNON 


made  of  iron  bars  hooped  with  iron  rings. 
The  balls  were  first  stone,  afterwards  iron. 
The  early  cannon  had  various  names,  as 
bombards  or  culverins;  then  they  were 
named  from  the  weight  of  the  ball,  as 
six-pounders;  but  now  they  are  designated 
by  the  diameter  of  the  bore,  as  1 6-inch 
caliber,  or  by  their  weight,  as  a  25-ton  gun. 
After  the  great  wars  of  the  lyth  century  vast 
improvements  were  effected  in  the  manu- 
facture and  use  of  cannon,  but  these  have 
been  superseded  by  those  of  the  igth  cen- 
tury, and  the  last  have  in  turn  seen  them- 
selves replaced  by  extraordinary  improve- 
ments and  inventions. 

The  interior  of  a  cannon  consists  of  the 
vent  or  breach,  the  chamber  and  the  bore. 
The  vent  is  the  channel  by  which  fire  is 
brought  to  the  charge,  the  chamber  is  the 
seat  of  the  charge,  the  bore  is  the  tube 
along  which  the  ball  passes.  A  cannon 
must  fire  accurately,  destructively  and 
rapidly  without  injuring  the  users.  Its 
maker  must  provide  for  the  strains  caused 
by  its  weight  and  for  the  explosion's  ten- 
dency to  tear  the  gun.  (Large,  heavy 
cannon  are  known  simply  as  guns.)  The 
enormously  increased  weight  and  inertia 
of  projectiles  to-day  and  their  swift  rota- 
tion in  rifled  cannon  try  the  gun  so  severely 
that  steel  is  now  used  almost  universally. 
Making  a  cannon  begins  by  a  draughtsman 
making  figures  and  drawings  of  every  size 
and  with  absolute  accuracy.  His  work 
goes  to  a  mill  where  steel-forgings  are 
ready.  The  gun  is  to  consist  of  a  tube,  a 
jacket  over  this  and  rings  around  the 
jacket.  A  huge  forging  is  put  on  a  lathe, 

?erhaps  100  feet  long,  and  the  tube  is 
ored  out,  oiled,  tempered  and  rebored. 
This  time  the  inside  of  the  tube  is  cut 
with  a  spiral  groove,  the  rifling,  which, 
when  the  shell  is  fired,  gives  it  a  rotary 
motion,  increases  its  range,  steadiness 
and  accuracy,  and  keeps  the  point  in  the 
direction  of  flight.  Meanwhile  the  rings 
and  jacket  are  made  in  a  similar  way. 
Putting  these  parts  over  the  tube  com- 
pletes the  gun.  But  all  must  fit  as  tightly 
together  as  if  the  gun  were  one  solid  piece 
of  steel.  This  is  done  by  playing  off  the 
cooling  and  contraction  of  metal  and  its 
heating  and  expansion  against  one  another. 
The  tube  is  kept  cold,  but  the  jacket  is  heated 
a  day  or  two  to  700°.  Then  the  tube  is  stood 
upright,  the  hot  jacket  quickly  slipped  down 
on  the  cold  metal,  and  the  gun  left  to  cool 
two  days  while  the  jacket  shrinks  tight. 
Finally,  the  gun  is  taken  to  a  lathe  again, 
and  here,  while  it  is  in  a  horizontal  position, 
the  hoops  or  rings  are  shrunk  on. 

The  built-up  gun,  as  such  a  cannon  is 
called,  resulted  from  shrinking  a  hoop  over 
the  breech  of  an  American  cannon  used  in 
the  Civil  War.  The  hoop  strengthened 
the  gun  so  much  that  others  were  ordered 
and  the  process  perpetuated.  The  wire- 


wound  gun  is  a  tube  wound  about  with  a 
ribbon  or  thin  band  of  steel  plate,  great 
tension  being  used  while  winding.  As 
ribbons  of  steel  are  much  stronger  than 
large  hoops,  the  wire-wound  cannon  is 
stronger  still  than  the  built-up  cannon. 

Cannon  are  of  various  sorts.  Guns  are 
heavy  cannon  intended  to  throw  solid 
shot  with  large  charges  of  powder,  and  are 
distinguished  from  other  cannon  by  their 
great  weight  and  length  and  by  the  ab- 
sence of  a  chamber.  It  is  replaced  by  a 
breech-block,  a  mechanism  that  carries  the 
charge  into  its  place.  The  Vickers-Maxim 
breech  is  used  in  the  great  cannon  of  the 
American  navy,  and  automatically  ejects 
the  exploded  primer  and  raises  the  new 
load  into  position.  Howitzers  are  light, 
short  cannon  used  in  battles  on  land  to 
throw  shells  into  the  enemy's  ranks  at 
short  distances.  Mortars  are  still  shorter 
cannon  with  a  large  bore,  and  are  used 
to  throw  bombs  or  shells  into  the  air,  so 
that  they  will  fall  into  fortified  places. 
Shell-guns  are  long  [cannon  used  for  shoot- 
ing shells  straight  at  an  object.  Cannon 
are  also  divided  into  smoothbore  and  rifled 
cannon,  though  few  smoothbores  are  now 
in  use.  Cannon  are  made  of  iron,  steel 
and  bronze  or  brass.  Heavy  cannon  are 
now  made  in  a  great  many  different  shapes. 
One  of  the  largest  kinds  now  used  in  the 
forts  of  the  United  States  is  the  Rodman 
gun.  Some  of  these  guns  are  so  large  that 
they  will  carry  a  ball  20  inches  in  diameter. 
The  Armstrong  gun  is  one  of  the  best 
modern  heavy  guns.  It  has  been  made 
as  large  as  13^-inch  caliber.  The  Krupp 
guns  have  become  celebrated  because  of 
their  enormous  size  and  great  durability. 
They  have  been  made  weighing  over 
120,000  pounds.  The  gatling  gun  is  a 
machine-gun,  constructed  with  ten  barrels, 
which  are  revolved  around  an  axis  by  a 
handle.  As  each  barrel  comes  to  a  certain 
point,  a  cartridge  is  pushed  into  it  by  a 
machine  and  fired.  As  many  as  400  shots 
can  be  fired  in  a  minute  and  with  great 
range  and  precision.  Some  of  the  most 
powerful  modern  cannon  are  sighted  for 
8,700  yards,  and  at  that  distance  may  be 
relied  upon  to  strike  an  object  ten  feet 
high.  In  battle,  however,  fire  is  rarely 
opened  at  a  greater  distance  than  3,000 
yards.  Gathmann  and  Zalinski  invented 
pneumatic  guns,  using  compressed  air, 
to  throw  shells  three  miles  that  contained 
100  Ibs.  of  dynamite  or  500  of  guncotton, 
but  they  did  not  succeed  in  real  war. 
Machine-guns  and  revolving  and  siege  cannon 
are  now  the  most  important  kinds  of  cannon. 
The  possibility  of  transporting  the  huge  guns — 
mortars  with  eleven-inch  diameters  firing 
shells  weighing  500  pounds  and  more — was 
first  demonstrated  by  the  Germans  at  the 
siege  of  Liege  and  Antwerp  which  were  soon 
reduced  under  their  terrific  fire.  Owing  to 


CANNON 


325 


CANON 


the  enormous  recoil  of  these  guns  it  is  neces- 
sary to  build  special  concrete  foundations 
before  beginning  operations.  Disappearing 
guns  are  cannon  in  which  the  force  of 
the  recoil  pulls  the  cannon  back,  lowers 
it  into  position  for  reloading  and  then 
returns  it  to  position  for  firing.  Thus 
there  is  perfect  protection  from  the  enemy. 
They  are  an  American  invention  for  use  in 
forts  whose  location  it  is  desired  to  hide,  the 
Buffington-Crozier  being  the  type  most  liked. 
Among  coast  and  field  guns  the  most  effect- 
ive, all-around  cannon  is  the  8-inch  rifle  that 
fires  a  25o-lb.  projectile  about  18  miles  and 
can  discharge  six  aimed  shots  a  minute. 

Cannon,  Joseph  (i.,  was  born  in  Guil- 
ford,  N.  C.,  of  Quaker  parentage,  May  7, 
1836.  His  family  moved  to  Illinois.  Work- 
ing in  a  country  grocery,  he  studied  until 
he  was  prepared  to  pass  the  examination 
which  permitted  him  to  practice  law  in 
that  state.  From  1861  to  1868  he  was 
states-attorney  for  Vermillion  County,  Illi- 
nois, and  was  elected  congressman  for  the 
1 2th  Illinois  district  in  1873.  He  served 
in  Congress  from  1873  to  1891,  and  from 
1893  to  the  present,  failmg  of  election  only 
in  the  year  when  the  whole  country  turned 
to  Cleveland  and  the  Democratic  party.  He 
was  chairman  of  the  committee  on  appro- 
priations, for  the  55th  and  56th  congresses. 
In  1903  he  was  elected  Speaker,  holding  that 
office  until  1911.  He  now  lives  in  Danville, 
Illinois.  His  energy,  which  he  preserves  in 
spite  of  his  age,  his  kindly  nature,  his 
reputation  for  honesty  and  his  inflexible 
opposition  to  extravagance  in  national  ex- 
penditure have  made  him  popular  in  spite 
of  his  aggressive  partisanship  and  his  stern 
insistence  on  order  in  the  House. 

Canoe  (kd-noo'),  originally  a  light,  nar- 
row boat  made  of  the  hollow  stem  of  a 
tree,  or  of  bark,  and  moved  by  paddles. 
Those  hollowed  out  of  a  tree-trunk  are 
called  dugouts.  The  American  birch-bark 
canoe  is  light  and  frail-looking,  but  very 
useful.  In  building  it,  a  skeleton  is  first 
made  of  light  wood,  the  casing  of  birch-bark 
is  put  on  crosswise,  and  the  strips  sewn  to- 
gether with  the  fibrous  roots  of  fir  trees, 
while  the  seams  are  dressed  with  gum.  It 
has  no  keel  and  neither  stem  nor  stern, 
but  runs  to  a  point  at  either  end;  and 
neither  nails  nor  pegs  are  used  in  building 
it.  The  birch-bark  canoes  of  South  America 
and  the  native  Australian  gum-tree  bark 
canoe  are  made  of  one  piece  of  bark.  Esqui- 
maux canoes  are  generally  made  of  seal  or 
walrus  skin,  stretched  over  whalebone;  and 
some  Labrador  canoes  have  a  round  hole 
or  well  in  the  center  for  the  canoeist,  and 
are  light  enough  to  be  carried  on  the  head. 
Many  of  the  Polynesian  canoes  are  hollowed 
out  of  a  single  log;  while  others  are  made 
of  planks  cunningly  fastened  together.  The 
largest  Fiji  canoes  are  100  feet  long,  and 


double  ones,  70  feet  in  length,  can  carry 
from  40  to  50  persons.  Mr.  Stanley  on  the 
Congo  met  a  war-canoe  with  40  men  row- 
ing on  each  side  and  ten  in  the  bow,  while 
eight  men  guided  at  the  stern  with  ivory- 
tipped  paddles.  Canoes  on  the  African 
inland  lakes  are  sometimes  made  of  reeds. 
The  canoe  has  within  recent  years  become 
popular  in  Europe  and  America  as  a  pleasure 
boat.  It  is  made  of  various  materials,  of 
tin,  paper,  India  rubber,  wood  or  canvas. 
The  American  Canoe  Club  has  over  5,000 
members.  The  American  Canoeist  is  a  mag- 
azine devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  sport. 
Canon  (kan'yiin),  a  Spanish  word  mean- 
ing a  tube  or  pipe,  now  in  common  use  for 
a  deep  ravine  or  gorge  worn  by  running 
water.  Canons  are  very  numerous  in  North 
America.  In  many  parts  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  the  streams  have  worked  their 
way  down  through  hundreds  and,  in  some 


MARBLE    CANON,    COLORADO   RIVER 

places,  even  thousands  of  feet.  These  can- 
ons are  of  wonderful  depth  and  size  on 
the  Colorado  River,  over  the  west  slope  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  For  300  miles  there 
is  a  nearly  continuous  canon,  from  4,000  to 
7,000  feet  deep.  The  rocks  rear  them- 
selves in  nearly  vertical  precipices  on  either 
side  of  the  stream.  In  large  parts  of  the 
canon  are  numberless  peaks  and  temple- 
shaped  summits,  and  above  the  walls  of 
the  canon  rise  plateaus  and  mountains  piled 
up  sometimes  to  an  added  height  of  5,000  to 
7,000  feet.  In  the  interior  of  New  York,  near 


CANOSSA 


326 


CANTERBURY  CATHEDRAL 


the  headwaters  of  Seneca  Lake,  are  several 
remarkable  canons,  of  which  the  most  noted 
is  that  at  Watkins,  known  as  Watkins  Glen. 

Canossa  (kd-nos'sa),  a  small  town  in 
Italy,  near  Modena,  is  famous  for  its 
ruined  castle,  once  the  scene  of  the  most 
dramatic  incident,  perhaps,  in  all  history. 
For  centuries  the  German  emperors,  who 
were  regarded  as  the  divinely  chosen  suc- 
cessors of  the  ancient  Roman  Caesars,  con- 
tested with  the  papacy  for  the  mastery  of 
the  western  world.  It  was  held  by  both 
the  popes  and  emperors  that  Christendom, 
was  divinely  ordained  to  be  one  indivisible 
empire,  which  they  called  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire,  and  that  the  kings  of  the  nations 
were  no  more  than  their  feudal  vassals.  It 
was  admitted  in  theory  that  the  pope  was 
the  spiritual  head  of  this  empire,  and  the 
emperor  its  lay  or  secular  or  temporal  head. 
But  during  centuries  the  rivalry  of  popes 
and  emperors  became  from  time  to  time 
the  signal  for  war.  The  last  resort  of  the 
papacy  was  to  excommunicate  an  emperor 
and,  in  so  doing,  to  array  his  own  vassals 
against  him.  Partly  by  this  means  in  1077 
Pope  Gregory  VII,  known  as  Hildebrand, 
forced  the  German  Emperor,  Henry  IV,  to 
stand  before  the  castle  of  Canossa  during 
three  days  as  a  penitent,  barefoot  in  the 
snow  and  clad  only  in  a  woolen  shirt.  This 
was  an  admission  of  the  supreme  power  of 
the  papacy  which  was  never  forgotten. 
Although  Henry  VI  himself  and,  after  him, 
other  emperors  resumed  the  ancient  strife, 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire  became  in  the 
fourteenth  century  little  more  than  an  idea 
and  a  name.  See  Bryce :  Holy  Roman  Empire; 
and  Tout :  The  Empire  and  the  Papacy. 

Canova  (ka-nd'va),  Antonio,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  was  born  in  1757,  at  Possagno,  a 
village  in  Venetian  territory.  In  boyhood 
he  showed  great  talent  in  modeling,  and 
spent  many  years  in  studying  his  art.  His 
genius  made  him  popular  among  his  country- 
men, and  he  was  received  with  honor  in 
many  parts  of  Europe.  He  was  made  a 
marquis  and  given  a  pension.  Among  his 
earlier  works,  Theseus  with  the  Minotaur 
established  his  reputation;  and  Cupid  and 
Psyche,  Venus  and  Adonis,  Penitent  Mag- 
dalen, Palamedes  and  Perseus  with  the  Head 
of  Medusa  are  celebrated  works.  He 
modeled  a  number  of  statues  and  busts. 
Among  his  later  works  was  a  colossal  statue 
of  Washington,  in  a  sitting  attitude,  which 
was  bought  I~*T  the  state  house  in  Raleigh, 
North  Carolina,  but  was  destroyed  by  fire 
in  1831.  Canova  made  a  large  fortune, 
which  was  almost  entirely  expended  in 
works  of  charity.  He  was  especially  liberal 
to  artists,  and  endowed  all  the  academies 
in  Rome.  He  died  in  1822. 

Canrobert  (kdn'rd'b&r1),  Marshal  Fran- 
^ois  Certain,  a  French  general  and  senator, 
been  in  1809,  and  died  m  1895.  He  held  a 
command  in  the  Crimean  War,  under 


Marshal  St.  Armand;  but,  disagreeing  with 
the  British  allies,  he  was  superseded  by 
General  Pelissier.  In  1 8  59  he  took  part  in  the 
war  with  Italy,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
Magenta  and  Solferino.  In  1870,  in  the  Fran- 
co-German war,  he  and  his  force  were  shut 
up  in  Metz  and  had  to  capitulate.  In  later 
life  he  was  a  member  of  the  French  senate. 

Can'teen,  The  Army.  A  canteen  is  liter- 
ally a  soldier's  drinking  cup;  the  term  is 
applied  to  a  shop  under  the  control  of  the 
military  authorities  where  refreshments  are 
sold  and  amusements  afforded  the  soldiers. 
The  refreshments  have  in  practically  all 
cases  consisted  largely  of  alcoholic  beverages. 
In  the  American  army  the  canteen  or  post 
exchange  had  for  many  years  supplied  the 
troops,  at  reasonable  price,  with  such  arti- 
cles, the  articles  of  ordinary  use,  wear  and 
consumption,  as  were  not  supplied  by  the 
government,  and  afforded  them  "means  of 
rational  recreation  and  amusement,  suitable 
to  their  station  in  life,  which,  if  denied,  they 
would  seek  outside  the  limits  of  the  camp." 
"  Every  enlisted  man  is  a  stockholder  in  it.' ' 
In  practice  the  profits  were  derived  largely 
from  the  sale  of  beer  and  light  wines.  In 
1901  the  Women's  Christian  Temperance 
Union  and  other  advocates  of  total  absti- 
nence secured  the  passage  by  Congress  of  a 
law  prohibiting  the  sale  of  intoxicating 
drinks  in  any  post-exchange  or  canteen  or 
army  transport.  As  a  consequence  most  of 
the  army-canteens  were  closed,  apparently  for 
the  reason  that  without  the  profits  on  the  sale 
of  beer  and  wine  they  could  not  be  operated. 
Congress  therefore  in  1902  and  again  in  1903 
voted  $500,000  in  aid  of  such  canteens.  But 
the  army  has  not,  it  seems,  to  any  consider- 
able extent  availed  itself  of  this  provision. 

Canterbury  Cathedral,  one  of  the  finest 
cathedrals  of  England,  stands  in  the  city  of 
Canterbury,  fifty-six  miles  southeast  of  Lon- 
don. The  occupant  of  the  episcopal  see  of 
Canterbury  is  primate  of  all  England.  The 
foundation  of  the  cathedral  dates  back  to  the 
year  596,  when  St.  Augustine  consecrated 
there  an  old  Roman  Christian  church  under 
the  name  of  Christ's  church.  It  was  burned 
in  1067  and  again  in  1174,  and  finally  in  1872 
was  damaged  by  fire.  During  its  long  exist- 
ence, it  has  been  altered,  beautified  and  en- 
larged. The  length  of  the  building  is  532  feet 
and  its  greatest  breadth  154  feet.  The  great 
tower,  230  feet  high,  is  of  remarkable  beauty. 
The  stained-glass  windows  are  of  the  richest 
colors,  and  the  crypts  or  chambers  beneath 
are  the  finest  in  England  and  contain  several 
chapels.  Before  the  high  altar  the  famous 
archbishop,  Thomas  a  Becket,  was  murdered 
in  1170.  About  the  year  1500  the  yearly 
offerings  at  his  shrine  amounted  to  $20,000, 
and  when  the  shrine  was  torn  down  in  the 
1 6th  century  its  treasures  filled  twenty-six 
carts.  The  stone  steps  leading  to  it  wer« 
worn  by  the  knees  of  countless  pilgrims. 
There  are  many  monuments  in  the  cathedral. 


CANTON 


327 


CANUTE 


including  those  to  the  memory  of  Henry  IV 
and  the  Black  Prince.  Near  by  is  Kings' 
School,  founded  by  Henry  VIII,  where 
David  Copperfield,  of  Dickens'  creation, 
went  to  school. 

Can'ton,  called  also  Yang-Ching,  "  the  city 
of  rams,' '  a  large  city  in  the  south  of  China 
and  capital  of  the  province  of  Kwang-Tung, 
lies  on  the  bank  of  the  Shu-Kiang  or  Pearl 
River.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  walls  from 
twenty-five  to  forty  feet  high,  twenty  feet 
thick  and  six  miles  around.  A  wall  running 
east  and  west  divides  it  into  the  old  and  the 
new  city.  There  are  many  gates  shut  and 
guarded  by  night,  named  Peace  Gate,  Eter- 
nal Rest  Gate,  etc.  Across  the  river  are  the 
hongs  or  European  quarter,  separated  from 
the  river  by  a  quay,  100  yards  wide.  There 
are  more  than  600  streets,  generally  less  than 
eight  feet  wide  and  very  crooked.  Ancient 
barricades  inclose  each  street,  and  in  the  prin- 
cipal streets  night  watchmen  in  watchtowers. 


CANTON 

AND 

HONG  KONG 


proclaim  the  hours  and  sound  fire-alarms, 
Property  is  so  insecure  that  every  shop  which 
contains  anything  valuable  must  be  barri- 
caded at  dusk,  so  that  it  can  stand  a  siege, 
and  all  business  must  cease  at  sunset.  There 
are  two  pagodas,  one  erected  ten  centuries 
ago,  the  other  over  thirteen  centuries  ago. 
and  nearly  150  other  temples  or  joss-houses 
One  of  the  largest  temples  covers  with  its 
grounds  seven  acres  and  has  175  priests 
attached,  and  the  temple  of  "Filial  Duty" 
has  200  priests.  The  priests  and  nuns  to- 
gether in  Canton  number  over  2,000,  most  of 
them  being  Buddhists.  The  "  Templejof  Five 
Hundred  Genii"  has  500  statues  in  honor  of 
the  Buddha  and  his  disciples.  Examination 
Hall  covers  sixteen  acres,  and  has  8,653  cells. 
Nearly  half  the  craft  on  the  river  are  utilized 
as  fixed  residences,  with  a  floating  population 
estimated  at  200,000.  Tea,  silk,  sugar  and 
cassia  are  the  chief  articles  of  export,  and  the 
chief  imports  are  cotton,  wool,  metal  goods, 
food  stuns,  opium,  kerosene,  etc.  Over  3,000 
ships  enter  and  clear  the  port  yearly.  Can- 
ton has  long  been  a  favorite  port  with  foreign 


merchants.  Its  earliest  annals  date  back  to 
200  B.  C.  In  700  A.  D  a  regular  market 
was  opened  and  a  collector  of  customs  ap- 
pointed, and  200  years  later  the  Arabs  made 
regular  voyages  thither.  The  Portuguese 
found  their  way  to  it  in  the  1 5th  century,  and 
the  Dutch  100  years  later.  These  in  turn 
were  overtaken  and  overthrown  by  the  Eng- 
lish before  the  close  of  the  i7th  century,  and 
an  immense  trade  was  carried  on  by  the 
agents  of  the  East  India  Company.  The 
city  was  captured  by  French  and  English 
forces  in  1857,  and  was  garrisoned  by  them 
until  1861.  The  exports  of  Canton  (chiefly 
of  tea,  silk  and  sugar)  were  valued  in  IQOS 
at  37  million  taels.  (The  tael  is  about  $i  .40.) 
Estimated  population,  about  one  million. 

Canton,  the  county  seat  of  Stark  Coun+y, 
Ohio,  is  1 02  miles  west-northwest  of  Pitts- 
burg,  54  south-southeast  of  Cleveland.  It 
has  three  railroads,  the  Pittsburg,  Ft.  Wayne 
&  Chicago;  Wheeling  &  Lake  Erie;  and 
Cleveland  Terminal  &  Valley.  It  is  situ- 
ated in  the  center  of  a  rich  farming  country, 
and  is  surrounded  by  rich  deposits  of  coal 
and  limestone.  It  has  a  number  of  important 
manufacturing  concerns,  including  Aultman 
&  Co.,  manufacturers  of  farm  implements, 
Canton  Rolling  Mill,  Canton  Steel  Company, 
American  Bridge  Company,  Harvard  Dental 
Chair  Company,  Gould  Dental  Chair  Com- 
pany and  Dueber-Hampden  Watch  and  Case 
Company.  It  contains  two  parks  and  is  con- 
nected by  electric  railway  with  a  beautiful 
lake  resort.  It  has  three  daily  and  four 
weekly  newspapers;  twenty-three  churches; 
ten  banks;  a  hospital;  eighteen  school  build- 
ings, with  7,200  school-children  enrolled. 
President  McKinley's  home  was  at  Canton. 

Its  large  manufacturing  interests  have  been 
chiefly  instrumental  in  its  rapid  growth  from 
a  town  of  less  than  10,000  in  1870,  to  a  city  of 
65,000,  at  the  present  time. 

Canute  (kd-nu?)  or  Cnut,  called  the 
Great,  king  of  the  English,  Danes  and  Nor- 
wegians, was  born  about  994.  His  father, 
Sweyn,  king  of  Denmark,  died  in  the  midst 
of  his  conquests  in  England,  and  Canute  im- 
mediately began  a  struggle  for  the  English 
throne.  He  landed  with  a  powerful  force  and 
soon  overran  a  large  part  of  England.  The 
struggle  ended  by  the  division  of  the  country 
between  Car-ute  and  the  Saxon,  Edmund 
Ironside,  while  the  death  of  Edmund  in  1017 
gave  the  whole  kingdom  to  the  young  Danish 
conqueror.  He  put  to  death  some  of  the 
more  powerful  English  nobles,  but  from  this 
time  onward,  until  his  death  in  1035,  his 
character  seems  to  have  been  completely 
changed.  At  once  he  laid  aside  his  ruthless, 
revengeful  temper  to  become  a  wise,  temper- 
ate, devout  and  law-abiding  ruler.  He  made 
a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  and  wrote  back  a 
letter  to  his  subjects  which  shows  the  noble 
simplicity  of  his  character  and  the  high  idea 
he  had  formed  of  the  duty  of  a  king.  The 
death  of  his  elder  brother  brought  him  the 


CANVASBACK 


328 


CAPE  COLONY 


throne  of  Denmark,  and  that  of  Norway  soon 
followed.  Canute  gave  England  eighteen 
years  of  peace  and  order,  but  at  his  death 
his  kingdom  fell  to  pieces,  as  it  had  depended 
upon  his  own  personal  greatness.  A  story  is 
told  of  how  this  monarch  rebuked  the  flattery 
of  his  courtiers,  who  had  said  that  all  things 
were  possible  to  him.  He  had  his  chair 
placed  on  the  seashore  while  the  tide  was 
rising,  and  when  the  water  came  near  him, 
he  ordered  it  to  go  back  and  not  to  wet  him 
who  was  lord  of  the  sea.  But  the  water  soon 
wet  his  feet,  and  turning  to  his  courtiers,  he 
said:  "Let  all  men  know  how  empty  and 
worthless  is  the  power  of  kings ;  for  there  is 
none  worthy  of  the  name  but  Him  whom 
heaven,  earth  and  sea  obey." ' 

Canvasback  (Ay  thy  a  Vallisneria),  a 
North  American  freshwater  duck,  exten- 
sively found  in  marsh  lands  and  river  flats, 
where  it  can  obtain  its  favorite  food,  the 
roots  of  the  wild  celery  plant.  It  is  largely 
found  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  and  around  the  shores  of 
Lake  Huron  and  Lake  Erie.  Its  breeding 
grounds  are  the  far  north,  whence  it  comes 
southward  late  in  autumn,  and  affords  good 
game  for  the  gunning  sportsman,  for  it  is 
expert  in  diving  and  rapid  in  its  flight  when 
pursued  and  shot  at.  A  related  bird  is  the 
redhead,  often  mistaken  for  the  canvasback, 
though  its  plumage  is  brighter  in  color  and 
it  has  not  the  latter's  fondness  for  a  celery 
diet.  In  length  the  canvasback  is  usually 
about  20  inches,  with  a  blue-colored  bill, 
the  male  bird  having  a  reddish  head,  modi- 
fied by  dusky  tints,  with  a  dotted  and  lined 
coarse  canvas-like  back  and  sides.  See  DUCK. 

Cape  Breton  (brtt'un),  a  rocky  island  in 
the  shape  of  a  triangle,  in  the  Canadian 
Dominion,  at  the  eastern  end  of  Nova  Scotia, 
and  forming  part  of  that  province, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Gut  of 
Canso,  one  mile  broad.  Its  greatest  length  is 
too  miles,  its  width  85  miles  and  its  area 
3,120  square  miles.  The  coast  is  indented 
with  bays.  The  Bras  d'Or,  an  inlet  on  the 
east,  forms  a  lake  50  miles  long  and  20  broad, 
so  that  most  of  the  interior  can  be  reached 
by  water.  This  lake  is  now  continued  by  a 
ship  canal  to  St.  Peter's  Bay,  on  the  south 
coast,  dividing  the  island  into  two  parts.  The 
main  exports  are  timber,  fish,  iron  ore  and 
coal,  and  the  soil  yields  grains.  At  first  held 
by  the  French,  Cape  Breton  was  taken  by  the 
English  in  1745,  and  in  1820  became  part  of 
Nova  Scotia.  The  towns  are  Sydney,  North 
Sydney  and  Port  Hood.  The  once  famous 
Louisbourg  'is  now  a  mere  village.  Cape 
Breton  sends  two  members  to  the  Nova 
Scotian  legislature.  Its  exports  consist  of 
coal,  timber  (pine  and  oak)  and  fish.  Pop- 
ulation of  the  whole  island,  including  the 
district  of  Cape  Breton,  Inverness,  Rich- 
mond and  Victoria,  97,605. 

Cape  Cod,  a  sandy  peninsula  reaching  into 
the  Atlantic,  and  forming  the  southeastern 


extremity  of  Massachusetts.  In  form  some- 
what like  the  letter  L,  it  is  about  65  miles  in 
length.  There  are  many  lighthouses  upon 
the  cape.  On  the  northern  end,  called  Race 
Point,  is  a  revolving  light,  155  feet  above  the 
sea.  At  the  head  of  the  cape  are  forests  of 
pitch-pine  and  oak  trees.  The  numerous 
pays  furnish  many  harbors,  where  are  thriv- 
ing villages  which  are  nurseries  of  seamen. 
Cape  Cod  was  discovered  May  15,  1602,  by 
Bartholomew  Gosnold,  who  gave  it  its  name 
from  the  quantity  of  codfish  taken  off  its 
shores.  On  November  9,  1620,  the  Mayflower 
arrived  at  its  coast,  and  the  next  day  cast 
anchor  in  its  harbor  of  Provincetown.  Here 
was  formed  the  famous  compact  which  gave 
a  government  to  the  new  colony.  Bancroft 
called  it  the  first  of  written  constitutions. 
It,  like  our  national  constitution,  was  the 
creation  of  the  people  itself. 

Cape  Colony  or  Colony  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  is  a  British  possession  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  Africa.  It  includes, 
East  Griqualand,  Bechuanaland  and  adja- 
cent native  territories,  which  have  an  area 
of  276,995  square  miles.  The  area  of  the 
whole  of  British  South  Africa  (including  the 
now  reannexed  Transvaal  and  the  Orange 
River  Colony)  together  with  Bechuanaland, 
Natal,  Cape  Colony  and  Rhodesia  is  esti- 
mated at  603,337  square  miles. 

Surface — Drainage.  It  has  few  navigable 
rivers  or  good  ports.  The  principal  harbor  is 
Table  Bay.  Running  parallel  to  the  coast 
line  and  at  an  average  distance  from  it  of 
about  150  miles  there  is  a  range  of  moun- 
tains, forming  the  watershed  of  the  country 
and  known  by  various  names  as  it  stretches 
across  the  continent — Stormberg,  Sneeuberg, 
Roggeveld  Mountains.  The  eastern  part  of 
the  colony  is  fairly  well  wooded  and  watered, 
and  presents  much  beautiful  scenery;  the 
western  part  is  covered  with  the  karroo 
bush,  which  supports  the  large  sheep  farms. 

Climate — Irrigation.  The  climate  is  one  of 
the  finest  in  the  world,  well  suited  to  Euro- 
peans, and  the  Cape  has  long  been  known  as 
a  health  resort.  The  scanty  rainfall  makes 
irrigation  necessary.  One  vast  reservoir,  the 
largest  in  South  Africa,  draining  460  square 
miles,  holds  35,000,000,000,000  gallons,  and 
the  extent  of  water  surface  is  19  square  miles, 
with  an  average  depth  of  ten  feet.  The  cli- 
mate and  soil  of  the  country  are  suited  to 
the  culture  of  vines,  and  in  the  southwestern 
part  the  vines  produce  heavier  crops  than 
are  known  almost  anywhere  else  in  the 
world.  Dagga  or  wild  hemp  was  smoked  by 
the  natives  before  tobacco  was  introduced, 
which  is  now  widely  grown. 

Animals — Flora.  The  native  animals  were 
once  numerous  and  varied,  but  are  now 
nearly  extinct.  There  still  are  a  few  ele* 
phants  and  buffaloes,  and  the  beautiful 
springbok  and  smaller  antelopes  are  still 
found,  with  baboons,  monkeys,  wildcats, 
porcupines,  leopards,  jackals  and  ant-eaters. 


CAPE  HATTERAS 


329 


CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE 


Among  birds  the  secretary-bird,  honey -bird 
and  weaver-bird  are  peculiar.  The  iguana, 
cobra,  puff-adder  and  other  snakes  abound, 
and  the  white  ant  covers  the  face  of  the  land 
with  its  habitations,  from  two  to  four  feet  in 
height.  It  is  probable  that  no  single  country 
has  contributed  so  largely  to  the  world's  con- 
servatories and  botanical  gardens  as  the  Cape. 

Natural  Resources.  Diamonds  have  been 
extensively  found  in  the  colony;  while  in 
Transvaal,  at  Johannesburg,  not  far  from 
Kimberley,  are  the  rich  gold  fields  of  the 
Rand.  The  Kimberley  mine,  the  richest  dia- 
mond-mine in  the  world,  covers  about 
twenty-five  or  thirty  acres  and  has  been 
sunk  to  a  depth  of  over  600  feet.  This  mine, 
with  three  others,  forming  a  circle  of  three 
and  one-half  miles  in  diameter,  forms  what 
is  sometimes  called  the  diamond  fields.  The 
finest  diamond,  the  Porter- Rhodes  diamond, 
was  found  in  1880,  and  is  valued  at  $300,000. 
A  yellow  diamond,  42 8 J  carats,  as  large  as 
a  hen's  egg  and  said  to  be  then  the  largest 
diamond  in  the  world,  was  found  in  1888. 
The  largest  yield  from  these  famous  diamond 
mines  in  any  one  year  was  in  1905,  the  value 
being  over  $32,000,000.  Gold,  copper,  coal, 
iron  and  salt  are  found,  besides  valuable 
stones,  such  as  garnets,  agates  and  jaspers. 

Exports  and  Industries.  The  principal  ex- 
ports are  gold,  diamonds,  wine,  wool,  ostrich 
feathers,  Angora  hair,  copper-ore  and  hides; 
the  chief  imports  are  cloths  and  dress  goods, 
iron,  leather  manufactures,  machinery,  rail- 
way supplies  and  food  and  drink.  More  than 
three  quarters  of  the  trade  is  done  with 
Great  Britain  and  the  British  possessions. 
Besides  the  diamond-mines,  the  colony  has 
many  flour  and  saw  mills,  tanneries,  brew- 
eries, tobacco  factories  and  coach-building 
works.  In  1904  there  were  2,527  industrial 
establishments ,  employing  30,318  hands ,  with 
machinery  and  plant  valued  at  more  than 
ten  million  dollars. 

Education.  Education  has  not  been  made 
compulsory,  and  of  the  white  population  in 
1904,  twenty-two  per  cent  could  not  read 
or  write.  There  are  a  university  and  seven 
colleges  in  the  colony,  and  143  public  libra- 
ries with  a  total  of  nearly  500,000  volumes. 
Private  schools,  generally  under  religious 
auspices,  are  aided  by  the  government,  the 
amount  expended  on  education  in  1904-5 
reaching  £447,796. 

Internal  Improvements.  Over  3,180  miles 
of  good  roads  and  over  3,300  miles  of  rail- 
roads have  been  built  throughout  the  colony. 
Four  large  bridges  span  Orange  River,  and 
two  others  cross  the  Kei  and  Vaal  Rivers. 
Almost  every  town  is  in  communication  with 
Cape  Town  by  telegraph,  and  there  are 
nearly  1,100  postoffices. 

Cities.  The  chief  towns,  with  the  inhabi- 
tants PS  estimated  by  the  1911  census,  are 
Cape  Town,  67,000;  Cape  Town  and  its 
suburbs,  169,641;  Kimberly,  34,260;  Port 
Elizabeth,  32,921;  Graham's  Town,  13,877; 


Beaconsfield,  14,000;  Paarl,  11,28  King 
William's  Town,  9,500;  East  London,  24,054; 
Graff -Reinet,  10,072;  Worcester,  8,087; 
Uitenhafe,  12,199;  Cradock,  7,762. 

Government  and  History.  The  executive  is 
vested  in  a  governor,  appointed  by  the 
British  crown,  with  a  legislative  council  and 
a  house  of  assembly.  In  the  Cape  parliament 
speeches  may  be  made  both  in  English  and 
in  Dutch.  There  is  a  university  at  Cape 
Town,  but  no  state-church.  The  capital  is 
Cape  Town;  population,  with  suburbs,  169, 
641.  In  1652  the  Dutch  East  India  Com- 
pany took  possession  of  the  Cape  and  held  it 
until  it  was  turned  over  to  the  English  in 
1814.  Its  real  growth  dates  from  the  British 
occupation.  Since  that  time  the  establish- 
ment of  responsible  government  in  1872,  the 
emancipation  of  the  slaves  in  1838  and  the 
Kafir  and  Boer  wars  have  been  the  main 
events  in  the  history  of  the  colony.  Popula- 
tion, 2,698,980,  of  which  2,028,104  are  na- 
tives and  the  remainder  whites.  Unlike  the 
aborigines  of  other  parts  of  the  world,  the 
natives  are  constantly  increasing.  See  BOER 
WAR  for  late  history. 

Cape  Hat'teras,  the  most  easterly  point 
of  North  Carolina,  separated  from  the  main- 
land by  Pamlico  Sound.  South  of  Delaware 
no  land  stretches  so  far  into  the  Atlantic  as 
does  Cape  Hatteras.  Nor  is  any  point  on  the 
coast  more  noted  for  its  frequent  and  dan- 
gerous storms.  The  Gulf  Stream  flows  within 
twenty  miles  of  it.  There  is  a  lighthouse  one 
and  one  fourth  miles  from  theoutermost  point. 

Cape  Horn,  the  headland  of  an  island  in 
the  Fuegian  archipelago,  commonly  regarded 
as  the  southern  extremity  of  America.  It  is 
a  steep,  black  rock  with  bare  and  lofty  sides. 
It  was  probably  first  discovered  by  Sir 
Francis  Drake,  in  1578;  but  it  was  first 
doubled  by  the  Dutch  navigators  Lemaire 
and  Schouten  in  1616,  the  latter  of  whom 
named  it  after  his  native  town  of  Hoorn. 
The  cape  is  no  longer  rounded  by  steamers, 
which  now  always  pass  through  the  Strait 
of  Magellan. 

Cape  May,  a  town  occupying  a  point  of 
land  of  the  same  name  at  the  southern  end 
of  New  Jersey  at  the  entrance  of  Delaware 
Bay.  It  is  a  noted  summer  resort,  the  favor- 
ite watering-place  for  Philadelphians.  It  is 
connected  with  Philadelphia  by  the  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Philadelphia  &  Reading  railroads, 
and  in  summer  by  several  lines  of  steamers. 
The  beach  is  over  five  miles  long,  and  affords 
splendid  drives.  Population,  2,471. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  a  point  commonly 
called  the  most  southerly  promontory  of 
Africa,  is  really  a  little  north  of  Cape  Agul- 
has.  It  forms  the  turning  point  from  south 
to  east  on  the  voyage  from  Europe  to  India. 
The  cape  is  formed  by  the  extremity  of 
Table  Mountain,  which,  as  it  recedes,  rises 
from  a  height  of  1,000  feet  above  the  sea  to 
3,582  feet.  It  was  discovered  and  doubled 
by  Diaz,  a  Portuguese  navigator,  as  early  as 


CAPE  TOWN 


CAPILLARITY  IN  SOILS 


1486,  when  he  was  aiming  to  reach  India,  as 
Columbus  by  another  route  was  aiming,  six 
years  later,  to  reach  the  same  country.  Be- 
cause of  the  dangers  he  had  passed  through, 
he  named  it  the  Cape  of  All  the  Storms,  but 
John  II  of  Portugal  renamed  it  Cape  of  Good 


Hope.  In  1497  Vasco  da  Gama  rounded  it 
on  his  adventurous  voyage  from  Lisbon  to 
Calicut.  The  result  of  the  discovery  of  the 
route  by  the  cape  was  not  only  to  open  a  new 
channel  for  the  traffic  of  the  east,  but  also 
to  remove  the  supremacy  of  trade  from  the 
republics  of  Italy  to  the  states  of  western 
Europe. 

Cape  Town,  the  capital  of  Cape  Colony, 
lies  at  the  head  of  Table  Bay,  thirty  miles 
north  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  a  south- 
western extremity  of  Africa.  It  was  founded 
in  1652  by  the  Dutch,  and  at  first  consisted 
of  a  few  houses  under  the  shelter  of  a  fort. 
In  1806  it  was  occupied  by  the  British.  The 
houses  of  old  Cape  Town  are  mostly  flat- 
roofed,  oblong  and  whitewashed.  A  few 
church-towers  and  an  occasional  factory  or 
mill-chimney  break  the  monotony.  Govern- 
ment house,  the  new  and  handsome  houses 
of  Parliament,  the  public  library  and  museum, 
the  fine-arts  gallery,  the  railroad  station,  the 
old  Town  House  and  the  old  castle  are  the 
chief  buildings,  together  with  several  banks, 
the  buildings  of  the  Supreme  Court,  an  ob- 
servatory, a  cathedral,  four  or  five  colleges 
and  an  examining  university  without  attached 
teaching  institutions.  The  see-houses  of  the 
Anglican  and  Roman  Catholic  bishops  are 
also  here.  There  are  many  modern  city 
improvements,  such  as  water-works,  gas, 
street- railroads.  The  breakwater  and  docks 
have  given  increased  facilities  to  the  ship- 
ping. The  population  of  Cape  Town  proper 
is  67,000;  including  its  suburbs,  169,641.  See 
CAPE  COLONY  and  CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE 


Cape-to-Ca!ro  Railway.  This  great  rail- 
way enterprise,  in  large  measure  due  to  the 
bequest  left  in  the  will  of  the  late  Alfred 
Beit,  which  is  to  connect  Cape  Town  with 
Cairo  through  the  whole  length  of  the  east- 
ern regions  of  the  continent  of  Africa,  has 
of  late  been  much  advanced.  Already  the 
road  now  runs  from  Cape  Town  northward 
far  beyond  Broken  Hill  near  the  Zambezi 
River,  a  distance  of  over  2,100  miles,  while 
the  surveys  have  been  completed  as  far  as 
Lake  Tanganyika  and  the  southern  frontiers 
of  the  Congo  Free  State.  It  is  then  pro- 
jected northward  past  Lake  Victoria  into 
British  East  Africa;  thence  it  will  proceed 
to  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan;  and  it  will 
connect  at  Khartum  with  the  Sudan  military 
railway  now  open  to  Cairo  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  Other  branch-roads  are  also 
projected,  while  the  scheme,  vast  as  it  is, 
seems  now  to  be  taken  out  of  the  category 
of  dreams. 

Cape  Verd  ( verd )  Islands,  a  group  of 
islands,  forming  a  Portuguese  colony,  in  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  off  the  African  coast,  320 
miles  west  of  Cape  Verd.  There  are  14 
islands  and  several  rocky  islets,  covering 
about  1,480  square  miles.  They  are  all  of 
volcanic  origin,  and  one,  Fogo,  still  smokes. 
The  shores  are  low,  but  in  the  interior  there 
are  high  mountains.  The  rainy  season  lasts 
from  the  middle  of  August  to  November,  but 
sometimes  no  rain  falls  for  several  seasons. 
In  1832,  after  a  three  years'  drought,  30,500 
persons  perished.  The  fruits  of  southern 
Europe  and  western  Africa  flourish  on  the 
islands.  Goa';s  and  asses  are  reared,  and  the 
most  remarkable  of  the  animals  are  monkeys 
and  bisam  cats.  Poisonous  reptiles  are  un- 
known. Salt  is  manufactured  and  exported 
to  North  America.  The  other  products  are 
coffee,  millet  and  drugs.  The  natives  are 
docile  and  lazy,  though  very  religious. 
Roman  Catholicism  is  the  only  religion.  The 
population  is  147,424,  about  one  twentieth 
being  whites  and  one  seventh  slaves.  The 
latter  are  of  mixed  race,  descended  from 
Portuguese  settlers  and  negroes  of  various 
tribes  introduced  from  Guinea.  Santiago  is 
the  largest  island  in  the  group;  it  is  about 
50  miles  long  and  23  broad  at  its  widest  part. 
The  governor  lives  on  the  island,  at  the  sea- 
port of  Porto  Praia.  The  volcano  of  Fogo 
is  9,157  feet  high.  The  islands  were  discov- 
ered in  1441  by  the  Portuguese,  who  have 
held  them  ever  since. 

Caper'naum,  a  town  of  Palestine,  often 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  and  mem- 
orable as  the  scene  of  many  of  the  miracles 
of  Christ.  Its  exact  site  on  the  Sea  of  Gen- 
nesareth  is  uncertain.  One  possible  site  is  a 
ruined  village,  known  at  present  as  Khan 
Minieh;  another  is  three  miles  further  off, 
at  a  spot  called  Tell  Hum. 

Cap'illar'ity  in  Soils  refers  'to  che  ability 
of  water  to  rise  above  the  water-table 
toward  the  surface.  The  soil-particles  act 


CAPITOLINE  HILL 


331 


CARACAS 


as  an  absorbing  medium,  just  as  a  lamp- 
wick  does;  the  fluid  in  both  cases  passing  up 
through  the  small  spaces.  The  smaller  the 
particles,  and  consequently  the  closer  they 
are,  the  more  effectively  the  water  rises,  just 
as  in  a  glass-tube  of  very  fine  bore  it  rises 
better  than  in  a  larger  tube.  Tramping 
down  the  soil  after  planting  small  seeds 
presses  the  soil-particles  together,  and  in- 
duces an  upward  flow  of  moisture  that 
enables  them  to  sprout.  When  the  surface 
particles  are  compacted  by  sun -baking  into 
a  crust  after  the  summer  rains,  the  moisture 
easily  passes  into  the  air  and  is  lost  to  the 
soil  and  the  plant  roots.  On  the  other  hand, 
breaking  up  this  crust  by  cultivation  forms 
a  soil-mulch,  whose  larger  spaces  interfere 
with  capillary  action  and  prevent  loss  of 
moisture  The  so-called  dry-farming  of  the 
semi-arid  region  is  based  on  this  principle, 
repeated  cultivation  being  resorted  to  in 
order  to  conserve  the  moisture. 

Cap'itoline  Hill,  one  of  the  seven  hills 
of  ancient  Rome.  It  was  consecrated  to 
Jupiter,  and  on  it  stood  a  temple  of  Jupiter, 
called  the  Capitol,  and  also  the  citadel. 
The  foundations  were  laid  by  Tarquinius 
Priscus,  one  of  the  early  Roman  kings;  but 
the  building  was  not  completed  until  the 
expulsion  of  the  kings.  It  was  three  times 
burned  and  successively  restored.  In  it 
were  three  shrines,  to  Jupiter,  Juno  and 
Minerva.  At  the  porch  of  the  temple  the 
people  were  feasted  on  great  occasions. 
Here  were  kept  the  important  public  docu- 
ments. Other  temples  were  built  later  on 
the  hill  to  Mars,  Venus,  Fortune,  etc.  A 
library  and  other  public  buildings  were  also 
erected  on  the  hill.  At  the  south  end  was 
the  Tarpeian  Rock,  down  which  state 
criminals  were  thrown  headlong.  In  mod- 
ern times  the  top  of  the  Capitoline  Hill 
forms  what  is  known  as  the  Piazza,  del 
Campidoglio,  surrounded  on  three  sides  by 
palaces.  A  broad  flight  of  steps  leads  up 
to  the  piazza,  upon  which  are  numerous 
statues.  In  the  palaces  are  many  objects 
of  interest:  statues,  busts,  galleries  of 
pictures;  the  famous  Bronze  Wolf;  a  tomb 
on  which  are  bas-reliefs  telling  the  story 
of  Achilles;  and  the  well-known  statues  of 
the  Dying  Gladiator,  the  Antinous  of  the 
Capitol  and  the  Faun  of  Praxiteles.  In  the 
hall  of  illustrious  men  are  93  busts  of 
notable  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  in  the 
hall  of  the  emperors  is  a  series  of  83  busts 
of  emperors  and  empresses.  The  famous 
Venus  of  the  Capitol  is  preserved  in  a  cab- 
inet, not  open  on  public  days. 

Capri.     See  GARIBALDI. 

Caprivi  (kd-pre've),  Count  Qeorg  Leo 
von,  German  general,  statesman  and  chan- 
cellor (1890-94),  was  born  in  1831  and 
died  February  6,  1899.  Entering  the  army 
in  his  1 8th  year,  he  won  rapid  promotion, 
and  served  with  distinction  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  1864  and  1866.  In  1883  he  was 


given  command  of  the  3oth  division  of  the 
imperial  army  at  Metz,  and  for  a  time  was 
also  at  the  head  of  the  German  admiralty 
and  reorganized  the  navy.  He  was  subse- 
quently given  command  of  the  loth  or 
Hanoverian  army  corps,  the  finest  in  the 
German  army.  In  1890,  on  the  fall  of  Bis- 
marck, Emperor  William  made  him  his 
new  chancellor  and  minister  for  foreign 
affairs.  In  October,  1894,  owing  to  fric- 
tion with  Count  Eulenberg  over  the 
agrarian  malcontents,  he  resigned  office, 
Prince  Hohenlohe  succeeding  to  the  chan- 
cellorship. 

Cap'sule,  in  botany  a  dry  fruit  com- 
posed of  more  than  one  carpel,  which 
splits  open  to  discharge  its  seeds.  See 
FRUIT. 

Capua  (ka'pu-d),  a  fortified  city  in  Cam- 
pania, Italy,  on  the  River  Volturno,  27 
miles  north  of  Naples.  Ancient  Capua  was 
about  three  miles  distant  from  the  present 
city.  It  probably  was  founded  by  the 
Etruscans  as  early  as  800  B.  C.  It  fell 
under  the  sway  of  the  Samnites  and,  later, 
of  the  Romans.  Af  er  the  battle  of  Cannae 
it  deserted  to  Hannibal,  after  whose  defeat 
the  city  suffered  severely.  Capua  was 
formerly  a  luxurious  city,  and  was  noted 
for  its  gladiatorial  shows.  It  was  from  the 
school  of  gladiators  here  that  Spartacus, 
with  70  companions,  broke  forth  and  or- 
ganized  the  insurrection  of  the  slaves.  The 
city  was  overrun  by  the  Vandals  in  456 
A.  D.,  and  finally  destroyed  by  the  Saracens 
about  840.  A  few  years  later,  the  inhab- 
itants returned  and  built  the  present 
city.  There  still  remain  the  ruins  of  an 
amphitheater  capable  of  holding  60,000 
people. 

Capuchins  (kap'u-chinz),  a  mendicant 
order  of  Franciscan  monks,  founded  in 
1528;  they  derive  their  name  from  the 
cowl  or  stuff-cap  (caputium)  they  wear. 
They  live  chiefly  by  begging,  and  go  about 
barefooted,  unshaven  and  generally  garbed 
in  brown  or  gray.  The  order  is  most  numer- 
ous in  Austria,  and  is  not  unknown  in  the 
United  States. 

Caracas  (ka-rd'kas),  the  capital  of  the 
republic  of  Venezuela  and  of  the  federal 
district,  is  six  miles  from  La  Guaira,  its 
port  on  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Built  on  the 
slope  of  the  Avila  (8,635  feet),  it  is  3,025 
feet  above  the  tide-level,  and  from  its  eleva- 
tion it  has  an  enjoyable  climate.  There  are 
numerous  public  parks  and  gardens  and 
handsome  promenades.  The  most  notable 
buildings  are  the  federal  palaces,  the  presi- 
dent's Yellow  House,  the  university,  whose 
library  of  30,000  volumes  is  open  to  the 
public;  the  exhibition  palace,  the  cathedral 
and  the  splendid  basilica  of  St.  Ann.  Be- 
sides the  university,  there  are  various  col- 
leges and  technical  schools.  There  a^e 
many  newspapers.  Caracas  is  the  terminus 
of  four  railroads.  Its  chief  export  is.  coffee 


CARACCI 


332 


CARBONIC  ACID 


through  the  port  of  La  Guaira;  also  cocoa, 
caoutchouc,  ornamental  feathers  and  furni- 
tu.e  woods.  Population,  75,000. 

Caracci  (kar-rd? ch$)  or  Carracci,  a  cele- 
brated family  of  Italian  painters,  the  found- 
ers of  what  is  called  the  Bolognese  school 
of  painting,  which  nourished  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  i6th  century.  LUDOVICO 
CARACCI,  son  of  a  butcher,  was  so  poor  a 
student  that  his  masters  advised  him  to 
give  up  painting.  Instead  of  following  their 
advice,  he  went  to  Parma  and  Venice,  and 
there  studied  the  works  of  the  great  masters, 
and  came  back  filled  with  new  ideas  of  his 
art  quite  different  from  the  lifeless  style  of 
his  native  Bologna.  With  his  two  cousins, 
he  started  the  eclectic  school,  which  has 
become  famous  in  the  history  of  painting, 
and  soon  all  other  schools  at  Bologna  were 
closed.  Many  of  the  works  of  this  master 
are  preserved  at  Bologna. 

ANNIBALE  CARACCI,  a  cousin  of  Ludovico, 
was,  perhaps,  the  greatest  artist  of  his  fam- 
ily. He  was  born  in  1 560.  He  made  rapid 
progress  in  the  study  of  painting,  and  his 
fame  soon  reached  Rome,  where  he  was 
employed  to  paint  the  Farnese  gallery,  his 
greatest  work.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1609, 
and  was  buried  close  to  Raphael's  tomb 
in  the  Pantheon.  The  best  Italian  masters 
of  the  i  yth  century  were  of  the  school  of 
the  Caracci. 

Car'avans  are  bands  of  merchants,  pil- 
grims or  other  travelers  who  journey  in 
company  through  the  desert.  The  name 
caravan  is  of  Persian  origin;  the  deserts  of 
Asia  and  Africa  are  its  home.  Here  travelers 
seek  safety  in  numbers,  as  well  for  defense 
against  robbers  as  for  the  sake  of  aid- 
ing one  another  amid  other  perils  of 
the  way,  the  chief  of  which  are  storms  of 
dust  and  whirlwinds.  The  hot  and  sand- 
laden  wind,  called  in  the  Sahara  Desert 
the  simoom,  has  been  known  to  destroy  a 
whole  caravan  by  suffocation.  Not  seldom 
does  a  line  of  half-buried  bones  of  camels 
and  of  men  greet  the  eye  of  the  desert 
voyager.  In  the  case  of  caravans  from 
Tibet  to  China,  yaks,  mules  and  horses 
are  used  rather  than  camels. 

Large  and  famous  are  the  annual  cara- 
vans which  convey  pilgrims  to  Mecca  from 
Persia  and  from  Cairo  in  Egypt.  Several 
thousands  of  pilgrims  will  sometimes  jour- 
ney to  Mecca  in  a  single  caravan.  The 
internal  long-distance  trade  of  Asia  and 
Africa  is  almost  wholly  a  caravan  trade. 
The  chief  overland  trade-route  between 
Russia  and  China  runs  close  to  the  Siberian 
Railroad  from  Moscow  to  Irkutsk  and  thence 
to  Kiakhta  and  Urga.  A  vast  quantity  of 
cotton  goes  by  caravan  from  Khiva  to 
Orenburg.  Persia  relies  greatly  upon  car- 
avans, since,  except  for  its  Russian  trade, 
it  is  but  ill-supplied  with  railroads.  In  the 
hot  season  it  is  usual  for  the  desert  caravans 
to  travel  by  night;  but  they  keep  to  as 


fixed  a  route  as  do  ships  at  sea,  as  indeed 
the  perils  of  their  course  are  at  least  as 
great. 

Car'bohy'drates  (in  plants),  substances 
consisting  of  carbon  and  of  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  in  the  proportion  to  form  water, 
which  are  manufactured  by  green  plants 
out  of  carbon  dioxid  and  water  in  the 
presence  of  light.  (See  PHOTOSYNTHESIS.) 
Common  illustrations  of  carbohydrates  are 
sugar  and  starch. 

Car'bon  is  one  of  the  elements,  and  is 
the  characteristic  substance  of  plants  and 
animals.  It  is  found  uncombined  in  the 
mineral,  graphite  or  black  lead,  and  in  the 
pure,  crystallized  form  in  the  diamond. 
Anthracite  coal,  charcoal,  coke  and  lamp- 
black are  nearly  pure  forms  of  carbon.  Soft 
coal  and  peat  also  contain  much  carbon. 
United  with  oxygen  it  is  carbon  dioxide  or 
carbonic  acid,  a  constituent  of  the  atmos- 
phere and  of  carbonates,  of  which  calcium 
carbonate  as  limestone,  marble,  chalk  and 
the  earthy  matter  of  corals  and  shells,  as 
well  as  dolomite,  are  very  abundant  sub- 
stances. With  hydrogen,  carbon  forms 
marsh-gas  and  a  great  number  of  hydro- 
carbons, as  those  of  petroleum  and  numer- 
ous coal-tar  products.  With  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  it  forms  acetic  acid  and  other 
organic  acids,  alcohol,  oils,  fats  and  the 
so-called  carbohydrates,  of  which  the  sugars, 
starch  and  cellulose,  important  constituents 
of  plants,  are  the  best  known.  A  great 
many  very  complicated  carbon  compounds 
occur  in  plants,  and  particularly  in  animals, 
in  which  (besides  carbon,  hydrogen  and 
oxygen),  nitrogen  and  sometimes  sulphur 
and  other  elements  are  present.  Carbon 
also  unites  with  certain  metals,  and  with 
iron  it  forms  steel  and  cast-iron.  Certain 
denser  forms  of  carbon,  such  as  retort- 
carbon  from  gas-works  and  petroleum- 
refining,  conduct  electricity  well,  and  are 
extensively  used  in  batteries  and  electric 
lamps.  See  CHARCOAL,  CHEMISTRY,  DIA- 
MOND and  ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 

H.  L.  WELLS. 

Car'bondale,  a  city  of  Pennsylvania, 
noted  for  the  mines  in  its  neighborhood,  is 
on  the  Lackawanna  River,  16  miles  north- 
east of  Scranton.  It  is  the  chief  town  of 
Lackawanna  County,  and  its  railroad 
facilities  are  furnished  by  the  Delaware  & 
Hudson;  the  New  York,  Ontario  &  West- 
ern; and  the  New  York,  Erie  &  Western 
railroad.  The  n\ines  of  the  region  are 
worked  by  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal 
Company,  and  yield  over  a  million  tons 
annually.  The  city's  industries  have  as 
their  motive  power  abundant  electrical  and 
other  facilities,  derived  chiefly  from  the 
great  adjacent  coal-fields.  Population, 
17,040. 

Carbon'ic  Acid  or  carbon  dioxid,  also 
called  fixed  air  or  choke-damp,  is  a  gas 
which  forms  about  j^W  part  of  the  air. 


CAR-BUILDING 


333 


CARDIFF 


Enormous  quantities  of  it  are  poured  into 
the  air  by  the  breathing  of  animals  and  the 
burning  of  fuel,  but  plants  absorb  it  by 
their  leaves  to  get  carbon  for  the  formation 
of  wood,  and  in  this  way  the  proportion  is 
kept  quite  constant.  Carbonic  acid  con- 
tains by  weight  12  parts  of  carbon  and  32 
of  oxygen.  It  is  a  dense  gas,  heavier  than 
air,  and  can  be  poured  from  one  vessel  to 
another  like  a  liquid.  In  vats  in  which  it 
is  being  given  off  by  fermentation,  it  re- 
mains at  the  bottom  for  some  time,  even 
when  freely  exposed  to  the  air,  so  that  fatal 
accidents  have  resulted  from  workmen  care- 
lessly entering  them.  Under  a  pressure  of 
about  600  pounds  to  the  square  inch  it  be- 
comes a  liquid.  When  this  liquid  is  allowed 
to  escape  through  a  small  jet,  it  rapidly 
evaporates  and  causes  intense  cold,  so  that 
a  certain  portion  becomes  frozen  into  a 
solid  resembling  snow.  This  solid  passes 
back  into  a  gas  without  becoming  a  liquid. 
Carbonic  acid  can  be  easily  dissolved  in 
water.  The  sparkling  appearance  of  soda 
and  seltzer  waters,  etc.  is  produced  by  the 
carbonic  acid  which  has  been  dissolved  under 
pressure,  and  so  passes  out  when  exposed 
to  the  air.  Champagne  and  fermented  gin- 
ger beer  contain  carbonic  acid  by  a  natural 
process  of  fermentation.  The  pure  gas,  or 
air  containing  considerable  quantities  of  it, 
causes  suffocation  when  breathed,  because 
the  lungs  do  not  get  the  necessary  oxygen. 
It  does  not  support  burning.  If  a  lighted 
taper  is  thrust  into  a  vessel  of  it,  it  is  im- 
mediately put  out.  Carbonic  acid  may  be 
readily  prepared  from  chips  of  marble  and 
hydrochloric  acid. 

Car-Building.  While  the  term  car 
strictly  means  any  wheeled  vehicle,  in 
America  it  has  been  applied  only  to  rail- 
way cars,  in  the  first  instance,  but  has 
been  extended  recently  to  automobiles  or 
motor-cars.  Automobile  building  will  re- 
ceive separate  treatment.  The  most  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  the  car  is  the  truck, 
which  consists  of  a  frame,  one  at  each  end 
of  the  car,  with  two,  four,  six  or  even 
eight  wheels  underneath,  and  on  the  top 
a  swivel,  on  which  the  car-body  rests,  so 
that  it  can  move  freely  on  the  trucks  under 
all  the  varying  conditions  of  the  road.  The 
wheels  are  of  many  kinds,  agreeing,  how- 
ever, in  rejecting  the  spoke  and  axle  arrange- 
ment which  most  wheels  have.  Moreover, 
the  wheels  do  not  turn  on  the  axle,  but 
are  fixed  firmly  upon  it,  by  shrinking  or 
other  means,  and  the  axle  turns  in  the  axle 
box.  The  wheels  have  flanges  to  keep  them 
on  the  rails.  The  car  rests  on  two  sets  of 
springs,  one  vertical,  which  supports  a 
frame,  from  which  the  other,  an  elliptical 
spring,  is  suspended.  The  car  rests  im- 
mediately on  the  latter.  The  car-body  is 
of  many  types.  The  finest  is  the  Pullman 
car.  This  was  first  built  about  1867  by 
George  Mortimer  Pullman;  they  are  for 


the  most  part  built  at  the  Pullman  works 
near  Chicago.  The  latest  modifications  are 
cars  in  which  the  berths  are  put  under  the 
floor,  when  not  in  use,  and  the  car  itself 
turned  into  a  parlor-car.  The  pressed- 
steel  car  is  built  at  Pittsburg;  in  it  every 
part  of  the  car  is  built  of  steel.  Pullman 
cars  commonly  have  a  steel  framework 
which  embraces  the  platform,  so  as  to  form 
what  is  called  a  solid  vestibule-train.  Their 
strength  has  saved  many  lives  in  our 
numerous  accidents.  American  cars  differ 
from  those  of  other  countries  in  their 
greater  size  and  in  having  the  aisle  run  up 
the  middle  of  the  car.  Among  freight-cars 
the  most  noteworthy  are  the  refrigerator- 
cars,  which  are  largely  built  and  owned  by 
private  companies,  such  as  the  Armour 
Company  and  the  Swift  Refrigerator  Com- 
pany of  Chicago.  Special  cars  are  used  to 
carry  enormous  loads  of  coal  from  the 
mountains  of  Pennsylvania  to  the  coast 
cities.  The  Standard  Oil  has  built  special 
tank-cars  for  its  oil.  Most  of  the  regular 
freight  and  passenger-cars  are  now  built  at 
the  shops  of  the  several  railroad  companies. 
There  are  special  features,  such  as  auto- 
matic couplers,  now  compulsory  on  all  cars, 
air-brakes,  gas-lighting  and  heating'  from 
the  steam  of  the  engine.  In  most  coun- 
tries of  Europe  they  still  employ  foot- 
warmers  which  can  be  filled  with  hot  water 
at  certain  stations. 

Cardenas  (kdr'dd-nds),  Cuba,  a  seaport 
in  the  province  of  Matanzas,  situated  on 
the  north  side  of  the  island,  78  miles  east 
of  Havana,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
rail,  as  well  as  with  Santa  Clara,  Cien- 
fuegos  and  Matanzas.  It  is  the  chief  port 
for  the  export  of  sugar,  and  has  besides  a 
considerable  local  commercial  trade.  It 
is  an  attractive  city,  with  many  fine 
plazas  and  public  buildings.  In  our 
war  with  Spain,  Cardenas  Bay  was 
the  scene  of  a  sharp  engagement  between 
our  blockading  vessels  and  the  Spanish 
batteries,  in  which  the  first  American 
officer  to  lose  his  life  in  the  war  (Ensign 
Worth  Bagley)  was  killed.  Population, 
28,576. 

Car'diff,  a  seaport  town  in  southern 
Wales,  on  Bristol  Channel.  It  is  noted  for 
its  magnificent  docks,  from  which  several 
millions  of  tons  of  iron  and  coal  are  ex- 
ported yearly.  Cardiff  is  well  known  in 
history.  The  Arthurian  legend  of  the 
sparrow-hawk  refers  to  Cardiff.  King 
Henry  I  imprisoned,  for  26  years,  until 
his  death,  his  brother,  Duke  Robert,  in 
the  old  castle,  which  still  stands.  The 
castle  was  once  of  enormous  strength,  and 
is  now  the  mansion  of  the  Bute  family,  to 
whom  the  present  prosperity  of  Cardiff  is 
largely  due.  At  Cardiff  there  is  a  branch 
of  the  University  of  Wales,  with  a  teach- 
ing staff  of  55  and  with  66 1  students, 
Population,  182,280. 


CARDINAL-BIRD 


334 


CARLISLE 


Cardinal-Bird,  one  of  the  finest  song- 
birds of  America,  whose  habitat  is  the 

southern 
.states, 

with  kin- 
dred spe- 
cies f  r  e- 
quenting 
Mexico, 
Central 
A  m  e  r  i  ca 
and  Lower 
California . 
It  is  some- 
CARDINAL-BIRD  times  call- 

ed the  Vir- 
ginian nightingale,  the  bird  having  a  clear, 
whistling  and  melodious  song.  Its  beau- 
tiful plumage  and  attractive  song  make  it 
a  favorite  cage-bird,  while  it  is  usually 
hardy,  even  in  confinement.  The  male 
bird  is  of  a  bright  red  color,  marked  with 
black,  and  is  adorned  with  a  high  crest; 
he  is  devoted  to  his  mate  when  breeding; 
the  eggs,  usually  not  over  four  in  number, 
are  in  color  a  speckled  white  or  blue, 
spotted  with  brown. 

Ca'rey,  Henry  Charles,  American  polit- 
ical economist,  was  born  at  Philadelphia 
in  1793  and  died  there  on  October  13,  1879. 
In  early  years  he  was  associated  with  his 
father  as  a  bookseller  and  publisher,  and 
for  a  time  was  at  the  head  of  the  firm  of 
Carey  &  Lea.  In  1835  he  became  a  close 
student  of  political  economy,  in  the  ranks 
of  those  opposed  to  the  rent-doctrine  of 
Ricardo  and  the  theory  of  population  of 
Malthus.  His  chief  writings  embrace  The 
Principles  of  Political  Economy;  The  Credit 
System  in  France,  Britain  and  the  United 
States;  Principles  of  Social  Science;  The 
Unity  of  Law,  etc.  He  was  a  protectionist, 
and  opposed  to  international  copyright. 

Ca'rey,  William  (born  1761,  died  1834), 
a  Baptist  missionary  and  Oriental  scholar, 
was  born  in  Northamptonshire,  England. 
In  1793  he  was  sent  out  as  a  Baptist  mis- 
sionary to  India.  He  established  a  printing- 
press  at  Serampore,  and  published  dic- 
tionaries and  grammars  of  several  eastern 
languages.  From  his  press  there  issued 
200,000  Bibles,  in  about  40  different  lan- 
guages or  dialects.  He  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  languages  in  the  college 
at  Fort  William,  Calcutta.  The  Protestant 
mission-movement  of  the  igth  century 
regards  him  as  its  father. 

Cargados  or  St.  Brandon  Islands  are 
dependencies  of  Mauritius,  and  for  the 
most  part  mere  sand-banks. 

Caribbean  Sea  (kar'ib-be'an),  that  part 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  lying  between  Cuba, 
Santo  Domingo  and  Porto  Rico  on  the 
north,  Venezuela  and  Colombia  on  the 
south,  the  Lesser  Antilles  on  the  east  and 
Central  America  on  the  west.  It  communi- 
cates with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  through  a 


channel,  120  miles  wide,  between  Cuba 
and  Yucatan.  Its  navigation  is  for  the 
most  part  clear  and  open.  It  contains 
some  large  gulfs. 

Cariboo  and  Cassiar  are  two  important 
districts  in  British  Columbia  on  the  north. 
Placer  miners  won  $50,000,000  of  gold 
from  the  creeks  and  benches  of  these  dis- 
tricts years  ago.  Wealthy  companies  are 
now  engaged  in  hydraulic  mining  on  a 
large  scale.  Large  deposits  of  gold  and 
silver  quartz  have  been  found  on  Portland 
Canal.  Coal  and  copper  ore  are  plentiful. 
These  districts  are  proving  to  be  rich  and 
attractive. 

Caribou.  See  DEER. 
Carl'eton,  Gen.  Sir  Guy,  Lord  Dor- 
chester. This  distinguished  soldier  and 
statesman  was  born  at  Strabane,  Ireland, 
Sept.  3,  1724.  He  was  at  the  siege  of 
Louisbourg  as  lieutenant-colonel;  wounded, 
as  colonel,  at  the  storming  of  Quebec;  at 
the  siege  of  Belle  Isle  and  the  taking  of 
Havana1  by  the  British  and  American  forces 
in  1762.  On  Sept.  24,  1766,  he  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant-governor  of  Quebec,  suc- 
ceeding to  the  governorship  on  Jan.  10, 
1775,  when  he  took  command  of  the  British 
forces  in  the  Canadas,  defending  Quebec 
successfully  against  Montgomery  and 
Arnold  during  the  siege.  He  captured 
Crown  Point  in  October,  1776;  was  com- 
missioned lieutenant-general  August,  1777; 
and  took  supreme  command  of  the  British 
forces  in  America  Feb.  23,  1782,  succeed- 
ing Sir  Henry  Clinton.  He  arrived  in  New 
York  on  May  5,  and  was  in  command  at 
the  evacuation  on  Nov.  25,  1783.  He  was 
reappointed  governor  of  Quebec  on  April 
ii,  1786,  created  Lord  Dorchester  the 
August  following,  resigned  the  post  in 
1796,  and  died  near  Maidenhead  Nov.  10, 
1808. 

Carleton,  Will,  American  author  and 
lecturer,  was  born  at  Hudson,  Mich.,  in 
Oct.,  1845,  and  graduated  at  Hillsdale 
College  in  1869.  Shortly  after  graduating, 
he  took  to  journalism  and  to  the  writing 
of  ballads  of  farm  and  domestic  life,  which 
have  won  him  wide  popularity.  His  pub- 
lished verses  in- 
clude Farm  Bal- 
lads, Farm  Le- 
gends, Farm  Festi- 
vals, City  Ballads, 
Legends  and  Fes- 
tivals (3  vols.) , 
Rhymes  of  Our 
Planet  and  Young 
Folks'  Centennial 
Rhymes. 

Carlisle  (kdr- 
IU'),  John  Grif- 
fin, an  American 
politician,  was 
born  in  Kentucky 
JOHN  G.  CARLISLE  in  1835.  After 


CARLISLE 


335 


CARLSBAD 


serving  in  the  legislature  and  as  lieutenant- 
governor  of  that  state,  he  was  elected  to 
Congress  for  seven  successive  terms,  and 
was  speaker  of  the  house  for  three  terms. 
In  1889  he  was  returned  to  the  United  States 
senate,  resigning  to  become  secretary  of  the 
treasury  under  President  Cleveland  in  1893. 
He  is  a  forceful  debater  and  one  of  the 
most  prominent  leaders  of  the  Democratic 
party. 

Carlisle',  Pa.,  a  borough,  the  county 
seat  of  Cumberland  County,  on  the  Cum- 
berland Valley  and  the  Philadelphia  & 
Reading  railroad,  17  miles  west-south- 
west of  Harrisburg.  In  the  vicinity  is 
Mount  Holly,  where  there  are  mineral 
springs  of  high  medicinal  value.  The 
borough  is  the  seat  of  the  United  States 
Indian  Training  and  Industrial  School,  of 
Dickinson  (M.  E.)  College  and  of  the  Metz- 
ger  Institute  for  girls.  Its  industries  em- 
brace flour-mills,  shoe  and  carpet-factories, 
paper-box  factories,  machine-shops  and 
chain  and  frog-switch  works.  Carlisle  was 
founded  about  the  middle  of  the  i8th  cen- 
tury, and  here,  during  the  Whiskey  Re- 
bellion the  Pennsylvania  and  the  New 
Jersey  troops  were  mustered;  while  during 
the  Civil  War  the  place  was  shelled  by  the 
Confederates.  Population,  10,726. 

Carlisle  Institute,  a  training  school  for 
the  higher  education  of  the  Indian  youth 
at  Carlisle,  Pennsylvania,  arose  out  of  the 
undertaking  of  Captain  R.  H.  Pratt  in 
1875  to  educate  74  Indian  prisoners  who 
had  been  set  under  his  charge  at  St.  Augus- 
tine, Florida.  At  first  the  education  offered 
was  chiefly  of  an  industrial  kind.  But 
in  1879  the  school  was  removed  to  Carlisle, 
and  literary  subjects  were  introduced  Into 
the  course  of  instruction.  Various  trades 
are  still  taught  to  the  Indians  at  Carlisle, 
as  at  Hampton  Institute  and  the  Indian 
schools  of  the  west.  Carlisle  Institute 
stands  for  an  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
government,  which  makes  an  annual  grant 
for  its  support,  to  solve  the  problem  of  the 
future  of  the  Indians  in  a  permanent  way. 
This  is  not  to  be  done  by  force  of  arms, 
but  only  by  education.  It  is  the  custom 
at  Carlisle  Institute  to  allow  outings  to 
Indian  boys  and  girls,  that  they  may  live 
for  a  few  months  with  the  family  of  a  farmer, 
earning  a  small  wage,  and  so  learn  to  un- 
derstand the  customs  of  their  white  neigh- 
bors. See  Boone:  Education  in  the  United 
States. 

Car  lists,  the  name  by  which  are  known 
the  supporters  of  the  Spanish  pretender 
Don  Carlos,  brother  of  Ferdinand  VII, 
and  of  later  claimants  of  that  branch  of 
the  Bourbon  family.  The  name  is  also 
applied  to  the  partisans  of  Charles  X  of 
France  (1824-30)  and  his  descendants. 

Car'los  I,  King  of  Portugal  from  1889 
to  1908,  was  born  -on  Sept-  a8th,  1863, 
and  died  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin  on  Feb. 


ist,  1908.  Through  his  father  he  was  a 
descendant  of  John  of  Braganza,  some- 
times called  John  the  Restorer,  who  was 
proclaimed  king  in  1640  when  Portugal 
regained  independence  from  Spain.  His 
mother  is  the  daughter  of  Victor  Em- 
manuel, the  first  king  of  modern  Italy, 
and  so  the  Portuguese  monarch  was  a 
cousin  of  Italy's  present  king.  He  married 
a  daughter  of  the  Orleans  claimant  to  the 
throne  of  France,  and  himself  became  king 
on  Oct.  i8th,  1889.  His  reign  was  marked 
by  serious  colonial,  financial,  political  and 
social  troubles.  Difficulties  with  England 
broke  out  in  regard  to  Anglo-Portuguese 
boundaries  between  the  adjoining  African 
possessions  of  the  respective  powers.  In 
1891  the  national  finances  became  deranged, 
interest  on  the  debt  was  scaled,  and  in 
1907  a  monopoly  in  tobacco  was  created. 
The  so-called  political  parties  had  for  de- 
cades mismanaged  the  country  and  robbed 
its  treasury.  In  1906-7  the  king  endeav- 
ored to  end  all  financial  and  governmental 
difficulties  at  a  single  stroke  by  making 
the  premier  practically  a  dictator,  sus- 
pending the  constitution  and  inaugurat- 
ing drastic  fiscal  reforms.  Revolutionary 
resistance  ensued,  and  resulted  in  the  as- 
sassination of  the  king  and  the  heir-ap- 
parent, who  were  fired  upon  by  a  group  of 
conspirators  on  a  street  in  Lisbon  as  the 
king  and  his  family  were  returning  to  the 
palace  in  a  carriage.  Personally,  Carlos 
was  popular,  though  his  injudicious  and 
not  always  justifiable  methods  of  remov- 
ing abuses  had  recently  provoked  discon- 
tent. Among  scientists  he  was  an  author- 
ity on  deep-sea  soundings. 

Carlovingians  (  kdr'ld-vin'fi-anz  ) ,  the 
name  of  a  dynasty,  which,  during  the 
8th,  gth  and  loth  centuries  gave  sovereigns 
to  Germany,  France  and  Italy.  Their 
origin  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  7th 
century,  to  Arnulf  and  Pepin  of  Landen, 
two  Prankish  lords;  but  the  name  is  de- 
rived from  Charles  Martel.  His  son,  Pepin 
the  Short,  was  the  first  to  take  the  title 
of  king.  Pep  in 's  son,  Charlemagne,  by 
virtue  of  his  wide  conquests,  styled  him- 
self emperor,  and  in  the  year  800  was 
crowned  by  the  pope  as  emperor  of  the 
western  world.  When  his  empire  broke 
up  in  887  into  nine  separate  kingdoms,  the 
most  important  ones,  Germany,  France 
and  Italy  continued  for  some  years  under 
the  sway  of  the  family.  They  ruled  in 
France  till  Hugh  Capet  founded  the  dynasty 
called  the  Capetian;  in  Germany  till  the 
rise  of  the  houses  of  Franconia  and  Saxony; 
and  in  Italy  until  Otho  the  Great  united 
that  country  to  the  German  empire. 

Carlsbad  (kdrls'bdt),  a  town  of  Bohemia, 
70  miles  from  Prague.  Lying  in  a  beauti- 
ful narrow  valley,  between  steep  granite 
mountains,  it  is  noted  as  the  most  aristo- 
cratic watering-place  in  Europe.  Its  min- 


CARLYLE 


CARMICHAEL 


eral  springs  are  said  to  have  been  discov- 
ered in  1370  by  Emperor  Charles  IV, 
to  whom  a  statue  has  been  raised  in  the 
market  place.  It  is  crowded  with  visitors 
from  June  to  August,  the  number  averaging 
from  25,000  to  30,000.  Population,  12,579. 
Carlyle  (kdr-lll'),  Thomas,  a  great 
British  historian  and  essayist,  was  born  at 
Ecclefechan,  Scotland,  Dec.  4,  1795.  He 
was  educated  at  Edinburgh  University,  and 
for  a  number  of  years  supported  himself 
by  teaching.  At 
the  same  time  he 
was  engaged  in 
literary  work  and 
study.  He  wrote 
articles  for  the  Ed- 
inburgh Encyclo- 
pedia, the  Edin- 
burgh Review  and 
various  other  mag- 
azines, making.be- 
sides,  many  trans- 
lations from  the 
German.  Sartor 
Resartus  is  per- 
THOMAS  CARLYLE  hapsCarlyle'smost 
characteristic  work.  Its  fantastic  hero, 
Diogenes  TeufelsdrSckh,  illustrates  in  his 
life  and  opinions  what  Carlyle  calls  the 
Philosophy  of  Clothes.  But  the  work  which 
established  his  reputation  as  a  genius  of 
the  highest  order,  and  proved  him  to  be,  as 
Goethe  said,  "a  new  moral  force  in  the  world" 
was  his  French  Revolution.  Perhaps  the 
most  successful  of  his  works  is  Cromwell's 
Letters  and  Speeches,  which  entirely  changed 
the  current  opinion  regarding  that  character. 
The  History  of  Frederick  the  Great  is  Car- 
lyle's  most  ambitious  work.  During  a  num- 
ber of  years  Carlyle  lectured  on  German 
Literature,  the  Successive  Periods  of  Euro- 
pean Culture,  the  Revolutions  of  Modern 
Europe  and  Heroes  and  Hero-Worship. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  86,  Feb.  4,  1881,  at 
his  home  in  Chelsea,  London,  where  he  had 
lived  for  40  years.  Many  honors  were 
offered  to  Carlyle,  most  of  which  he  refused; 
but  he  accepted  the  appointment  of  lord- 
rector  of  Edinburgh  University.  His  in- 
stallation address,  On  the  Choice  of  Books,  is 
a  thought-stimulating  and  instructive  work. 
He  was  a  friend  of  many  of  the  great  men 
of  his  day,  such  as  Coleridge,  Goethe,  John 
Stuart  Mill  and  Emerson.  Carlyle  proba- 
bly exerted  a  greater  influence  on  British  lit- 
erature during  the  middle  of  the  igth  cen- 
tury than  any  man  of  his  time.  Although 
his  literary  style  is  peculiar,  rough  and 
jerky,  yet  it  is  always  powerful  and  often 
grand.  See  his  life  by  Froude,  his  early 
letters  edited  by  C.  E.  Norton  and  the  cor- 
respondence between  Goethe  and  Carlyle. 
Carlyle's  wife  was  one  of  the  most  accom- 
plished women  of  her  time. 

Car' man,  Reverend  Albert,  was  born   in 
eastern  Ontario  in  1833      He  is  a  graduate 


of  Victoria  University  (Cobourg),  and 
taught  for  some  years.  In  1874  he  was 
elected  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Church 
in  Canada.  After  the  union  of  the  Method- 
ist bodies  in  1833  he  became  general  super- 
intendent of  the  Methodist  Church  in 
Canada,  and  represented  the  Methodist 
Church  at  the  Ecumenical  Methodist  Con- 
ference held  at  Washington  in  1891.  As 
preacher,  organizer,  teacher  and  contro- 
versialist he  has  but  few  equals. 

Carman  [William]  Bliss,  one  of  the 
leading  poets  of  English-speaking  America, 
was  born  in  Fredericton,  N.  B.,  April  15, 
1 86 1.  He  graduated  from  the  University 
of  New  Brunswick  in  1881,  and  studied 
later  at  Harvard  University  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.  After  experiment- 
ing with  law,  engineering  and  teaching  he 
became  an  editor  of  the  New  York  Inde- 
pendent in  1890,  and  has  since  devoted  him- 
self to  writing.  His  poetic  writings  are 
voluminous,  and  include,  in  addition  to  the 
three  volumes  of  Songs  from  Vagabondia, 
written  in  collaboration  with  the  late  Rich- 
ard Hovey,  Low  Tide  on  Grand  Pre,  A 
Sea-Mark,  Behind  the  Arras,  At  Michael- 
mas, Ballads  of  Lost  Haven,  By  the  Aurelian 
Wall,  St.  Kavin,  The  Green  Book  of  the 
Bards,  The  Book  of  Myths,  Ode  on  the 
Coronation  of  King  Edward,  A  Winter 
Holiday,  Songs  of  the  Sea-Children,  Songs 
from  a  Northern  Garden.  He  is  a  cousin 
of  Charles  G.  D,  Roberts.  Of  late  Mr. 
Carman  has  been  writing  essays  on  liter- 
ary and  other  topics,  several  volumes 
of  which  have  appeared  in  book  form.  In 
him  speaks  the  voice  of  the  Canadian  forests 
and  sea  coasts,  and  more  than  one  of  his 
poems  gives  promise  of  immortality. 

Carmel  (kar'mel),  meaning  woodland  or 
garden  land,  is  the  name  of  a  range  of  hills 
in  the  northwest  of  Palestine,  ending  at 
the  sea  in  the  promontory  of  Mt.  Carmel. 
The  average  height  is  1,500  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  the  highest  elevation  is  1,750  feet. 
Carmel  was  the  scene  of  some  of  the  great 
events  of  Bible  history.  It  was  the  retreat 
of  the  prophets  Elijah  and  Eljsha.  The 
brook  Kishon  flows  at  its  base.  A  convent 
is  now  situated  on  the  mountain,  where 
travelers  are  entertained.  A  German  col- 
ony has  settled  near  the  foot  of  the  mount 
and  on  its  sides. 

Carmichael,  The  Right  Reverend 
James,  Bishop  of  Montreal,  born  in  Dublin, 
came  to  Canada,  and  was  ordained  in  1859. 
He  became  assistant  minister  of  St.  George's, 
Montreal,  in  1868,  and  remained  there  ten 
years.  He  was  rector  of  the  Church  of 
the  Ascension  in  Hamilton  for  some  years, 
but  returned  to  St.  George's,  Montreal,  as 
rector  in  1882,  and  was  appointed  Dean  of 
Montreal  in  1883.  He  is  president  of  the 
Natural  History  Society  of  Montreal.  He 
has  published  several  volumes,  and  is  one 
of  the  ablest  preachers  and  lecturers  in 


CARNATION 


337 


CARNEGIE  LIBRARIES 


Canada,  held  in  highest  esteem  by  all  the 
churches. 

Carna'tion,  a  beautiful  and  fragrant 
double-flowering  variety  of  the  clove-pink. 
It  is  a  universal  favorite  of  florists,  and  exists 
only  in  a  state  of  cultivation.  The  flower 
is  often  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  _the 
prevailing  colors  are  white,  scarlet  and  pink. 
The  carnation  prefers  a  rich  soil  and  should 
have  plenty  of  fresh  air. 

Carnegie  (kar-nd'-gi),  Andrew,  the  Scoto- 
American  steel-manufacturer  and  philan- 
thropist, was  born  at  Dunfermline,  Scot- 
land, Nov.  25,  1835.  His  father  was  a 
weaver,  who,  with  his  family,  emigrated 
in  1848  to  the  United  States.  Beginning  life 
with  only  a  limited  school  education,  young 
Carnegie  worked  at 
first  in  various 
humble  positions 
in  Pittsburg,  Pa., 
where  he  at  length 
found  employment 
in  a  telegraph  office 
and  obtained  a 
footing  in  the  rail- 
kroad  world.  The 
Dasis  of  the  im- 
"mense  fortune  he 
was  afterward  to 
amass  was  due  to 
his  connection  with 
ANDREW  CARNEGIE  iron-works,  which 
he  established  at  Pittsburg,  and  which  sub- 
sequently developed  into  the  vast  industry 
of  the  Carnegie  Steel  Company,  located  at 
Homestead  and  elsewhere  in  and  about  Pitts- 
burg. The  Carnegie  Company,  in  February, 
1901,  was,  with  a  number  of  other  manu- 
facturing concerns,  incorporated  as  the  U.  S. 
Steel  Corporation  (q.  v.),  having  a  total 
capitalization  of  one  billion  one  hundred 
million  dollars.  In  achieving  success,  he  was 
at  a  critical  period  in  life  aided  by  making  the 
acquaintance  of  Mr.  Woodruff,  inventor  of 
the  railway  sleeping-car,  and  by  being  one  of  a 
fortunate  oil-syndicate.  The  story  of  Mr. 
Carnegie's  career  and  the  vast  wealth  he  has 
amassed  reads  like  a  romance;  and,  to  his 
honor  be  it  said,  he  has  made  noble  use  of  his 
princely  fortunes.  For  30  years  he  has  been 
devoting  large  sums  of  money  to  benevolent 
objects  and  especially  to  the  founding  and 
endowing  of  public  libraries,  notably  $500,000 
for  a  library  in  Pittsburg  and  $250,000  for 
a  library  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  and  $5,- 
200,000  to  erect  and  equip  80  public  libraries 
in  New  York  City.  It  is  calculated  that  Mr. 
Carnegie  has  spent  in  all  more  than  60  million 
dollars  on  over  2,000  libraries,  which  he  has 
been  instrumental  in  founding  or  aiding. 
Besides,  he  has  donated  ten  millions  towards 
the  founding  at  Pittsburg  of  the  Carnegie 
Institute  and  fifteen  millions  for  creating  the 
Carnegie  Foundation,  a  trust  fund  to  provide 
annuities  for  college  professors  in  the  United 
States,  Canada  and  Newfoundland,  who  from 


old  age  or  other  physical  disability  have  re- 
tired from  active  service. 

He  signalized  his  retirement  from  active 
business  in  1901  by  gifts  of  $5,000,000  for 
the  benefit  of  his  old  employes.  He  donated 
to  five  Scotish  universities  the  sum  of  ten 
million  dollars,  and  twenty-five  million  dollars 
to  found  a  university  at  Washington,  D.  C., 
which  is  to  be  under  the  supervision  of  the 
national  government.  He  has  also  donated 
over  ten  million  dollars  for  those  dependent 
on  persons  losing  their  lives  in  saving  life  or 
for  the  heroes  themselves  if  they  are  only 
injured.  Mr.  Carnegie  is  the  author  of  the 
following  publications:  Round  the  World, 
Triumphant  Democracy,  The  Gospel  of  Wealth, 
a  Life  of  James  Watt,  The  Empire  of  Business, 
An  American  Four-in-Hand  in  Britain,  and 
Problems  of  Today,  together  with  many  articles 
contributed  to  the  magazines  and  reviews  of 
the  day.  Mr.  Carnegie  has  contributed  largely 
to  the  endowing,  both  in  this  country  and  in 
Great  Britain,  of  educational  institutions  and 
the  equiping  of  hospitals.  He  also  provided 
funds  for  the  permanent  building  at  The 
Hague  (q.  v.)  for  the  international  court  of 
arbitration. 

Carnegie  Institution,  founded  and  en- 
dowed by  Andrew  Carnegie  at  Washington, 
D.  C.,  in  1902,  to  encourage  research,  assist 
investigation  and  give  aid  in  the  promotion 
of  discovery  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  as  well 
as  to  help  in  laboratory  work  and  assist 
meritorious  persons  and  institutions  in  all  de- 
partments of  investigation  and  research,  be- 
sides promoting  the  publication  and  dis- 
semination of  the  results  of  the  same.  The 
institution,  which  has  been  endowed  by  its 
founder  with  gifts  aggregating  $25,000,000,  is 
managed  by  a  board  of  24  trustees,  who  meet 
annually,  and  by  an  executive  committee 
acting  in  concert  with  the  president.  Its 
further  design  is  to  increase  the  facilities 
of  higher  education,  giving  aid  to  univer- 
sities, learned  bodies,  scientists  and  experts 
in  all  important  fields  of  research,  investiga- 
tion and  meritorious  practical  work,  and  to 
provide  buildings,  libraries,  laboratories  and 
apparatus. 

Carnegie  Libraries.  In  1891  Andrew 
Carnegie  wrote  in  The  North  American  Review 
as  follows:  "The  result  of  my  own  study  of 
the  question:  What  is  the  best  gift  that  can 
be  given  a  community?  is  that  a  free  library 
occupies  the  first  place,  provided  that  the 
community  will  accept  and  provide  for  it  as  a 
public  institution,  as  much  a  part  of  the  city 
property  as  the  public  schools,  and  indeed  an 
adjunct  to  those.  Closely  allied  to  the 
library  and,  when  possible,  attached  to  it, 
there  should  be  rooms  for  an  art-gallery  and 
museum  and  a  hall  for  such  lectures  and  in- 
struction as  are  provided  in  the  Cooper  Union 
(New  York  City.)"  This  conclusion  is  largely 
the  fruit  of  Carnegie's  own  experience;  for 
as  a  poor  boy  he  benefited  largely  by  some 
books  that  a  kind  friend  lent  him.  His 


CARNIVAL 


338 


CARNOT 


policy  since  the  above  was  written  has  not 
changed.  A  standing  offer  of  a  free  library 
is  open  to  any  town  in  the  United  State 
or  Great  Britain,  provided  that  the  town 
will  guarantee  a  certain  annual  sum,  usually 
10  per  cent,  of  the  amount  donated,  in  sup- 
port of  the  library.  New  York  City  alone  has 
received  over  $5,000,000  for  such  libraries. 
In  Pittsburg  the  library  is  rather  overshadowed 
by  the  allied  institutions  for  instruction,  which 
make  up  the  Carnegie  Institute.  About  $10,- 
000,000  is  the  amount  of  Carnegie's  contribu- 
tion to  this.  St.  Louis  has  received  $i  ,000,000, 
Detroit  $750,000.  But  it  is  impossible  to 
mention  all  the  libraries  that  have  been  es- 
tablished by  Carnegie  in  this  country  and 
Great  Britain.  His  estimate  of  the  value  of 
libraries,  quoted  above,  is  emphasized  by  the 
fact  that  so  large  a  proportion  of  his  gifts  have 
gone  to  helping  them. 

A  significant  remark  of  Mr.  Carnegie, 
in  this  connection,  is  that  when  he  was  a 
boy  he  was  so  busy  reading  the  books  that 
interested  him  that  he  had  no  time  for  the 
wasteful  and  injurious  habits  acquired  by 
idle  boys. 

Car' nival,  a  festival  which  originally 
began  on  the  day  after  the  feast  of  Epi- 
phany and  lasted  till  midnight  on  Shrove 
Tuesday;  that  is,  from  January  6  till  Lent. 
In  later  times  it  was  limited  to  from  three  to 
eight  days  before  Ash  Wednesday.  The 
forms  and  customs  of  the  carnival  come 
from  the  old  heathen  festivals  of  the  spring- 
time. Banquets  of  rich  meats  and  drink- 
ing bouts  were  its  chief  attractions  during 
the  midd  e  ages.  The  chief  days  had  dis- 
tinct names,  as  fat  or  greasy  Sunday, 
blue  Monday,  etc.  In  Germany  the 
carnival  is  celebrated  in  the  cities  of  the 
Rhine  provinces  and  is  also  being  revived  in 
the  north.  The  celebration  is  usually 
confined  to  the  wearing  of  masks,  to  pro- 
cessions in  costume  and  masked  balls.  In 
the  south  of  France  and  throughout  Italy, 
especially  in  the  cities,  it  is  still  a  popular 
festival.  Venice  used  to  be  noted  for  the 
splendor  of  its  carnivals;  that  of  Rome  was 
long  the  most  noted  yearly  revel  in  the 
southern  cities  of  Europe.  Here  races  of 
riderless  horses  along  the  crowded  Corso, 
the  throwing  of  flowers  and  plaster  con- 
fections from  the  windows  and  balconies 
on  the  people  in  the  carriages  and  cars  in 
the  streets  and  a  return  fire  from  below 
were  among  the  chief  features  and  frolics 
of  the  celebration.  In  recent  years  the  Ro- 
man carnival  has  practically  ceased. 

Carniy'orous  Plants,  certain  seed- 
plants  which  have  developed  the  habit  of 
capturing  insects  and  using  them  for  food. 
They  live  usually  in  swampy  regions,  and 
are  able  to  capture  insects  in  various  ways, 
and  then  digest  them  and  absorb  the  nutri- 
tious substances.  The  commoner  forms 
are  as  follows:  The  pitcher  plants,  be- 
longing to  the  genus  Sarracenia,  are  com- 


mon in  swampy  ground  both  north  and 
south.  The  leaves  are  shaped  like  slender 
hollow  cones  and  rise  in  tufts  from  the 
ground,  the  cone  containing  water,  and  its 
mouth  being  more  or  less  overarched  by 
a  hood.  A  sweetish  substance  is  secreted 
about  the  rim,  and  attracts  the  insects, 
which  fall  into  the  cone  and  are  drowned. 
Such  pitchers  are  often  found  more  or  less 
filled  with  the  decaying  remains  of  captured 
insects.  In  California  a  huge  pitcher  plant, 
Darlingtonia  by  name,  has  leaves  some- 
times three  feet  high.  The  best  known 
tropical  forms  belong  to  the  genus  Nepen- 
thes and  its  allies,  in  which  the  urns  swing 
from  the  tendrils  developed  at  the  ends  of 
the  leaves.  Various  forms  of  Nepenthes 
are  common  in  greenhouses.  Another  group 
of  carnivorous  plants  is  the  group  of  sun- 
dews, belonging  to  the  genus  Drosera. 
They  also  grow  in  swampy  ground  and  have 
rosettes  of  basal  leaves,  which  are  beset 
by  sensitive  glandular  hairs.  Small  in- 
sects coming  in  contact  with  a  sticky  gland 
are  held  fast,  and  the  leaf  closes  over  the 
struggling  victim  and  digests  it.  Perhaps 
the  most  remarkable  carnivorous  plant 
is  Dioncea  or  Venus'  fly-trap,  which  is  found 
only  in  sandy  savannas  near  Wilmington, 
N.  C.  The  leaf  blade  is  constructed  like 
a  steel  trap,  and  the  two  halves  snap  to- 
gether whenever  any  of  the  bristles  are 
touched  by  an  insect.  In  this  way  the 
insect  is  caught  and  gradually  digested. 

JOHN  M.  COULTER. 

Carnot  (kdr'no'),  Marie  Fra^ois  Sadi, 
a  French  states- 
man, was  born  at 
Limoges,  in  1837. 
Entering  politics, 
he  became  a  leader 
of  the  strict  repub- 
licans. He  was 
elected  a  member 
of  the  national  as- 
sembly and  later 
of  the  chamber  of 
deputies,  and  was 
minister  of  public 
works  and  finance. 
In  1887  he  became 
president  of 
France.  He  was 
assassinated  a  t 
M.  FRANCOIS  SADI  CARNOT  Lyons,  June  24, 

1894. 

Carnot  (kar'no'},  Nicolas  Leonard  Sadi, 
a  distinguished  French  engineer  and  phy- 
sicist, born  at  Paris,  June  i,  1796;  died 
Aug.  24,  1832.  In  his  memoir  on  the 
Motive  Power  of  Heat  he  investigated  the 
problem  of  using  heat  to  do  work  in  an  en- 
gine, and  he  first  showed  under  what  con- 
ditions the  heat  may  be  most  economically 
used.  This  result,  which  is  embodied  in  a 
law  known  as  Carnot's  Theorem,  is  one 
of  the  foundation-stones  of  the  science  of 


CAROB 


339 


CARPACCIO 


thermodynamics.  (See  Magie's  translation 
of  Carnot's  paper  in  Harper's  Scientific 
Memoirs) . 

Carob  (kar'ob)  or  locust  tree,  a  native 
of  the  Mediterranean  countries.  In  size 
and  manner  of  growth  it  is  somewhat  like 
the  apple  tree,  but  has  dark,  evergreen 
leaves.  The  fruit  is  a  brown,  leathery  pod, 
four  to  eight  inches  long,  containing  fleshy 
and,  at  the  last,  spongy  and  mealy  pulp  of 
an  agreeable,  sweet  taste,  in  which  he  a 
number  of  brown  seeds,  like  flattened 
beans.  The  sweet  pulp  makes  the  pods 
an  important  article  of  food  to  the  poorer 
classes.  They  are  also  used  as  food  for 
horses  and  cattle.  They  are  sometimes 
called  St.  John's  bread,  in  allusion  to  the 
tradition  that  they  are  the  locusts  which 
formed  the  food  of  John  the  Baptist  in  the 
wilderness.  They  are  also  thought  to  be 
the  husks  in  the  parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son. 
Some  carob  trees  yield  800  or  900  pounds 
of  pods.  A  preserve  and  a  kind  of  sugar 
are  sometimes  made  from  the  pulp.  The 
carob  is  not  the  same  as  the  American 
locust. 

Carol  I,  King  of  Rumania,  was  born  in 
Germany,  April  20,  1839,  the  son  of  Prince 
Carl  of  Hohenzollern.  In  1866,  he  was 
chosen  prince  of  Rumania,  then  a  dependency 
of  Turkey.  In  1881  he  declared  Rumania 
independent  and  became  king.  His  nephew 
Ferdinand  succeeded  him  on  his  death  October 
10,  1914. 

Car'oline  Islands,  a  group  of  about 
500  coral  islets,  which  form  part  of  the 
crerman  New  Guinea  protectorate,  in  the 
western  Pacific,  lying  between  the  Marshall 
and  Pelew  Islands,  with  an  area  of  270 
square  miles.  The  Pelew  group,  sometimes 
included  in  the  Caroline  Archipelego,  covers 
560  square  miles.  Three  quarters  both  of 
the  area  and  the  population  are  to  be  found 
in  five  volcanic  islands,  which  are  all  fer- 
tile and  well  watered.  The  people  belong 
to  the  brown  Polynesian  stock,  are  strongly 
built,  and  are  amiable,  gentle  and  intelligent. 
They  are  bold  sailors  and  carry  on  a  thriv- 
ing trade  with  the  Ladrones  to  the  north, 
where  they  have  several  settlements.  Copra, 
the  dried  kernel  of  the  cocoanut,  is  largely 
exported.  The  islands  were  discovered 
in  1527  by  the  Portuguese,  and  in  1866 
were  annexed  to  Spain.  In  1885  a  dispute 
arose  over  the  islands  between  Spain  and 
Germany,  which  was  referred  to  the  pope 
for  decision.  He  decided  in  favor  of  Spain, 
but  gave  Germany  special  trade  privileges. 
In  1899  Germany  secured  the  group  by 
purchase  from  Spain.  For  administrative 
purposes  the  islands  are  divided  into  three 
groups:  the  Eastern  Carolines,  with  Ponape 
as  the  seat  of  government;  the  Western 
Carolines  and  the  Pelew  Islands,  with  Yap 
as  administrative  center;  and  the  Marianne 
or  Ladrone  Islands,  of  which  Saipan  will 
be  the  future  seat  of  government.  The 


population  is  mainly  of  Malay  origin,  with 
some  Japs  and  Chinese  and  about  900 
whites.  The  northern  group  of  the  islands, 
being  volcanic,  is  for  the  most  part  unin- 
habited. In  1898  one  of  this  group  of  is- 
lands, Guam,  was  ceded  to  the  United 
States. 

Caroline  of  Brunswick  (1768-1821), 
queen  of  George  IV  of  England,  whom  she 
married  in  1795,  as  Prince  of  Wales  and  be- 
fore that  monarch  came  to  the  throne.  In 
1796  she  gave  birth  to  the  Princess  Charlotte, 
and  after  this  event  the  prince  separated 
from  her;  and  when  in  1820  he  became  king, 
he  refused  to  permit  her  to  share  the  throne 
as  his  queen.  To  induce  her 'to  yield,  she 
was  offered  50,000  pounds  sterling  a  year  if 
she  would  leave  England;  but  this  she  in- 
dignantly refused.  As  the  English  generally 
took  her  side  and  thought  her  an  ill-treated 
wife,  the  government  was  ill-advised  enough 
to  institute  proceedings  against  her  for  un- 
chastity.  This  gave  Lord  Brougham,  while 
yet  at  the  bar,  the  opportunity  of  making  an 
eloquent  defense  of  her  cause,  which  forced 
the  governmen  to  abandon  its  divorce  bill 
which  it  had  lobbied  through  the  house  of 
lords.  She  died  a  fortnight  after  she  had 
been  refused  admittance  at  Westminster,  on 
the  coronation  day  of  her  husband. 

Carp,  a  common  widely  distributed  food- 
fish.  The  carp  family  is  the  largest  family 
of  fishes,  and  embraces,  as  relatives  of  the 
carp  proper,  the  chub,  dace,  shiners,  gold- 
fish, etc.  The  carp  is  a  hardy,  sluggish  fish, 


CARP 

often  bred  in  artificial  ponds.  It  eats  water- 
insects  and  other  small  aquatic  animals  and 
also  leaves  of  water-plants.  It  is  preyed 
upon  by  kingfishers,  turtles  and  crayfishes; 
while  a  number  of  fish  feed  upon  its  eggs 
and  young. 

Carpaccio,  Vittore  (ve-td'rd  kar-pd'cho ) , 
an  Italian  artist,  was  born  about  1450  and 
died  in  1525.  All  that  is  known  of  him  is 
that  Istria  was  his  birthplace  and  Venice  his 
home.  He  belonged  to  its  old  school  of 
painters,  being  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
masters  and  a  rival  of  Bellini,  and  put  Venice 
into  the  backgrounds  of  his  pictures.  He 
excelled  as  an  architectural  and  landscape 
painte  ,  but  preferred  to  paint  sacred  sub- 
jects dramatically.  His  histories  of  Saints 
Stephen  and  Ursula  are  his  most  celebrated 
paintings.  He  was  vivid  in  imagination, 
natural  in  expression  and  correct  in  arrange- 


CARPATHIAN  MOUNTAINS 


340 


CARPET-SWEEPER 


ment,  and  employed  a  great  variety  of  fig- 
ures and  costumes.  Benedetto,  his  son,  lived 
about  1550,  and  painted  a  fine  Coronation  of 
the  Virgin. 

Carpathian  (kdr-pd'tht-ari)  Mountains, 
the  second  great  range  of  central  Europe, 
extend  in  a  great  semicircle  over  a  space  of 
880  miles  from  Presburg  on  the  Danube  to 
Orsova  on  the  same  river.  They  lie  almost 
entirely  within  the  Austrian  dominions, 
forming  two  great  masses:  one  in  Hungary, 
which  abounds  in  minerals;  and  one  in 
Transylvania,  whose  highest  peak,  Negoi,  is 
8,343  feet  high.  Between  the  peaks  are  lower 
ranges  of  wooded  mountains.  Forests,  steep 
precipices,  narrow  ravines  and  extinct  craters 
combine  to  make  the  Carpathians  a  magnifi- 
cent spectacle.  The  mine;  of  Schemnitz  in 
;he  Hungarian  range  are  celebrated. 

Car7 pel.  The  innermost  structure  of  the 
flower,  which  contains  the  ovules.  A  flower 
may  have  one  or  more  carpels  which  remain 
separate  from  one  another  or  unite  to  form 
a  single  pistil.  See  FLOWER. 

Car'penter,  William  Benjamin  (born 
1813,  died  1885),  an  English  medical  man 
and  great  writer  on  physiology,  was  born  in 
Exeter,  and  after  studying  medicine  devoted 
himself  to  scientific  study  and  investigation. 
He  was  appointed  at  different  times  lecturer 
and  professor  at  various  institutions,  and 
edited  a  medical  review  and  a  Popular  Cyclo- 
paedia of  Science.  He  made  three  voyages  to 
the  North  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean  to 
make  explorations  in  the  deep  sea,  in  the 
study  of  biology.  In  1882  he  lectured  in  the 
United  States.  His  work  and  writings  have 
done  much  for  science.  Among  his  publica- 
tions may  be  mentioned  Zoology  and  the  In- 
stincts of  Animals,  The  Microscope  and  its 
Revelations,  a  work  on  Comparative  Physiol- 
ogy and  The  Principles  of  Mental  Physiology. 

Carpet,  a  covering  for  floors,  usually  man- 
ufactured principally,  of  wool.  Carpets  of 
some  sort  dat  ••*  back  to  very  early  times. 
They  were  in  use  in  ancient  Greece  and  Italy 
and  probably  in  Egypt.  Among  the  most 
famous  carpets  are  those  of  Persia.  Even 
among  the  higher  classes  there,  carpets  form 
nearly  all  the  furniture  of  a  room,  and  a  Per- 
sian not  only  sits  and  sleeps  upon  a  carpet, 
but  makes  a  table  of  one.  Fine  Persian 
carpets  are  highly  prized  for  their  beautiful 
designs  and  ihe  quiet  harmony  of  their 
colors.  Small  pieces  of  old  Persian  carpets 
recently  old  in  Paris  for  over  $5,000  apiece. 
Indian  carpets  and  Turkey  carpets  are  well 
known  varieties.  A  few  Turkish  and  imita- 
tion Persian  carpets  are  made  in  Adrianople. 
The  Scotch  carpet  is  the  oldest  kind  of  ma- 
chine-made carpet.  The  Brussels  is  a  famous 
European  make.  In  this  carpet  the  worsted 
threads  are  interwoven  into  a  network  of 
linen.  It  is  woven  on  a  loom  with  an  appara- 
tus which,  at  each  throw  of  the  huttle,  raises 
such  of  the  co'ored  yarns  to  the  surface  as 
the  pattern  requires.  Velvet,  tapestry  and 


jute  carpets  are  also  much  used.  Great  Brit- 
ain is  the  great  center  of  the  world's  carpet- 
making,  including  the  well  known  Brussels, 
Wilton,  Kidderminster  and  Ax  minster  van- 
ties.  In  the  United  States  carpet-manufac- 
ture has  also  become  an  important  industry, 
and  many  of  the  most  valuable  improve- 
ments are  the  result  of  American  inventive 
genius.  There  are  in  the  United  States  about 
400  carpet-factories,  which  annually  produce 
about  75,000,000  yards  of  carpeting,  valued 
at  over  $60,000,000.  Philadelphia  is  the  most 
important  seat  of  the  industry  in  the  United 
States.  Associated  with  the  trade  in  carpets 
and  pile-fabrics  is  that  in  rugs  and  tapestry. 
The  latter  was  early  known  to  the  Greeks, 
and  had  been  carried  to  a  high  state  of  per- 
fection at  Athens,  but  it  is  usually  associated 
with  the  Flemish  weavers  of  Arras  during 
the  1 5th  and  i6th  centuries.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  England  by  Wm.  Sheldon,  in 
Henry  VIII's  reign,  and  into  Paris  by  Henri 
IV  about  1606,  the  Gobelin  tapestry  being 
due  to  Louis  XIV.  The  Bayeux  tapestry  is 
simply  a  roll  of  linen-cloth  worked  with  col- 
ored thread. 

Carpet-Baggers.  After  the  Civil  War 
the  southern  states  fell  largely  into  the 
hands  of  the  negroes,  who  had  just  received 
the  right  to  vote.  To  take  advantage  of 
their  ignorance  many  politicians  of  low  prin- 
ciples came  down  from  the  north,  and  became 
citizens  of  such  states  and  then  leaders  of 
the  negro  voters.  They  were  called  carpet- 
baggers because  many  of  them  had  no  prop- 
erty interest  in  the  southern  states,  and  came 
down  with  nothing-but  what  they  could  carry 
in  a  carpet-bag.  These  men,  having  got  into 
office  and  power,  proceeded  to  rob  the  south- 
ern states  and  to  humiliate  the  southern 
whites.  In  many  cases  they  laid  a  burden 
of  debt  and  of  unwise  legislation  upon  those 
states. 

Carpet-Beetle,  a  small  beetle,  the  larva 
of  which  is  very  destructive  to  carpets, 
woolen  clothing,  furs  and  feathers.  It  has 
attracted  wide  attention  in  recent  years  on 
account  of  its  injury,  especially  to  carpets. 
The  larva  is  about  one  fifth  of  an  inch  long, 
and  covered  with  dark  brown  hairs.  It  is 
frequently  called  buffalo-moth.  The  perfect 
insect  is  a  small  black,  white  and  red  beetle, 
about  one  seventh  of  an  inch  long,  feeding 
on  the  pollen  of  flowers — often  on  currant 
bushes.  They  enter  houses  in  £>«  spring  to 
lay  their  eggs.  The  best  way  to  avoivl  thtc 
pest  is  to  use  rugs  instead  of  carpets  and 
trap  the  larvae  by  woolen  cloths  on  the  floors 
of  closets. 

Carpet-Sweeper,  a  familiar  and  useful 
device  in  the  economics  of  the  household  for 
brushing  carpets  and  rugs  with  ease,  effi- 
ciency and  the  absence  of  dust.  It  consists 
of  a  revolving  brush  enclosed  in  a  wooden 
and  metal  box,  and  is  put  in  mechanical  oper- 
ation by  pushing  the  attached  long  handle 
back  and  forth  on  the  carpet,  the  revolving 


CARPOGONIUM 


341 


CARROLL 


brush  gathering  up  the  dust  and  confining 
it,  until  emptied,  in  the  receptacle  which 
forms  part  of  the  machine. 

Car'pogo'nium  (in  plants),  the  peculiar 
female  organ  of  the  red  algae.  See  RHODO- 

PHYCEyE. 

Carrara  (kdr-rd'ra) ,  a  town  of  Italy,  about 
sixty  miles  northwest  of  Florence,  lies  in  a 
deep  valley  of  the  Apennines  near  the  sea. 
It  is  famous  for  its  marble  quarries,  which 
have  been  worked  since  the  days  of  the 
Romans.  Its  port  is  Avenza,  at  a  distance 
of  some  three  miles.  The  value  of  the  marble 
of  Carrara  lies  not  only  in  its  beauty  but  in 
its  durability  and  smoothness  when  polished. 
No  stone  is  so  much  in  demand  for  the  art 
of  the  sculptor.  Each  year  sees  an  output 
of  over  100,000  tons  of  Carrara  marble;  and, 
if  we  include  those  who  saw  and  polish  the 
stone  for  export,  the  quarries  afford  employ- 
ment to  about  six  thousand  men. 

Carriage,  a  general  name  for  any  vehicle 
used  to  carry  passengers,  either  on  roads  or 
railroads.  It  is  mounted  on  two  or  more 
wheels  and  varies  in  form  and  build.  The 
earliest  carriages  were  made  for  war,  but  as 
far  back  as  the  time  of  Joseph  carriages  were 
used  also  for  royal  pageants.  Among  the 
Greeks  chariot-races  formed  an  important 
part  of  the  Olympic  games;  the  Romans  had 
two,  three  and  even  four-horse  chariots;  and 
the  Scythians  are  said  to  have  had  a  covered 
chariot,  the  top  of  which  could  be  removed 
and  used  as  a  tent.  The  earliest  record  of 
the  carriage  of  modern  times  belongs  to 
about  the  year  1280,  when  Charles  of  Anjou 
entered  Naples  with  his  queen,  riding  in  a 
caretta,  a  small  decorated  car.  But  it  was 
considered  an  effeminate  habit  to  use  car- 
riages, and  Queen  Elizabeth  reigned  seven 
years  before  she  had  a  coach.  The  boatmen 
and  the  owners  and  bearers  of  sedan  chairs 
bitterly  opposed  them.  The  early  carriages 
were  heavy,  lumbering  affairs,  without 
springs.  Early  in  the  i8th  century  leather 
straps  were  used  to  suspend  the  body  of  the 
coach,  and  in  1804  the  oval  springs,  now  so 
common,  were  invented  by  an  Englishman. 
Since  then  the  improvements  in  carriages 
have  been  numerous.  There  are  many  sorts 
of  carriages;  of  two- wheeled  vehicles  are  the 
gig,  dog-cart,  hansom-cab,  etc.;  of  four- 
wheeled  open  carriages  are  the  phaeton, 
wagonette,  etc. ;  the  coach  and  omnibus  are 
examples  of  closed  carriages.  The  barouche 
can  be  opened  or  closed  at  will.  Most  Euro- 
pean forms  are  used  and  have  been  improved 
in  the  United  States,  but  there  also  are 
several  distinctly  American  vehicles:  the 
rockaway,  the  sulky,  the  buckboard  and  the 
light  American  buggy.  In  Japan  and  other 
eastern  countries,  the  jinrikisha  is  used, 
which  is  a  two- wheeled  light  cart  pulled  by 
a  man.  For  railroad-cars  see  RAILROAD. 

Carrier,  Common,  in  law  and  commerce 
a  company  or  individual  trader  who  engage 
for  hire  to  carry  merchandize,  freight  or 


miscellaneous  articles,  and  transport  and 
deliver  such  to  a  given  address  or  designated 
town  or  place.  In  law,  he  is  bound  to  use 
reasonable  expedition  and  care  in  the  deliv- 
ery of  what  is  entrusted  to  him,  and,  so  far 
as  he  can,  to  protect  such  from  damage  or 
mishap  by  the  way,  as  well  as  from  the 
result  of  negligence,  and  this  whether  it  be 
by  land  or  by  water.  Unless  specially  stipu- 
lated and  agreed  to,  the  carrier  is  not  bound 
to  carry  articles  of  a  dangerous  character, 
involving  risks  in  their  cartage  and  trans- 
portation; nor  is  he  usually  held  liable  for 
perishable  goods  save  where  undue  delay  has 
occurred  in  transmitting  them.  In  the  case 
of  railroad  and  steamboat  companies  trans- 
porting passengers  from  place  to  place,  the 
law  requires  of  them  that  they  shall  use  all 
care  and  reasonable  expedition  in  conducting 
the  traffic.  The  liability  of  passenger  carriers 
for  baggage  committed  to  their  charge  is 
also  deemed  the  same  as  that  of  common 
carriers  and  forwarders  of  general  merchan- 
dise. 

Carrier=Pigeon,  one  of  the  more  notable 
of  the  extensive  varieties  of  pigeons  or  doves 
of  the  domestic  breed,  trained  to  convey 
letters  or  despatches  from  distant  places,  and 
often  from  a  vessel  far  at  sea,  to  its  home. 
These  bird-messengers  to-day  in  use  are 
known  as  homing-pigeons,  many  of  them 
being  made  to  accompany  armies  in  the  field 
(as  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War),  whence 
they  are  despatched  with  messages  to  their 
homes,  sometimes  as  far  distant  as  200,  300 
and  even  500  miles  off.  Their  use  in  this  re- 
spect is  an  old  one,  dating  back  even  to  the 
era  of  the  first  crusade  (noo),  when  pigeon- 
posts  were  utilized  by  the  Saracens  for  the 
transmission  of  information  as  to  where  they 
were  and  how  it  fared  with  them  in  engage- 
ments with  the  enemy.  The  carrier-pigeon 
is  a  bird  of  about  15  inches  in  length,  mark- 
edly carunculated  about  the  beak  and  eyes, 
and  with  wings  extending  almost  to  the  tip 
of  the  tail.  Their  intelligence  is  great,  and 
their  fligkt  is  straight  and  rapid,  though,  as 
a  rule,  not  exceeding  30  or  40  miles  an  hour, 
In  long  flights  they  are  liable  to  attacks  from 
enemies;  while  thick,  foggy  weather  is  a 
distinct  disadvantage  to  them. 

Car'roll,  Charles,  of  Carrollton,  (1737- 
1832),  American  patriot,  one  of  the  56 
signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, was  born  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  of  Irish 
descent,  and  educated  in  Europe,  chiefly  in 
the  Jesuit  colleges  in  France.  An  inheritor 
of  large  wealth  and  heir  to  old  manorial 
estates  in  Maryland,  the  youth  returned  to 
this  country  and  soon  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  colonies  against  the  British  crown  and 
stoutly  opposed  arbitrary  taxation.  When 
the  Revolutionary  War  came,  it  found  him 
a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress,  and 
with  others,  including  Benjamin  Franklin,  he 
was  despatched  to  Canada  to  endeavor  to 
get  that  colony  to  break  with  the  mother 


CARSON 


342 


CARTHAGE 


KIT   CARSON 


country  and  join  those  to  the  south  of  the 
line  in  seeking  independence.  Failing  in  his 
mission,  he  became  a  member  of  the  Mary- 
land constitutional  convention  and  later  one 
of  its  senate.  From  1789  to  1791  he  was  a 
member  of  the  federal  senate  and  also  served 
on  the  Maryland  and  Virginia  boundary 
commission.  In  1828  he  laid  the  corner- 
stone of  the  Baltimore  and  Onlo  Railway, 
and  four  years  later  died  at  Baltimore  in  his 
95th  year.  His  life  and  journals  have  been 
published. 

Carson,  Christopher,  popularly  known 
as  Kit  Carson,  a  famous  American  trapper 
and  guide,  was 
born  in  Kentucky 
in  1809.  While 
yet  a  youth  his 
family  moved  to 
Missouri,  and  he 
early  engaged  in 
trapping.  He  spent 
eight  years  as 
hunter  to  Bent's 
fort,  and  then 
acted  as  guide  in 
the  explorations  of 
General  Fremont. 
One  of  his  most 
difficult  feats  was 
the  driving  of 
6,500  sheep  to 
California.  He  be- 
came Indian  agent 

in  New  Mexico,  and  helped  to  bring  about 
many  treaties  with  the  Indians.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  did  good  service,  and  at  its 
close  was  breveted  brigadier-general.  He 
died  at  Fort  Lynn,  Col.,  in  1868. 

Carson  City,  Nev.,  the  seat  of  Orrnsby 
County  and  the  capital  of  the  state,  is  on 
the  Virginia  &  Truckee  Railway,  12  miles 
east  of  Lake  Tahoe  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  30  miles  south  of  Reno.  It  lies 
in  a  fertile  region,  its  chief  industries  being 
mining,  lumbering  and  agricultural  opera- 
tions. Besides  its  gold  and  silver  mines  (and 
here  is  the  noted  Comstock  Lode),  there  are 
hot  springs  in  the  region.  Settled  in  1858, 
the  town  became  the  capital  three  years 
later,  while  in  1875  ^  received  its  charter  as 
a  city.  Within  the  city  are  the  state  and 
federal  buildings,  including  a  branch  mint, 
and  in  the  neighborhood  are  a  U.  S.  govern- 
ment Indian  School  and  the  state  prison. 
Its  population,  which  has  declined  of  recent 
years,  was  in  1910  but  2,466. 

Cartagena  (kdr'td-je'nd),  Spain,  an  im- 
portant historic  town  and  fine  seaport  on  the 
Mediterranean,  in  the  province  of  Murcia,  is 
situated  in  the  southeast  of  the  kingdom, 
south  of  Alicante  and  east  of  Almeria  in 
Andalusia.  Its  population  in  1910  was  96,- 
983.  Its  harbor,  which  is  defended  by  strong 
fortifications,  is  one  of  the  best  on  the  coast 
and  was  formerly  the  chief  naval  arsenal 
of  Spain.  In  early  days  it  was  the  great 


commercial  emporium  of  the  Carthaginians,, 
and  was  founded  in  242  B.  C.  by  Hasdrubal. 
Thirty-two  years  later,  it  was  captured  by 
Scipio  Africanus  and  in  A.  D.  550  it  was 
destroyed  by  the  Goths;  it  has  otherwise 
suffered  from  invasion  and  capture  at  differ- 
ent eras.  Today  the  city,  which  is  an  epis- 
copal see,  has  many  interesting  ruins,  among 
them  the  Castillo  de  la  Concepcion,  situated 
on  a  fine  promontory,  while  notable  are  many 
of  its  churches  (especially  the  cathedral,  a 
Gothic  structure  which  dates  from  the  i3th 
century).  The  arsenal,  docks,  dockyards, 
barracks  and  hospitals,  besides  its  foundries, 
machine  shops,  glass  and  smelting  works  and 
other  industrial  establishments,  are  worthy 
of  a  visit.  Its  exports  consist  of  minerals, 
including  lead,  zinc,  copper,  silver  ore,  coke 
and  coal ;  besides  machinery,  lumber,  esparto 
grass,  oranges,  lemons. 

Carteret  (kdr'ter-et),  Sir  George,  an 
English  vice-admiral,  royal  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor of  the  island  of  Jersey  in  the  English 
Channel  and  one  of  the  original  proprietors 
of  the  land  lying  between  the  Hudson  and 
the  Delaware,  afterward  named  in  his  honor 
New  Jersey,  was  born  on  Jersey  about  1612 
and  died  in  1680.  With  Lord  Berkeley,  a 
favorite  of  Charles  the  Second's  court,  Car- 
teret was  granted  by  the  Duke  of  York  (after- 
ward James  II),  portions  of  New  Amsterdam 
and  what  is  now  New  Jersey.  On  the  lattef 
Carteret  settled  a  colony,  which  should  enjoy 
religious  freedom  and  a  liberal  government 
resembling  that  of  Maryland.  The  relations 
between  the  colonists  and  Carteret  were, 
nevertheless,  not  harmonious;  and  portions 
of  the  lands  were  made  over  to  the  Quakers, 
ultimately,  however,  to  revert  again  to  the 
crown  until  the  War  of  the  Revolution. 

Car'thage  (kdfthdf),  a  city  on  the  north- 
ern coast  of  Africa,  the  capital  of  one  of  the 
great  empires  of  the  ancient  world.  It  stood 
on  a  peninsula  of  the  region  that  is  now 
Tunis,  and  was  founded,  probably,  about  the 
middle  of  the  gth  century  B.  C.  by  Phoeni- 
cians from  Tyre  or  from  the  Tyrian  colony 
of  Utica.  The  Carthaginians  belonged  to  the 
Semitic  race,  and  were  an  offshoot  from  the 
Canaanites.  Vergil  in  his  ALneid  relates  a 
mythical  story  of  the  unfortunate  Queen 
Dido  and  the  young  city,  but  little  is  really 
known  of  the  city's  rise  to  power  and  wealth. 
About  the  6th  century  it  appears  as  the 
center  of  a  great  commerce  and  the  capital 
of  wide  dominions  in  Africa,  Sardinia,  Sicily, 
Corsica  and  probably  Malta.  In  525  B.  C. 
Carthage  narrowly  escaped  destruction  at 
the  hands  of  Cambyses,  the  Persian  king, 
and  in  509  B.  C.  occurred  her  first  treaty 
with  the  rising  power  of  Rome.  About  this 
time  began  the  contest  between  the  Cartha- 
ginians and  the  Greeks  for  the  possession  of 
Sicily.  Greece  had  settled  a  large  part  of 
that  island  with  her  colonies,  and  while  she 
was  engaged  in  her  struggle  with  Persia, 
Carthage  resolved  to  wrest  Sicily  from  hei 


CARTHAGE 


343 


grasp.  The  first  expedition  was  utterly  cut 
to  pieces  on  the  same  day  that  the  battle  of 
Salamis  was  fought.  The  war  was  carried 
on  for  250  years,  with  long  intervals  of  inac- 
tion and  with  varying  success;  but  in  276 
B.  C.,  when  the  struggle  closed,  Carthage 
was  strongly  established  in  the  island.  But  a 
new  enemy  now  appeared  to  contest  with 
Carthage  the  sovereignty  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, in  the  growing  power  of  Rome.  In 
264  B.  C.  began  the  famous  Punic  wars.  By 
the  close  of  the  first  of  these  wars,  in  241 
B.  C.,  Carthage  had  lost  Sicily;  but  her 
general,  Hamilcar,  and  his  son-in-law,  Has- 
drubal,  built  up  a  new  power  in  Spain,  and 
at  their  death,  Hannibal,  the  son  of  Hamil- 
car, one  of  the  greatest  generals  the  world 
has  ever  seen,  found  himself  able  to  renew 
the  struggle.  In  219  B.  C.  broke  out  the 
second  Punic  War.  Hannibal  issued  from 
Spain,  crossed  the  Alps,  descended  into 
Italy,  and,  in  battle  after  battle,  with  in- 
ferior forces  routed  the  best  soldiers  of  the 
ancient  world.  He  brought  Rome  to  the 
verge  of  ruin,  but  he  was  not  supported  by 
his  own  people.  As  Arnold  the  historian 
has  said,  it  was  the  war  of  a  man  with  a 
nation.  After  fifteen  years  in  Italy  Hannibal 
was  recalled  to  defend  his  own  city,  and  in 
202  B.  C.  he  was  defeated  in  the  battle  of 
Zama  by  Scipio.  Peace  was  concluded  and 
the  power  of  Carthage  was  broken.  But 
Rome  was  resolved  on  the  destruction  of  the 
city,  and  on  a  slight  pretext  declared  war 
in  149  B.  C.  Three  years  later  the  third 
Punic  War  closed  with  the  fall  of  the  city 
after  a  siege  of  two  years.  For  six  days, 
however,  the  fighting  went  on  in  the  streets, 
men  and  women  defending  their  homes  with 
fierce  despair,  contesting  every  foot  o'  the 
ground.  The  city  was,  nevertheless,  razed 
to  the  ground,  and  the  country  became  a 
Roman  province.  Carthage  became,  later 
on,  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  Roman 
empire.  In  the  5th  century  A.  D.  it  became 
the  capital  of  the  Vandal  kingdom  of  Africa, 
and  it  was  destroyed  at  the  end  of  the  7th 
century  by  the  Arabs.  Like  other  Canaan- 
ites,  the  Carthaginians  practiced  a  horrible 
form  of  fire-worship,  human  victims  being 
offered  to  their  chief  god,  Moloch.  No  Car- 
thaginian art  o  literature  remains,  if,  indeed, 
there  ever  existed  any  worthy  of  the  name. 
The  government  was  carried  on  by  two 
chief  magistrates  and  a  senate  of  the  leading 
families,  and  also  by  an  assembly  of  the 
people,  which,  however,  had  little  power. 
Their  armies  were  generally  made  up,  in  large 
measure,  of  hired  troops.  The  Carthaginians 
were  a  great  trading  people.  Their  ships 
sailed  as  far  west  as  the  Azores  and  as  far 
north  as  Britain  and  th  ?  Baltic.  There  was  in 
that  day  an  immense  trade  with  the  interior 
of  Africa  as  well  as  with  the  Gallic  tribes. 
At  the  time  of  the  siege  of  Carthage  by  the 
Romans  the  city  is  said  to  have  had  700,000 
inhabitants.  See  DIDO,  HANNIBAL  and  ROME. 


Carthage,  Mo.,  a  city,  the  county  seat 
of  Jasper  County,  on  Spring  River  and  on 
the  Mo.  Pacific,  the  St.  Louis  &  San  Fran- 
cisco and  White  River  R.  R's;  54  miles  west  of 
Springfield  and  150  miles  southeast  of  Kan- 
sas City.  Mines  of  lead,  zinc  and  cobalt  and 
quarries  of  marble  and  limestone  are  worked 
in  the  vicinity;  its  other  industries,  which  are 
flourishing,  embrace  the  manufacture  of  shoes, 
bed-springs  and  plows,  besides  its  foundries 
and  flour  mills.  Many  public  buildings, 
including  a  courthouse,  library,  churches  and 
schools  add  very  greatly  to  the  attractions  of 
this  progressive  city;  it  also  has  two  fine  parks. 
The  town  was  destroyed  in  the  Civil  War, 
but  soon  afterwards  rebuilt.  Near  the  city  an 
engagement  occurred  between  a  Union 
force  under  General  Sigel  and  a  force  of 
Confederates  under  Generals  Jackson  and 
Price.  The  result  was  indecisive.  Population, 
12,000. 

Cartier  (kar'tyA'),  Sir  George  Etienne, 
Canadian  statesman  and  leader  of  the 
French-Canadian  Conservatives  in  the  Do- 
minion parliament,  was  born  in  1814,  and 
died  in  England,  May  20,  1873.  He  was 
descended  from  the  great  navigator,  Jacques 
Cartier.  As  a  young  man  he  took  part  in 
the  rebellion  of  1837,  and  had  to  leave  the 
country  for  a  while.  Ten  years  later,,  after 
an  amnesty  had  been  issued,  he  entered 
Parliament,  and  in  1856  he  became  attor- 
ney-general for  Lower  Canada.  From  1858 
to  1862  he  was  premier;  and  in  1867,  as  a 
member  of  the  Macdonald  administration, 
he  took  an  active  part  in  bringing  about 
Canadian  confederation  under  the  British 
North  America  Act  of  that  year.  He  was 
made  a  baronet  by  the  crown  in  1868. 

Cartier,  Jacques,  a  French  navigator, 
was  born  at  St.  Malo  in  Brittany  in  1494. 
He  was  intrusted  by  Francis  I  with  the 
command  of  an  expedition  to  explore  the 
western  hemisphere,  and,  setting  sail  in 
April,  1534,  touched  on  the  coast  of  New- 
foundland and  discovered  the  mainland 
of  Canada,  which  he  claimed  for  France 
by  erecting  a  wooden  cross.  The  next  year 
he  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence  as  far  as  the 
Indian  village  of  Hochelaga,  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  Mont  Royal,  the  site  of 
the  modern  Montreal.  In  a  third  voyage, 
in  1541,  he  built  a  fort  named  Charlesbourg 
near  the  present  site  of  Quebec.  Whether 
he  made  any  more  voyages  is  uncertain, 
and  the  date  of  his  death  is  not  definitely 
known,  though  supposed  to  have  occurred 
in  1557. 

Cart'ilage.     See  GRISTLE. 

Cart' wright,  Edmund  (lived  from  1743 
to  1823),  the  inventor  of  the  power-loom, 
was  born  in  England,  and  until  the  age  of 
40  devoted  himself  to  the  ministry.  In 
1784  he  happened  to  talk  with  some  men 
from  Manchester  on  the  subject  of  mechan- 
ical weaving,  and,  although  he  had  never 
taken  any  interest  in  mechanics,  he  set 


CARTWRIGHT 


344 


CASCADE  RANGE 


to  work,  and  by  April  of  the  following  year 
he  had  his  first  power-loom  in  running 
order.  The  invention  was  opposed  both  by 
spinners  and  their  workmen,  and  the  first 
factory  was  burned  down.  But  improve- 
ments were  added,  and  it  finally  mad*  its 
way.  Cartwright  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life  in  experiments  in  the  use  of  steam- 
power  in  boats  and  carriages,  but  died 
without  reaching  any  result.  For  his  in- 
vention Parliament  voted  him  $50,000. 

Cart' wright,  Peter,  the  "Backwoods 
Preacher,"  was  born  in  Amherst  County, 
Va.,  in  1785.  His  family  moved  early  to 
Kentucky,  and  when  about  16  he  became 
interested  in  religion.  For  many  years  he 
preached  to  the  backwoodsmen,  and  his  sim- 
ble,  forcible  and  earnest  words  made  a  deep 
impression.  In  1812  he  was  made  a  presid- 
ing elder,  and  spent  over  65  years  in  differ- 
ent western  conferences.  He  traveled  n 
circuits  and  12  presiding-elder's  districts; 
received  more  than  10,000  members  into 
the  church;  baptized  more  than  12,000 
persons;  and  preached  in  all  about  15,000 
sermons.  His  story  is  told  in  his  Fifty 
Years  a  Presiding  Elder  and  the  Auto- 
biography of  Peter  Cartwright  the  Back- 
woods Preacher.  He  died  in  Illinois  in 
1872.  „ 

Cartwright,  Rt  Hon.  Sir  Richard 
John,  P.  C.  (Great  Britain), G.  C.M.G.,  K.C,. 
M.G.,  was  born  at  Kingston,  Ont.,  Dec. 
14,  1835,  the  son  of  the  late  Rev.  R.  D. 
Cartwright,  chaplain  to  the  forces,  and 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
He  has  been  in  the  parliament  of  old  Canada 
and  that  of  the  Dominion  almost  continu- 
ously since  1863,  was  finance  minister  from 
1873  t°  I878,  chief  financial  critic  and  one 
of  the  Opposition  leaders  from  1879  to 
1896,  acting  premier  and  leader  of  the 
house  of  commons  in  1897  and  minister 
of  trade  and  commerce  of  the  Dominion 
in  the  Laurier  cabinet.  In  1897  he  went 
to  Washington  for  the  promotion  of  bet- 
ter relations  between  Canada  and  the  United 
States,  proposed  a  joint  commission,  and 
served  on  the  Anglo-American  Joint  High 
commission  at  Quebec  in  1898  and  in  Wash- 
ington in  1898-9. 

Caruso,  Enrico.  Born  at  Naples,  Italy, 
in  1872.  The  son  of  a  mechanic,  and,  as 
a  boy,  working  for  two  lire  (40  cents)  a 
day.  With  later  years  he  developed  a 
vibrant  and  expressive  voice  which  led  to 
his  debut  on  the  operatic  stage  in  1896. 
He  appeared  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House  in  New  York  City  in  November, 
1903,  and  at  later  dates,  and  has  sung  in 
South  America,  Russia  and  England.  He 
has  been  decorated  by  the  kings  of  Italy 
and  Portugal. 

Ca'ry,  Alice  and  Phoebe,  American 
authors,  were  born  near  Cincinnati  in  1820 
and  1824,  respectively.  Though  receiving 
only  a  slight  education,  they  early  began1 


to  write.  The  poems  of  Alice  and  Phcebe 
Gary  showed  much  poetic  power.  The 
two  sisters  removed  to  New  York  in  1852. 
Alice  became  a  constant  contributor  to 
the  leading  magazines,  and  also  wrote 
novels  and  poetry,  which  subsequently 
appeared  in  oook-form.  The  writings  of 
Phcebe  consist  mainly  of  poems.  Both 
sisters  died  in  1871. 

Casas  (las  kd'sds) ,  Bartolome"  de  las,  bishop 
of  Chiapa  in  Mexico,  called  the  Apostle 
of  the  Indians,  was  born  at  Seville,  Spain, 
in  1474.  He  studied  at  Salamanca,  and 
with  his  father  set  out  on  the  third  voyage 
of  Columbus,  and  in  1502  accompanied 
Nicholas  de  Ovando  to  Hispaniola.  In 
1511,  having  the  year  before  entered  the 
priesthood,  he  was  sent  to  Cuba  to  help  to 
pacify  the  island,  and  for  his  services  he 
received  an  allotment  of  Indians  as  slaves. 
But  soon  sympathy  for  them  in  their 
piteous  condition  moved  him  to  go  to  Spain 
and  ask  for  a  commission  to  investigate 
into  their  condition.  He  further  sought 
that  negro  slaves  be  imported  to  take  the 
place  of  the  Indians  in  the  heavier  work 
and  thus  prevent  their  total  extermination. 
He  also  attempted  to  take  out  Castilian 
peasants  as  colonists,  but,  failing  in  this, 
he  retired  to  a  Dominican  convent  in  His- 
paniola to  spend  eight  years  in  solitude 
and  study.  In  1530  he  again  visited  Spain, 
and  after  four  years  of  missionary  work 
in  Mexico,  Nicaragua,  Peru  and  Guatemala 
he  returned  to  spend  four  more  years  in 
the  hope  of  gaining  his  purpose.  During 
this  period  he  wrote  veynte  Razones  (Twenty 
Reasons)  and  Brevissima  Relation  de  la 
Destruycion  de  las  Indias,  which  has  been 
translated  into  all  European  languages. 
He  was  offered  the  bishopric  of  Cuzco, 
but  preferred  the  poor  one  of  Chiapa,  and 
arrived  at  Ciudad  Real,  its  chief  city,  in 
1544.  Here  he  persisted  in  his  campaign 
against  the  allotments  of  Indians,  but  the 
revocation  of  the  new  laws  by  Charles  V 
caused  him  to  resign  in  1547.  In  1550  he 
argued  before  a  junta  against  SepuJveda, 
who  advanced  the  right  to  carry  on  war 
against  the  Indians,  and  in  1555  he  pre- 
vailed upon  Philip  II  not  to  sell  the  rever- 
sionary rights  of  the  allotments.  The  re- 
storation of  the  court  of  justice  to  the 
native  Guatemalans  was  the  last  act  before 
his  death,  which  occurred  in  a  convent  at 
Madrid,  July,  1566,  at  the  age  of  92.  S*e 
Life  by  Sir  Arthur  Helps. 

Cascade  (kas-kdd)  Range,  a  ra.*rge  of 
mountains  in  the  western  part  of  Wash- 
ington and  Oregon  and  British  Columbia, 
forming  a  continuation  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
of  California.  It  runs  nearly  north  and 
south  at  an  average  distance  of  about  100 
miles  from  the  seacoast.  The  chain  through- 
out most  of  its  course  is  heavily  wooded; 
but  its  chief  feature  is  the  presence  of 
beautiful  cone-shaped  and  perpetually  snow- 


CASCADE  TUNNEL 


345 


CASIMIR-PERIER 


clad  peaks  on  parts  of  tke  ramge.  There 
are  many  traces  of  volcanoes',  and  volcanic 
action  is  not  quite  extinct  in  the  region  of 
Washington.  The  main  peaks  are  Mounts 
Tacoma  (14,444  feet),  St.  Helen's  (12,000 
feet),  Baker  (10,700  feet),  Hood  (11,225 
feet),  Jefferson  (10,200  feet)  and  Pitt 
(9,818  feet).  The  Cascade  Mountains,  geol- 
ogists state,  are  of  much  more  recent  forma- 
tion than  the  Rocky  Mountains  proper. 

Cascade  Tunnel,  a  great  engineering 
feat  on  the  line  of  the  Great  Northern 
Railway  which  was  undertaken  and  ac- 
complislied  between  1897  and  1900  after 
studendous  labor  and  monetary  outlay. 
It  pierces  at  a  high  elevation  the  Cascade 
Range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  is 
in  length  about  2$  miles  or,  with  its  ex- 
tended shed  at  either  end,  nearly  14,500 
feet.  The  difficulties  of  the  task  were 
vast,  chiefly  by  reason  of  the  large  boulders 
and  mass  of  water-impregnated  gravel 
met  with  in  its  construction,  necessitating 
the  employment  of  extra  concentric  sets 
of  timbers  in  its  building  and  for  perma- 
nent support  and  safety.  The  tunnel, 
moreover,  had  to  be  heavily  lined  with 
solid  concrete,  the  pressure  upon  it  being 
so  great. 

Casault,  Sir  Louis  E.  N.,  was  born 
and  educated  in  the  province  of  Quebec. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Legislative  As- 
sembly of  Canada  1854-8,  and  of  the  House 
of  Commons  1867-70.  Appointed  a  judge 
of  the  Superior  Court  of  Quebec,  1870,  and 
was  one  of  the  arbitrators  who  determined 
the  disputed  accounts  between  Canada 
and  the  provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quebec. 
He  was  chief  justice  from  1894  until  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  1908. 

Cashmere  (kash'mer1),  Vale  of,  or,  as 
it  is  now  usually  spelled,  Kashmir,  the 
valley  of  the  Upper  Jhelum,  celebrated 
in  history  and  literature  for  the  beauty 
of  its  scenery  and  the  charms  of  its  climate, 
lies  in  the  feudatory  state  of  Kashmir  north 
of  the  Punjab.  It  extends  for  about  120 
miles  i.-om  northwest  to  southeast,  with 
a  mean  breadth  of  75  miles.  The  flat 
portion  of  the  valley  is  not  more  than  80 
miles  long  by  20  wide,  with  an  elevation 
above  sea-level  of  from  5,000  to  7,000  feet. 
In  it  are  two  lakes.  It  is  entered  by  many 
passes,  for  ranges  of  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains traverse  the  country.  Snow-capped 
mountains  almost  surround  it,  with  their 
lower  spurs  descending  in  rice-producing, 
terraced  slopes  to  the  level  part  of  the 
valley.  On  the  margin  of  the  lakes  and 
throughout  the  whole  valley  are  splendid 
groves  of  china  or  plane  trees,  here  and  there 
laid  out  with  taste  to  form  gardens  and  coun- 
try seats,  which  two  centuries  ago  used  to 
be  the  favorite  resorts  of  the  Mogul  em- 
perors. Avenues  of  poplars  line  the 
river.  On  the  surface  of  the  lakes  are 
floating  gardens,  made  up  of  masses  of 


gr»wi»g  plant*  from  two  to  three  feet 
thick.  Occupying  both  banks  of  the  river 
is  the  quaint  old  town  of  Srinagar,  the 
capital.  Seven  log-built  bridges  cross 
the  stream.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  is 
remarkable.  Shawl-weaving  and  lacquer- 
work  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the 
people.  Kashmir  and  Jammu  form  one 
of  the  feudatory  or  native  states  of  In- 
dia, .with  an  area  of  80,000  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  about  3,000,000. 

Cash-Register.  The  typical  cash-reg- 
ister is  that  manufactured  by  the  National 
Cash  Register  Company,  of  Dayton,  Ohio, 
and  found  in  so  many  retail  stores.  They 
serve  two  purposes:  to  check  possible 
dishonesty  of  the  assistants  and  to  take 
the  place  of  the  cash-sale  book.  There  are 
rows  of  keys,  like  those  on  a  typewriter, 
but  with  numbers  upon  them;  a  cash 
drawer  which  can  only  be  opened  by 
pressing  on  a  key;  a  bell  that  is  rung  when- 
ever a  key  is  pressed;  and  a  sign  which 
tells  anyone  looking  at  the  face  of  the  reg- 
ister what  key  has  been  struck.  When 
anyone  strikes  a  key,  therefore,  and  thus 
opens  the  drawer,  the  bell  gives  notice 
of  the  fact.  At  the  same  time  the  cus- 
tomer sees  whether  the  right  amount  was 
recorded.  Finally,  the  machine  {makes  a 
record,  every  time  a  key  is  struck,  of  the 
amount  or  number  on  the  key;  and  it 
automatically  adds  them,  so  that  at  a 
glance  the  employer  can  see  when  he  opens 
the  record-box  how  many  50,  ice,  etc. 
have  been  received.  He  adds  these  totals 
into  a  grand  total,  and  then  checks  by  its 
aid  the  amount  of  money  in  the  drawer. 
This  record  no  one  can  get  at  without  a 
key.  In  many  such  machines  the  operator 
can  keep  a  separate  record  of  the  following 
accounts:  amounts  charged;  cash  received; 
and  cash  paid  out.  Thus  the  cash-register 
is  a  book-keeper  as  well  as  a  detective. 
The  first  cash-register  was  that  invented 
in  1879  by  John  Ritty,  of  Dayton,  O. 
There  are  more  complicated  machines  of 
the  same  general  type  for  use  in  banks,  etc. 
One  important  fact  is  that  the  machine 
makes  no  mistakes  in  adding. 

Casimir-Perier  ( ka'ze'mer'pa'rya' ) ,  Jean 
Paul  Pierre,  who  became  the  fifth  presi- 
dent of  the  French  Republic  (1894-5),  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1847.  He  received  the 
cross  of  the  legion  of  honor  for  his  services 
in  the  Franco- Prussian  War.  His  grand- 
father had  been  premier  under  Louis  Phil- 
ippe, his  father  also  had  been  a  cabinet- 
minister,  and  it  is  natural  that  he  should 
have  chosen  a  political  career.  In  1893 
be  became  president  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  On  the  assassination  of  Presi- 
dent Carnot  in  1894  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent. After  a  short  and  stormy  admin- 
istration of  six  months  he  suddenly  resigned 
and  retired  from  public  affairs.  President 
Casimir-Perier  is  said  to  have  been  ham- 


CASPIAN  SEA 


346 


CASSOWARY 


pered  in  his  policy  even  by  his  own  min- 
isters, over  whose  acts  the  constitution  of 
the  French  Republic  gave  him  but  a 
slight  control.  He  died  March  12,  1907. 

Cas'pian  Sea,  an  inclosed  inland  sea  or 
great  salt-lake,  the  largest  in  the  world, 
lies  on  the  boundary  between  Europe  and 
Asia.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  Per- 
sia and  on  the  north  by  Russia;  with  the 
Caucasus  Mountains  on  its  westward  and 
the  transcaspian  territory  on  the  east.  _  Its 
length  from  north  to  south  is  700  miles, 
and  its  breadth  varies  from  130  to  270 
miles.  Its  total  area  is  estimated  at 
170,000  square  miles.  On  the  east  side, 
especially,  there  are  several  bays  and  pen- 
insulas. On  the  south  a  low,  flat  plain, 
from  15  to  20  miles  in  width,  leads  to  the 
lofty  range  of  the  Elburz  Mountains;  while 
the  north  is  bordered  by  great  steppes. 
The  surface  of  the  Caspian  is  97  feet  be- 
low the  level  of  the  Black  Sea  ^and  248 
feet  below  that  of  Lake  Aral.  It  is  proba- 
ble that  all  three  bodies  were  once  con- 
nected. The  Caspian  has  no  tides,  but 
violent  storms  make  navigation  danger- 
ous. Its  level  varies  much  at  different 
seasons.  In  the  middle  it  is  divided  by  a 
submarine  ridge,  a  continuation  of  the 
main  Caucasus  chain,  into  two  deep  basins. 
The  greatest  depth  found  in  the  northern 
basin  is  2,526  feet  and  in  the  southern 
3,006  feet.  A  number  of  large  rivers 
empty  their  waters  into  the  Caspian,  of 
which  the  greatest  is  the  Volga.  The  sea 
abounds  in  fish,  and  valuable  fisheries  are 
carried  on,  especially  for  sturgeon  and 
salmon.  By  a  canal  uniting  the  upper 
tributaries  of  the  Volga  with  those  of  Lake 
Ladoga  and  the  Dwina,  the  Caspian  is  united 
with  the  Baltic  Sea.  The  sea  is  now  sur- 
rounded on  three  sides  by  Russian  territory, 
the  southern  shore  still  remaining  Persian. 
The  Russians  maintain  a  flotilla  on  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  lines  of  steam-packets 
ply  upon  it. 

Cass,  Lewis,  an  American  politician, 
was  born  at  Exeter,  N.  H.,  Oct  9,  1782. 
His  family  went  west,  and  Cass  studied 
law  at  Marietta,  Ohio.  He  now  entered 
politics  is  a  Democrat,  and  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  War  of  1812;  was  gov- 
ernor of  Michigan  and  superintendent  of 
Indian  affairs  for  18  years,  during  which 
time  he  negotiated  22  treaties  with  Indians 
and  did  much  to  open  the  northwest  ter- 
itory;  he  also  explored  the  upper  lakes  and 
the  headwaters  of  the  Mississippi.  Cass 
was  secretary  of  war,  for  a  long  time  United 
States  senator  from  Michigan,  minister  to 
France  and  candidate  for  president  against 
Taylor.  In  1860  Cass  diffe  ed  from  Presi- 
dent Buchanan  in  his  southern  policy, 
and  resigned  his  position  as  secretary  of 
state,  closing  a  public  career  of  54  years. 
He  was  a  man  of  much  ability,  a  fine  scholar 
and  an  effective  speaker.  He  was  the 


author  of  several .  works.     He  died  at  De- 
troit, Mich.,  June  17,  1866. 

Cassandra  (ka-san'dra),in  Homeric  legend, 
was  the  fairest  daughter  of  Priam,  king  of 
Troy,  and  twin  sister  of  Helenus.  The 
two  children  were  left  one  night  in  the 
sanctuary  of  Apollo,  and  while  asleep  their 
ears  were  touched  and  purified  by  two 
snakes  so  that  they  could  understand  the 
language  of  birds  and  thus  know  the  future. 
Apollo  afterward  taught  Cassandra  the 
secret  of  prediction;  but  she  rejected  his 
love,  and  as  a  penalty  he  laid  upon  her  the 
curse  that  no  prediction  should  ever  be 
believed.  So  she  in  vain  predicted  the 
treachery  of  the  Grecian  horse  and  the 
destruction  of  Troy,  and  was  looked  upon 
by  the  citizens  as  mad.  On  the  sack  of 
the  city  she  was  torn  from  the  temple  by 
Ajax  Oileus,  and  in  the  distribution  of  the 
spoil  she  became  the  share  of  Agamemnon. 
She  was  afterward  murdered  by  Cly.em- 
nestra. 

Cassava  (kas'sa-vd).  This  is  the  West 
Indian  name  of  a  plant  that  grows  not  only 
in  those  islands,  but  in  Brazil,  Peru  and 
tropical  Africa.  In  Brazil  it  is  called 
manioc  (mandioc),  and  in  Peru,  yucca. 
From  its  stems,  branches  and  leaves  is 
obtained  a  juice,  which,  though  a  deadly 
poison  when  fresh,  quickly  becomes  a 
who  esome  food  when  heated,  and  is  used 
as  a  soup  by  the  natives.  From  the  plant 
also  is  obtained  arrowroot,  which  is  almost 
pure  starch.  Tapioca  also  is  made  from 
it  by  heating  the  arrowroot  until  the  grains 
of  starch  burst,  are  partly  converted  into 
dextrine  and  come  together  into  small 
lumps.  The  pearl  tapioca  which  is  better 
known  to  us  is  not  obtained  from  this 
plant,  but  from  potato  starch.  Another 
important  and  well  known  product  of 
cassava  is  farina,  which  also  is  almost  pure 
starch.  This  is  obtained  from  the  roots, 
which  are  grated  and  then  dried  on  hot 
metal  plates.  The  cassava  is  remarkable 
for  its  fertility. 

Cassiope'ia  (kas-st-o-pe'yd),  a  constella- 
tion in  the  northern  hemisphere,  not  far 
from  the  north  pole.  It  is  marked  by  five 
stars  of  the  third  magnitude,  forming  a 
figure  like  a  W.  In  1572  there  appeared 
in  this  constellation  a  new  star,  which, 
when  first  noticed  by  Tycho  Brahe,  ex- 
ceeded in  brightness  all  the  fixed  stars  and 
nearly  equaled  Venus.  The  star  gradually 
diminished  in  magnitude,  and  disappeared 
in  March,  1584. 

Cas'sowary,  a  large  running  bird,  native 
to  New  Guinea  and  northeastern  Australia. 
Although  related  to  the  ostrich,  it  belongs 
to  a  different  family  and  lives  in  dense 
forests,  while  the  ostrich  lives  on  open 
plains  and  deserts.  It  has  black  plumage, 
with  a  naked  neck,  and  bright-colored 
(red,  blue,  yellow)  wattles.  It  is  about  five 
feet  high,  with  rudimentary  wings,  a  swift 


CAST 


347 


CAT 


runner  and  a  good  swimmer.  On  the  head 
"s  a  hard  bony  cap  or  helmet.  The  head  is 
carried  low  while  running,  and  the  vines 


CASSOWARY 

and  branches  strike  this  cap  and  slide  over 
the  back.  It  feeds  mostly  at  night  on 
fruits  and  berries.  The  birds  may  be  tamed. 
If  teased,  they  kick  powerfully  sideways. 

Cast,  a  term  applied  when  a  work  of 
sculptured  art — a  figure  or  ?  group  of 
figures — is  reproduced  in  plastci  or,  less 
perishably,  in  bronze.  Famous  works  of 
antiquity  are  often  thus  reproduced  when 
replicas  (duplicates  or  repetitions)  are 
made  of  them  as  models  for  study  in  schools 
of  art  or  for  exhibition  in  museums  or  art 
galleries.  The  process  of  reproduction  is 
first  to  lubricate  the  original  carefully 
that  it  may  not  be  injured  or  defaced,  and 
so  that  the  applied  plaster  shall  not  adhere 
to  it  when  it  is  coated  with  the  plaster, 
after  which,-  when  the  latter  is  dry,  the 
mold  or  shell  is  removed,  either  whole 
or  in  parts.  This  cast,  as  it  is  called, 
when  it  is  put  together,  furnishes,  generally 
speaking,  a  faithful  reproduction  of  the 
original,  and  from  it  repeated  copies  may 
be  similarly  made.  When  the  original  is 
designed  to  be  reproduced  in  bronze  or 
other  metal,  the  process  is  termed  found- 
ing, the  reproduction  being  done  from 
suitable  molds  in  a  foundry. 

Caste.     See  INDIA. 

Castelar  (kds'td-ldr'},  Emilio,  a  Spanish 
orator,  statesman  and  writer,  was  born  at 
Cadiz,  September  8,  1832.  He  was  for 
some  years  professor  of  history  and  philoso- 
phy in  the  university  at  Madrid.  He  took 
part  in  several  political  uprisings  and  helped 
to  bring  about  the  downfall  of  King  Amadeus 
in  1873.  Castelar  became  dictator,  but, 
when  Alphonso  XII  became  king,  he  fled 


across  the  frontier.  He  returned  to  Spain  in 
1876  and  devoted  himself  more  to  literature 
than  to  political  and  social  questions.  He 
died  in  1899. 

Castile.     See  SPAIN. 

Castor=Oil,  a  familiar  and  simple  pur- 
gative, derived  from  the  seeds  of  the  cas- 
tor-oil plant  (Ricinus  Communis),  a  native 
of  the  Indies.  Used  as  a  laxative,  it  has  a 
nauseous  smell  and  disagreeable  taste, 
which  can,  however,  be  partially  overcome 
by  using^it  in  capsules  of  gelatin  or  by  float- 
ing the  oil  on  hot  coffee.  It  is  considerably 


CASTOR-OIL    PLANT 

used  in  the  arts  as  a  lubricant  for  machinery, 
while  in  the  East  Indies  it  is  employed  as  an 
illuminant  as  a  lamp-oil. 

Cas'tor  and  Pol'lux,  often  called  Sons 
of  Zeus,  were,  according  to  Homeric  story, 
the  brothers  of  Helen  of  Troy;  but  another 
tradition  makes  them  only  half-brothers 
of  Helen,  their  father  being  Zeus;  while  still 
a  third  account  makes  only  Pollux  Zeus's 
son,  and  so  he  alone  was  immortal.  Castor 
was  famous  for  his  skill  in  managing  horses; 
Pollux  for  his  powers  in  boxing.  Both  re- 
ceived divine  honors  at  Sparta  as  patrons 
of  travelers  by  sea.  They  assisted  at  the 
battle  (496  B.C.)  of  Lake  Regillus.  Zeus 
placed  the  brothers  among  the  stars.  They 
are  the  principal  stars  in  the  constellation  of 
Gemini  or  the  twins.  Their  names  are  also 
given  to  the  electric  appearance  known  as 
St.  Elmo's  Fire. 

Cat,  the  name  of  a  family  which  includes 
besides  the  wild  and  domestic  cat,  such 
animals  as  the  lion,  tiger,  leopard,  puma, 
jaguar,  cougar  or  American  panther,  etc. 
The  wild  cat  of  Europe  is  larger  and  stronger 


CATACOMBS 


348 


CATALPA 


than  the  house  cat,  with  yellowish-gray 
fur  and  dark  stripes  down  the  back,  along 
the  sides,  across  the  legs,  and  rings  on  the 
tail.  In  common  with  all  the  wild  members 
of  the  family,  it  is  very  fierce  in  disposition. 
The  animal  called  wild  cat  in  America  is  a 
lynx.  The  common  domestic  cat  proba- 
bly is  a  descendant  of  the  Egyptian  cat, 
which  was  tamed  13  centuries  B.  C.  From 
Egypt  it  was  carried  into  Europe,  but  was 
long  scarce  and  very  expensive.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  cats.  Some  of  the  best 
known  are  the  fawn-colored,  royal  Siamese 
cat,  with  blue  eyes  and  small  head;  the 
Maltese  cat,  of  a  bluish-gray  color;  the 
large  Angora  or  Persian  cat,  with  long,  gen- 
erally whitish  fur;  and  the  beautiful  Spanish 
or  tortoise-shell  cat.  The  Manx  cat  of  the 
Isle  of  Man  is  tailless  and  has  very  long 
hind  legs.  In  cats  the  senses  of  sight, 
hearing  and  touch  are  very  highly  developed, 
and  the  intelligence  also  is  great.  Their 
whiskers  are  sensitive  hairs,  and  the  pupil 
of  their  eye  expands  in  the  dark,  enabling 
the  animal  to  see  with  a  small  amount  of 
light.  The  habits  of  domestic  cats  are  well 
krown,  and  they  do  many  clever  things. 
Fi  >m  early  times  cats  have  been  the  objects 
of  superstition.  In  Egypt  they  are  held 
in  the  highest  reverence,  and  sacrifices  were 
offered  to  them.  In  the  middle  ages  they 
were  believed  to  be  the  friends  of  witches, 
and  the  favorite  shape  of  Satan  was  said 
to  be  that  of  a  black  cat.  See  Mivart's 
The  Cat  (1880)  and  Champfleury's  Cats, 
Past  and  Present  (1885). 

Cat'acombs  are  ancient  underground 
places  for  burying  the  dead.  Those  in 
Egypt,  the  burial  places  of  the  ancient 
kings,  are  very  remarkable;  but  the  most 
important  are  the  famous  Roman  cata- 
combs. These  are  to  be  found  on  almost 
all  the  roads  leading  out  of  the  city,  at  a 
distance  of  two  or  three  miles  outside  of 
the  walls.  More  than  40  of  these  ceme- 
teries are  known  to  have  existed,  and  two 
thirds  of  these  were  of  considerable  extent; 
and,  if  the  galleries  were  extended  in  a 
straight  line,  they  would  reach  at  least  300 
or  400  miles.  Many  of  them  are  very  old 
having  been  originally  quarries;  but  a  large 
number  were  dug  solely  for  the  purpose  of 
burial  and  as  places  of  worship.  Each 
catacomb  forms  a  network  of  passages  or 
galleries,  usually  eight  feet  high  by  two 
or  three  wide.  The  graves  are  in  tiers  on 
the  sides,  and  when  undisturbed  are  found 
closed  by  marble  slabs  or  tiles,  on  which 
are  often  found  inscriptions  or  Christian 
emblems.  The  catacombs  were  used  by 
the  Christians  during  the  ages  of  persecu- 
tion as  places  of  burial  and  also  of  worship; 
but  the  use  of  them  was  at  various  times 
forbidden,,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  5th 
century  the  practice  of  burial  there  entirely 
ceased.  When  the  ages  of  persecution  came 
to  an  end,  a  new  era  opened  in  the  history 


of  the  catacombs.  Christian  pilgrims 
flocked  from  all  lands  to  see  them  and 
to  do  honor  to  the  martyrs  entombed  there. 
Some  of  the  more  important  tombs  were 
decorated  with  marble  and  some  with  gold 
and  silver.  In  the  6th  and  8th  centuries 
they  were  ravaged  by  the  Goths  and  Lom- 
bards, and  in  consequences  the  sacred  relics 
were  removed  to  the  churches.  The  cata- 
combs then  fell  into  neglect,  and  were 
almost  forgotten  by  the  Christian  world. 
They  were  at  this  time  thronged  with  out- 
laws and  assassins.  They  were  again  some- 
what cleared,  and  in  1578  an  accidental 
landslip  brought  them  to  light  and  they 
soon  attracted  universal  attention.  They 
have  since  been  much  studied  and  written 
about.  Other  catacombs  are  those  of 
Naples,  Syracuse  and  Malta.  The  so-called 
catacombs  of  Paris  are  simply  old  quarries 
under  the  city,  to  which  the  contents  of 
graveyards  have  been  removed. 

Catalan!  (kd-ta-la'ne),  Angelica,  an  Ital- 
ian singer,  was  born  in  1779  near  Ancona, 
and  in  her  seventh  year  displayed  such  won- 
derful powers  that  strangers  flocked  from 
all  quarters  to  hear  her.  She  began  her 
professional  career  at  Venice  when  18  years 
old,  and  for  more  than  thirty  years  passed 
through  a  series  of  triumphs  in  every  coun- 
try in  Europe.  Her  large,  queenly  person 
and  fine  countenance,  the  immense  volume 
and  range  of  her  voice  and  at  the  same 
time  her  lightness  and  ease  in  its  use  every- 
where took  her  audiences  by  storm.  She 
twice  directed  the  Italian  opera  in  Paris. 
She  bought  a  villa  near  Florence  after  retir- 
ing from  the  stage,  where  she  gave  free 
instructions  to  girls  who  had  a  talent  for 
singing.  She  died  in  1849. 

Catalonia,  a  former  province  of  Spain, 
in  the  northeast  of  the  kingdom  and  situated 
south  of  the  Pyrenees,  east  of  Aragon,  and 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Mediterranean. 
It  to-day  comprises  the  provinces  of  Gerona, 
Lerida,  Tarragona  and  Barcelona.  Its  area 
is  12,480  square  miles,  and  in  1910  it  had 
a  population  (known  as  Catalans)  of  2,075,- 
033.  It  is  the  chief  agricultural  and  manu- 
facturing district  of  Spain.  The  soil  is 
productive  in  the  valleys,  where  grain,  flax, 
g~spes  and  fruits  are  raised,  while  much  of 
the  region  is  rich  in  minerals,  including 
iron,  copper,  zinc,  coal  and  marble.  The 
principal  seaport  and  seat  of  Spanish  com- 
merce is  Barcelona;  population  (1910), 
560,000. 

Catalpa  (kd-tdl'pd),  a  kind  of  tree  of 
which  there  are  seven  or  eight  species,  two 
being  found  in  the  United  States.  The  com- 
mon catalpa  is  a  native  of  the  southern  part 
of  the  United  States,  and  is  cultivated  as 
an  ornamental  tree  in  most  of  the  cities 
of  the  northern  states.  It  has  silver-gray 
bark,  and  its  showy  flowers  are  white, 
slightly  tinged  with  purple  and  violet  in 
the  throat.  The  flowers  are  followed  by 


s  White  Persian 


2  Light  Silver         3  Cream  Persian         4  Siamese 
6  Short  Hair  Tortoise  Shell 


S  Silver  Persian 


A  GROUP  OF  LIONS. 


ROYAL  BENGAL  TIGER 


LEOPARD. 


CATANIA 


349 


CATERPILLAR 


pods,  often  a  foot  in  length,  which  hang 
until  the  next  spring.  In  its  natural  locality 
this  tree  seldom  exceeds  40  feet  in  height. 
The  wood  is  light  in  color  and  coarse- 
grained, and  is  used  in  exterior  finish,  for 
fence  posts  and  railroad  ties.  It  is  known 
by  various  names,  as  Indian  bean,  candle- 
tree  and  bean-tree.  Catalpas  belong  to 
the  Begonia  family. 

Catania  (kd-td'n§-a) ,  a  city  and  seaport 
of  Sicily,  near  the  foot  of  Mt.  Etna.  The 
fertile  and  well-cultivated  plain  of  Catania 
is  styled  the  granary  of  Sicily,  and  has 
given  the  city  the  title  of  Beautiful 
Catania.  By  eruptions  of  the  great  vol- 
cano and  by  earthquakes,  the  city  has  been 
several  times  almost  entirely  destroyed,  but 
out  of  its  ruins  it  has  always  risen  with 
increased  beauty.  It  now  is  the  finest  city 
of  Sicily,  being  built  throughout  on  a 
beautiful  and  uniform  plan.  Among  the 
chief  buildings  are  the  Benedictine  con- 
vent of  San  Nicola,  the  cathedral,  founded 
in  1091,  and  the  university,  founded  in 
1434,  which  has  a  faculty  of  48  professors 
and  i  ,048  students.  There  are  manufactures 
of  silk  and  linen  goods  and  of  articles  in 
amber,  lava,  wood,  etc.  There  have  been 
some  remains  of  ancient  times  found  here, 
including  those  of  a  theater,  a  temple  of 
Ceres,  Roman  baths  and  an  aqueduct. 
Catania  was  founded  by  the  Greeks  in  the 
8th  century  B.  C.,  and  became  a  flourishing 
city.  It  was  desolated  by  Dionysius  I,  but 
again  rose  under  the  Roman  sway.  It 
was  destroyed  by  earthquake  in  1909. 
Population,  211,699. 

Catapult  (kat'd-pult},  an  ancient  military 
engine  for  throwing  stones,  arrows,  javelins 
and  other  missiles.  It  was  invented  in 
Syracuse  in  the  reign  of  Dionysius  the 
Elder.  It  consisted  of  a  wood  framework, 
a  part  of  which  was  elastic  and  furnished 
with  tightly  drawn  cords  of  hair  or  gut. 
It  acted  on  the  principle  of  a  bow.  Cata- 
pults were  of  various  sizes.  The  largest 
would  throw  a  beam  six  feet  long  and 
weighing  60  pounds  to  a  distance  of  400 
paces. 

Cataract.     See  WATERFALL. 

Catawbas  (ka-ta'bdz),  a  tribe  of  Indians 
in  North  and  South  Carolina,  now  reduced 
to  a  mere  handful.  When  these  states  were 
settled,  they  were  a  powerful  tribe  with 
1,500  warriors.  They  occupied  six  towns  on 
Catawba  River.  They  were  a  warlike  peo- 
ple, early  engaged  in  strife  with  the  Chero- 
kees  and  later  with  the  Shawnees  and 
Iroquois,  but  were  freindly  to  the  settlers 
and  served  with  them  in  the  Revolution. 
They  retired  on  a  reservation,  and  have 
since  decreased  greatly.  There  are  now 
about  200  half-breeds  in  the  reservation 
bearing  the  name.  Pontiac  is  said  by 
some  to  have  been  by  birth  a  Catawba. 
The  last  full-blooded  Catawba,  Peter  Harris, 
was  a  Revolutionary  soldier. 


Cat' bird,  a  very  common,  well-known 
bird  in  the  United  States,  related  to  the 
southern  mock- 
ing-bird and 
othtr  thrushes. 
The  ordinary 
song  of  the 
male  during  the 
mating  season 
is  musical  and 
agreeable,  but 
both  male  and 
female  utter  on 
occasion  a  dis- 
agreeable cry,  CATBIRD 
like  the  mewing  of  a  cat,  and  from  this 
their  name  is  derived.  The  bird  is  slaty- 
gray  with  black  cap  and  tail.  It  nests  in 
thickets  and  shrubbery  near  settlements,  sel- 
dom more  than  four  or  five  feet  from  the 
ground.  The  nest  is  a  bulky  affair  of  twigs, 
leaves,  grasses  and  fine  roots.  The  four  or 
five  eggs  are  of  a  bluish-green  color.  The 
bird  arrives  in  New  England  in  May,  and 
departs  for  the  south  the  middle  of  October. 

Caterpillar,  the  immature  stage  of  but- 
terflies and  moths,  intermediate  between  the 
egg  and  the  perfect  insect.  What  the  tadpole 
is  to  the  frog,  the  caterpillar  is  to  the  butter- 
fly or  moth.  They  are  both  called  larval 
stages,  and  when  the  extensive  change  takes 
place,  transforming  them  into  adult  stages, 
it  is  in  both  cases  called  a  metamorphosis. 
(The  metamorphosis  of  insects  is  general  and 
by  no  means  confined  to  butterflies  and 
moths).  The  butterfly  or  moth  deposits  eggs, 
which,  in  place  of  hatching  in  the  form  of 
the  parents,  hatch  as  worm-like  caterpillars. 
But  caterpillars,  although  worm-like  in  form, 
are  not  worms ;  they  are  immature  stages  of 
insects.  They  all  have  three  pairs  of  jointed 
legs  like  insects  (also  additional  false-legs 
or  supports),  and  all  breathe  by  air- tubes 
like  insects.  Caterpillars  vary  greatly  in 
form,  size  and  coloring.  There  are  the  com- 
mon heavy  or  woolen  varieties,  and  many 
others  that  are  unprovided  with  hair  but 
usually  with  bright  colors.  The  common 
measuring-worms,  the  large  green  tomato- 
worms,  the  striped,  spotted,  and  various- 
colored  worms  found  on  milkweed,  tobacco, 
apple-leaves,  mulberry  and  other  plants  are 
illustrations.  . 

The  rearing  of  these  larvae,  in  order  to 
watch  the  changes,  is  now  a  common  thing; 
boxes  open  to  the  air,  but  provided  with 
wire  screens,  are  used.  Into  these  are  placed 
the  larvae  and  some  of  the  leaves  of  the  plant 
on  which  they  are  found,  and  these  are  re- 
newed from  time  to  time.  They  will  grow 
in  the  boxes  so  tended,  and,  when  they  have 
reached  their  full  growth,  will  pass  into  the 
stage  of  a  pupa  or  chrysalis.  The  latter  vary 
also  greatly  in  form  and  appearance.  Some 
kinds  spin  cocoons  around  themselves,  others 
draw  the  skin  over  the  back  and  form  a  sort 
of  case  into  which  they  retire. 


CATFISH 


350 


CATHERINE  OF  ARAGON 


Some,  like  the  tomato  worm,  burrow  into 
the  earth,  and  there  form  a  dark  brown  case, 


CATERPILLAR 

provided  with  a  long,  slender,  curved  handle ; 
the  resemblance  of  the  whole  structure  to  a 
brown  jug  gives  this  form  the  not  inappro- 
priate name  of  the  jug-handle.  Inclosed 
within  the  handle  is  the  sucking  tube  of  the 
mouth.  The  chrysalids  formed  upon  bushes 
are  often  ornamented  with  bright  golden 
metallic  spots.  The  cocoons  of  the  silkworm 
are  the  ordinary  cases  of  the  chrysalids  of 
that  moth.  What  takes  place  within  the 
cocoon  is  not  thoroughly  understood,  but 
the  living  part  of  the  body  is  all  worked  over. 
Disks  appear  upon  the  caterpillar,  from 
which  grow  the  wings,  legs  and  other  parts 
of  the  perfect  insect.  The  period  of  residence 
within  the  cocoon  is  not  one  of  sleep  and  no 
change,  but  a  period  of  reconstruction  and 
great  changes.  Shut  up  within  the  cocoon 
the  new  organs  of  the  perfect  insect  are 
constructed  out  of  the  olcf  ones  of  the  larva. 
It  is  one  of  those  marvelous  changes  which 
take  place  continually  in  the  world  of  life. 
It  is  a  development  parallel  to  the  develop- 
ment within  the  egg,  but  of  a  different 
character. 

Caterpillars  are  preyed  on  by  birds  and 
other  animals,  but  these  apparently  defense- 
less creatures  have  means  of  protecting  them- 
selves from  their  natural  enemies.  Some- 
times they  are  covered  with  stiff  hairs  or 
sharp  points,  making  them  disagreeable  to 
swallow.  Some,  by  reason  of  secretions,  have 
an  unpleasant  taste  or  odor,  and  birds  soon 
learn  to  leave  them  alone.  Sometimes  the 
harmless  forms  assume  the  colors  of  the 
harmful  kinds,  mimic  their  movements  and 
thereby  save  their  own  lives.  The  bright 
colors  of  the  poisonous  or  unpleasant  ones 
are  called  warning  colors.  Others  still  are 
protected  by  resembling  in  color  and  mark- 
ings the  objects  on  which  they  live  and  so 
escaping  notice.  Caterpillars  often  are  very 
destructive.  The  woolen  moth  has  a  small, 
worm-like  larva,  that  feeds  on  woolen  fabrics, 
furs,  etc.  The  yearly  injury  to  crops  is  enor- 
mous. The  sole  business  of  the  larvae  is  to 
eat  and  grow,  and  they  may  eat  many 
thousand  times  their  weight  before  going 
into  the  chrysalis  state.  The  destruction 
caused  by  the  army-worm  is  very  great.  The 
loss  from  the  cotton-worm  in  one  year  was 
above  thirty  million  dollars,  as  estimated  by 
authorities  of  the  United  States  government. 

Catfish,  a  common  food-fish,  with  large 
head  and  slender  barbels  about  the  mouth. 
The  latter,  from  a  fancied  resemblance  to 
the  whiskers  of  the  cat,  give  the  name.  The 
common  catfish  of  the  United  States  is  abun- 
dant in  sluggish  waters  and  is  called  bull- 


head and  horned  pout.  It  is  a  homely  fish, 
of  dark  color,  and  has  no  scales.  It  has 
sharp  spines  near  the  front  fins  and  one  on 
the  back,  that  make  painful  wounds.  Some 
varieties  grow  to  large  size;  the  black-cat 
of  the  great  lakes  exceeds  a  hundred  pounds 
in  weight,  and  the  ponderous  cat  of  the 
Mississippi  reaches  a  weight  of  two  hundred 
pounds.  There  also  are  catfish  in  salt  water. 

Cathay  (kd-thd'),  the  name  applied  to 
China  by  the  western  nations  of  Europe  in 
the  middle  ages,  is  a  term  now  seldom  em- 
ployed except  in  poetry  and  rhetoric.  "  Bet- 
ter fifty  years  of  Europe  than  a  cycle  of 
Cathay' '  writes  Tennyson  in  Locksley  Hall. 
See  CHINESE  EMPIRE. 

Catherine  de  Medici  (ddmd'd$-ch$),  wife 
of  one  king  of  France  and  mother  of  three, 
was  born  at  Florence,  in  1519,  of  a  famous 
Florentine  family.  When  fourteen,  she  was 
married,  as  the  niece  of  Pope  Clement  VII, 
to  Henry,  the  second  son  of  Francis  I  of 
France.  Her  influence  was  not  felt  until  her 
eldest  son,  Francis  II,  became  king  in  1559. 
The  great  Catholic  family  of  the  Guises,  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  Huguenots,  on  the 
other,  were  both  becoming  so  powerful  as 
to  overawe  the  crown.  The  able  Catherine, 
having  the  reins  of  government  in  her  own 
hands,  partially,  under  Francis  II,  and 
wholly,  under  the  weak-minded  Charles  IX, 
played  off  these  great  parties  against  each 
other.  It  was  one  of  these  intrigues  which 
caused  the  fearful  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Day.  The  elevation  of  her  third  son 
to  the  throne  of  Poland  and  the  death  of  her 
fourth  son  were  brought  about  by  her  in- 
trigues. Under  Henry  III  she  was  almost  as 
powerful  as  she  had  been  before.  But  in  a 
few  years  she  and  her  son,  having  betrayed 
those  who  trusted  them,  found  themselves 
abandoned  by  all.  The  great  Catholic 
League,  with  the  Guises  at  its  head,  and 
the  Protestants,  headed  by  Henry  of  Navarre, 
equally  distrusted  them.  Catherine  died 
unheeded  and  unmourned  in  1589. 

Catherine  of  Aragon  (ar'd-gbn),  queen 
of  England  and  first  of  the  six  wives  of 
Henry  VIII,  was  born  in  1485  and  died  in 
1536.  She  was  the  fourth  daughter  of  Ferdi- 
nand, King  of  Aragon,  and  of  Isabella  of 
Castile.  While  scarcely  sixteen  she  was 
married  to  Arthur,  Prince  of  Wales,  son  of 
Henry  VII,  but  by  his  decease  a  year  later 
Catherine  was  left  a  widow.  In  1509,  on 
Henry  Vill  coming  to  the  throne,  she  be- 
came his  wife,  having  some  years  before  re- 
ceived the  papal  dispensation.  With  Henry 
she  lived  happily  for  about  twenty  years, 
but  the  want  of  male  issue,  together  with  the 
king's  passion  for  Anne  Boleyn,  one  of  Queen 
Catherine's  maids  of  honor,  led  to  a  dissolu- 
tion of  the  marriage,  which  Cranmer  declared 
a  nullity,  though  the  pope  refused  to  sanction 
the  divorce  and  thereby  hastened  the  rup- 
ture between  the  English  Church  and  the 
Church  of  Rome.  The  grief-stricken  queen 


CATHERINE  II 


351 


CATO 


retired  into  privacy,  and  led  an  austere  re- 
ligious life  until  her  death  in  1536,  three 
Sears  after  Henry's  marriage  with  Anne 
oleyn. 

Cath'erine  II,  Empress  of  Russia,  was 
born  at  Stettin  in  1729.  The  daughter  of 
a  Prussian  prince  she  was  chosen  by  the 
Empress  Elizabeth  as  the  bride  of  her 
nephew  and  heir  Peter.  She  had  many  quar- 
rels with  her  husband,  and  each  led  a  life  of 
open  vice.  In  1761  Peter  III  ascended  the 
Russian  throne.  An  attempt  of  the  new  and 
unpopular  tsar  to  divorce  Catherine  brought 
about  a  conspiracy,  which  dethroned  and 
murdered  him.  It  is  pretty  certain  that 
Catherine  had  a  share  in  the  murder. 
Catherine's  reign  was  energetic,  and  remark- 
able for  the  rapid  increase  of  the  dominion 
and  power  of  Russia.  Her  two  wars  with 
Turkey,  the  three  partitions  of  Poland  and 
the  acquisition  of  Courland  (a  southern 
Baltic  province)  each  brought  great  addi- 
tions of  territory  and  prestige.  She  made 
some  attempts  at  making  the  country  more 
free,  but  Russia  was  not  yet  ripe,  and  they 
did  not  outlive  her.  She  died  at  St.  Peters- 
burg in  1796. 

Catherine  Howard.  See  HOWARD,  CATH- 
ERINE. 

Catherine  Parr.     See  PARR,  CATHERINE. 

Cathode  Rays  (kath'-od),  a  phenomenon 
accompanying  electric  discharge  in  a  vacuum 
tube  in  which  the  pressure  is  something  less 
than  one  one-thousandth  of  a  millimeter  of 
mercury.  The  wire  by  which  the  electric 
current  enters  the  tube  is  called  the  anode: 
the  wire  by  which  the  current  leaves  is  called 
the  cathode.  When  the  region  between  the 
anode  and  cathode  is  a  perfect  vacuum,  the 
walls  of  the  vacuum  tube  exhibit  a  brilliant 
phosphorescence,  as  if  they  were  bombarded 
by  particles  which  are  projected  from  the 
cathode.  These  particles  appear  to  travel 
in  straight  lines  from  the  cathode  to  the 
walls  of  the  glass  tube;  for  if  a  screen  be 
placed  in  the  region  between  the  cathode  and 
the  wall,  a  shadow  geometrically  similar  to 
the  screen  is  cast  on  the  wall.  Another  re- 
markable property  of  the  cathode  rays  is  that 
they  are  deflected  from  their  rectilinear  paths 
by  a  magnet.  In  this  respect  they  behave 
as  if  they  were  flexible  electric  conductors. 
It  was  this  fact  that  -led  Crookes  to  suppose 
them  negatively  electrified  particles  shot 
from  the  cathode.  Most  interesting  of  all, 
perhaps,  is  the  fact,  discovered  by  Roentgen 
in  1895,  that  whenever  cathode  rays  strike 
the  walls  of  the  vacuum  tubes  they  give  rise 
to  X-rays.  See  ROENTGEN  RAYS. 

Catholic  University  of  America,  a 
Roman  Catholic  institution  of  higher  learn- 
ing at  Washington,  D.  C.,  which  dates  from 
1887  and  has  a  number  of  colleges  in  various 
sections  of  the  country  affiliated  with  it. 
It  has  received  several  goodly  money  gifts 
towards  its  endowment  and  maintenance, 
and  is  under  a  chancellor,  rector  and  govern- 


ing body.  Under  its  various  faculties  in  the- 
ology, philosophy,  law  and  technology  the 
university  has  a  teaching  staff  of  30  pro- 
fessors and  instructors  with  about  160 
students;  it  also  has  a  good,  well-equipped 
library,  and  maintains  a  quarterly  bulletin 
giving  information  on  the  subjects  treated 
in  the  curriculum  of  studies.  It  has  a  num- 
ber of  endowed  chairs  and  also  several 
endowed  scholarships.  Its  present  rector 
or  president  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Dennis  J. 
O'Connell,  and  its  chancellor  is  Cardinal 
Gibbons. 

Catiline  (ktit'^i-lin) ,  Lucius  Sergius,  a 
Roman  conspirator,  was  born  about  108 
B.  C.,  of  a  noble  family.  He  was  able  to 
bear  great  fatigue;  he  was  masterful  and 
resolute  in  mind;  his  face  looked  reckless 
and  haggard;  and  he  seemed  in  later  life 
to  be  in  a  constant  fever  of  disappointed 
ambition.  After  an  ill-spent  youth  and  the 
bloody  successes  of  Sulla's  party,  in  which 
he  had  taken  an  eager  part,  he  was  made 
governor  of  Africa  in  69.  The  next  year, 
ruled  out  as  a  candidate  for  consul  because 
of  charges  of  misrule  in  his  province,  he 
formed  a  conspiracy  against  Rome.  The 
first  project  was  to  kill  Cicero,  the  famous 
orator,  whose  murder  was  to  be  the  signal 
for  revolution.  This  was  told  Cicero  at  once 
by  a  Roman  lady,  Fulvia,  whose  lover  was 
one  of  the  conspirators.  Cicero  frustrated 
their  design  easily.  The  next  step  was  a 
secret  meeting,  on  the  night  of  Nov.  6,  63 
B.  C.,  at  which  Catiline  explained  a  new 
project  for  murdering  Cicero,  for  bringing 
up  to  the  city  an  army  which  he  had  won 
over  and  for  setting  the  city  on  fire.  Yet 
in  a  few  hours  Cicero  knew  every  word 
spoken,  and  when,  two  days  later,  Catiline 
recklessly  took  his  seat  in  the  senate,  the 
orator  arose  and,  pointing  his  finger  at  the 
traitor,  made  his  famous  speech,  in  which 
he  told  the  senate  even  the  smallest  details 
of  the  conspiracy.  Catiline  tried  to  reply; 
but,  drowned  by  cries  and  hisses,  he  rushed 
out  of  the  senate  and  escaped  from  Rome 
by  night.  An  army  was  sent  against  him, 
and  after  a  battle,  in  which  he  fought  with 
the  greatest  bravery  and  desperation,  Cati- 
line was  defeated  and  slain  in  62  B.  C. 

Cat'kin,  the  characteristic  flower-cluster 
of  the  birches,  alders,  willows,  etc.  See  IN- 
FLORESCENCE. 

Ca'to  (kd'td),  Marcus  Porcius  (surnamed 
The  Censor),  was  born  at  Tusculum  in  234 
B.  C.  Marcus  Porcius  was  his  proper  name. 
Cato,  meaning  wise,  was  a  title  given  him 
later  in  life  when  he  held  office  as  censor. 
He  spent  his  boyhood  on  his  father's  farm, 
and  there  learned  simple  manners  and  ways 
of  living.  When  17,  he  served  with  great 
bravery  in  the  army  against  Hannibal.  At 
the  same  time  he  was  becoming  known  as 
an  orator  and  statesman.  Because  of  his 
ability  and  uprightness,  he  was  made  con- 
sul in  105  B.  C.,  though  his  family  waa 


CATO 


352 


CAUCASIAN 


unknown.  Made,  the  next  year,  governor 
of  Spain,  he  showed  such  skill  and  vigor 
in  putting  down  a  rebellion  there,  that  the 
people  gave  him  a  military  triumph  on  his 
return  to  Rome.  In  184  he  was  chosen 
censor,  and  at  once  became  very  active  in 
using  his  office  to  carry  out  his  ideas  of 
simplicity,  of  honesty  in  government  and 
of  dislike  of  everything  which  was  new. 
He  put  the  water-courses,  reservoirs  and 
drains  in  good  order;  had  the  taxes  col- 
lected more  cheaply;  saw  that  less  money 
was  paid  for  building  the  great  public 
buildings;  and  decided  what  price  should 
be  paid  for  slaves,  clothes,  furniture,  car- 
riages, etc.  Rome  was  growing  rich  from 
the  spoils  and  plunder  of  her  successful 
wars,  and  the  Romans  had  caught  from  the 
Greeks  a  liking  for  fine  clothes,  great  pal- 
aces, many  slaves  and  all  that  made  up 
luxury  in  life.  These  new  ways  of  life  Cato 
despised  and  fought  against.  The  famous 
saying,  "Carthage  must  be  destroyed," 
which  became  a  battle-cry  of  the  Romans, 
was  first  used  by  Cato,  who  never  made  a 
speech  in  the  senate  without  using  the 
appealing,  insistent  words  to  inflame  the 
ambitions  of  the  Roman  people.  He  died 
in  149  B.  C. 

Ca'to,  Marcus  Porcius,  called  Cato  the 
Younger,  the  great-grandson  of  the  elder 
Cato,  was  born  at  Rome  in  95  B.  C.,  and 
committed  suicide  in  North  Africa  in  46 
B.  C.  When  only  14  years  old,  he  went 
with  his  tutor  one  day  to  call  upon  Sulla, 
and,  seeing  the  heads  of  several  famous 
men,  who  had  been  put  to  death  by  the 
tyrant,  carried  away  from  the  house,  he 
asked  why  some  one  did  not  kill  him. 
His  tutor  answering  that  no  one  dared 
to  do  so,  he  exclaimed  that  he  would  do 
it  himself,  if  he  would  give  him  a  sword. 
He  greatly  admired  his  great-grandfather, 
and  took  him  as  his  model  in  life.  He  was 
rich,  but  lived  in  a  simple  manner,  always 
walking  instead  of  riding,  wherever  he 
went,  and  often  going  barefoot. 

He  held  the  office  of  quaestor,  and  carried 
through  so  many  needed  reforms  that  when 
he  left  office,  he  was  praised  by  all  classes 
of  citizens.  He  was  an  open  enemy  of  the 
three  most  powerful  men  in  Rome,  Caesar, 
Pompey  and  Crassus,  who,  he  foresaw, 
would  destroy  the  republic,  as  they  did 
when  they  formed  the  first  triumvirate  or 
government  of  three.  Caesar  he  had  de- 
nounced years  before  as  a  friend  of  the 
traitor  Catiline,  and  after  the  battle  of 
Pharsalia  he  set  out  to  join  Pompey,  now 
the  defeated  rival  of  Csesar,  but,  hearing 
of  his  death,  fled  to  Africa.  He  wished  to 
defend  Utica,  but  on  the  approach  of  the 
conqueror  the  citizens  refused  to  fight. 
Cato,  disdaining  to  surrender,  killed  him- 
self after  spending  the  evening  talking  with 
his  friends  and  reading  Plato's  Phado.  His 
death  was  for  two  centuries  regarded  as 


the  right  death  for  a  Stoic  by  the  noblest 
of  Romans. 

Catskill  Mountains,  a  group  of  moun- 
tains in  New  York,  west  of  the  Hudson 
River  and  south  of  the  Mohawk.  They 
form  part  of  the  Alleghenies,  and  cover 
an  area  of  about  5,000  square  miles,  some 
peaks  being  4,000  feet  high.  The  scenery 
among  the  deep  valleys  with  their  precipice- 
like  walls  is  fine  and  often  grand. 

Cattle,  a  term  sometimes  used  to  include 
all  domestic  quadrupeds,  but  usually  ap- 
plied to  those  of  the  bovine  family,  the  ox 
and  the  cow,  the  most  useful  to  man  of  all 
domestic  animals  and  probably  the  first  to 
be  domesticated.  In  all  ages  and  in  all 
countries  the  ox  has  been  employed  as  a 
beast  of  burden  and  of  draught.  Its  chief 
value,  however,  is  found  in  the  fact  that, 
aside  from  grains,  it  furnishes  to  mankind 
the  chief  articles  of  food,  meat,  milk,  butter 
and  cheese.  The  cow  is  the  poor  man's 
dependence  in  every  clime  and,  as  the  basis 
of  the  meat  and  dairy  industries,  is  a  large 
factor  in  the  commerce  of  the  world. 
Modern  husbandry  has  been  wonderfully 
successful  in  improving  the  breeds  of  cattle 
along  two  distinct  lines,  developing  certain 
breeds  for  the  production  of  beef  and  other 
breeds  for  dairy  purposes.  Among  the  for- 
mer the  most  notable  are  the  Shorthorn  or 
Durham,  Hereford,  hornless  Angus,  Gallo- 
way and  Redpolled  breeds.  All  of  these 
breeds  are  characterized  by  heavy,  square 
bodies,  frequently  reaching  a  live  weight  o* 
two  thousand  pounds  or  more,  and  art 
fattened  for  market  at  a  much  earlier  r^e 
than  formerly.  Among  the  dairy  breeds  are 
the  Holstein,  noted  for  the  production  of 
large  quantities  of  milk,  the  Jersey,  cele- 
brated for  the  rich  quality  of  the  milk  given, 
the  Ayrshire  and  the  Alderney.  Each  of 
these  breeds  has  its  champions,  and  for  each 
special  qualities  of  superiority  are  claimed. 
See  AGRICULTURE,  BUTTER,  DAIRY-FACTO- 
RIES, MILK  and  MEAT-PACKING. 

Catullus  (ka-tul'lus),  Gaius  Valerius,  a 
celebrated  Roman  lyric  and  elegiac  poet, 
supposed  to  have  been  born  at  Verona, 
Italy,  B.  C.  87,  and  to  have  died  about 
B.  C.  54.  What  is  known  of  his  life  is 
chiefly  derived  from  his  writings,  which 
consist,  to  some  extent,  of  amatory  poems 
addressed  to  one  Lesbia,  of  his  journeyings 
and  pleasant  home  life  at  a  villa  (modern 
Sirmio),  on  Lake  Benacus  (now  Lago  di 
Garda).  He  is  known  to  have  had  Cicero, 
Caesar,  Cinna  and  Cornelius  Nepos  among 
his  intimate  friends.  He  has  great  versatil- 
ity and  sprightliness,  with  the  Greek  lyric 
spirit  and  beauty  of  expression. 

Caucasian  (ka-kd'shan)  was  the  name 
adopted  for  one  of  the  main  race  divisions 
of  mankind;  but  later,  mainly  because  of 
the  difference  in  the  languages  spoken, 
the  Caucasian  has  been  broken  up  into 
two  groups,  the  Aryan  and  the  Semitic 


CAUCASUS 


353 


CAVOUR 


peoples.  Caucasus  was  a  misnomer,  as 
there  was  no  connection  in  race  between 
the  Aryan,  the  Semitic  and  the  1*6  or 
more  distinct  races  of  the  Caucasus  Moun- 
tains. The  word  is  now  used  for  the  fair 
type  of  man  as  opposed  to  the  black,  the 
red  and  the  yellow  type ;  but  it  is  understood 
not  to  imply  any  common  race  or  language 
in  the  peoples  included  under  the  name. 

Caucasus  (ka'ka-sus) ,  a  mountain  range 
which  occupies  the  isthmus  between  the 
Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  its  general  direction 
being  from  west-northwest  to  east-south- 
east. It  is  about  750  miles  long  by  150 
miles  broad.  There  are  at  least  six  peaks 
over  16,000  feet  high;  Mt.  Elburz,  18,000 
feet,  is  the  highest.  There  are  but  few 
glaciers,  very  little  perpetual  snow  and 
no  active  volcanoes,  though  Elburz  and 
other  peaks  are  of  volcanic  formation; 
while  there  are  hot  springs  and  mud  vol- 
canoes at  each  extremity  of  the  range. 
There  are  but  two  roads  across  the  Cau- 
casus, the  Derbend  Pass  and  the  fine 
military  road  built  by  the  Russians  through 
the  Dariel  Gorge.  The  Caucasus  has  been 
called  the  mountain  of  languages,  from 
the  many  tongues,  distinct  from  one  an- 
other, having  little  or  no  likeness  to  any 
other  languages  on  the  globe,  which  are 
spoken  in  this  narrow  area.  Some  16 
or  more  distinct  and  well  marked  races, 
including  the  Georgians,  Circassians,  etc., 
are  found  in  the  region  of  the  Caucasus. 
For  over  50  years  this  region  resisted 
the  advance  of  Russia;  but  with  the  cap- 
ture of  Schamyl,  the  prophet-chief  of  the 
Lesghians,  who  had  withstood  the  armies 
sent  against  him  for  20  years,  the 
power  of  the  Caucasians  was  shattered. 
Since  1871  the  country  has  been  wholly 
under  the  dominion  of  Russia. 

Caucus  (derivation  doubtful),  in  poli- 
tics, a  term  applied  to  designate  a  con- 
ference, generally  preliminary  to  a  sub- 
sequent public  meeting,  of  men  who  desire 
to  select  delegates,  nominate  certain  party 
representatives  for  office  or  take  certain 
action  in  regard  to  some  public  question, 
give  shape  to  and  outline  proposed  later 
legislation,  as  well  as  to  ascertain  and 
discuss  the  views  of  those  so  called  to- 
gether in  preliminary  and  sometimes  secret 
council.  The  deliberation  is  one  usually 
held  to  promote  unity  among  members 
of  the  same  party,  in  regard  to  public 
measures,  and  suggesting  the  line  to  be 
taken  in  advancing  such,  or  possibly,  in 
balking  and  defeating  them,  if  objected 
to  or  deemed  unwise  and  inexpedient. 

Cau'licle  (in  plants),  a  name  formerly 
applied  to  the  hypocotyl,  that  is  the  stem- 
like  part  of  a  seedling,  which  appears  below 
the  m-st  leaves  or  cotyledons.  See  EMBRYO. 

Cavalier  (kS.v'd-ler'),  meaning  horse- 
man at  first,  but  afterward  it  came  to 
mean  gallant,  and  was  so  used  by  Shake- 


speare. In  the  struggle  between  Charles 
I  and  Parliament  in  1641,  the  courtiers 
were  nicknamed  cavaliers,  while  the 
friends  of  Parliament  were  called  Round- 
heads. At  first  applied  in  derision  it 
was  held  as  a  title  of  honor,  until  after  1679 
when  it  was  replaced  by  the  term  Tory. 

Cavalry.     See  ARMY. 

Cave-Men,  prehistoric  dwellers  in  caves 
or  caverns,  usually  convenient  to  streams 
of  water.  Their  homes  have  been  traced 
in  Belgium,  France,  Switzerland  and  also 
in  Britain,  and  in  their  cave-shelters  have 
been  found  primitive  tools  and  weapons 
and  the  teeth  and  bones  of  the  animals 
on  which  they  rudely  subsisted.  Their 
era  appears  to  have  been  the  paleolithic 
or  stone  age.  They  were  a  tall,  powerful 
race,  fitted  well  for  their  early  rude  environ- 
ment, primitive  in  their  manner  of  life, 
and  without  skill  to  fashion  or  invent  any 
but  the  simplest  weapons  and  utensils 
They  were  ignorant  of  the  metals,  of  pottery 
and  of  agriculture,  and  had  no  domestic 
animals. 

Cav'endish,  Henry,  a  distinguished  Eng- 
lish chemist  and  physicist,  born  at  Nice, 
Oct.  10,  1731,  died  Mar.  10,  1810.  His 
most  important  work  includes  the  discovery 
of  the  composition  of  water;  the  composi- 
tion of  nitric  acid;  and  the  determination 
of  the  mean  density  of  the  earth.  Since 
the  discovery  of  argon  by  Lord  Rayleigh, 
it  has  become  evident  that  Cavendish 
in  his  studies  on  the  composition  of  air 
had,  at  that  early  date,  isolated  argon, 
but  without  knowing  it.  Cavendish  was 
never  married.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
wealth,  leaving  a  private  fortune  of  between 
three  and  four  million  dollars. 

Cavite  (kd-ve'td),  Philippine  Islands,  a 
province  and  city  in  Luzon  Island,  on 
the  southwest  side  of  Manila  Bay,  seven 
or  eight  miles  southwest  of  Manila.  Since 
the  Philippines  were  ceded  to  the  United 
States  in  Dec.  1898,  after  the  close  of  the 
war  with  Spain,  Cavite  harbor,  which  is 
strongly  defended,  has  become  the  chief 
naval  station  of  the  archipelago.  There, 
on  May  i,  1898,  an  American  squadron 
under  Admiral  Dewey  destroyed  a  Spanish 
one  under  Admiral  Montojo.  Besides  the 
docks,  repair  shops  and  government-build- 
ings, Cavite  has  an  arsenal  and  in  the 
town  a  hospital,  several  convents  and 
churches,  together  with  an  extensive  to- 
bacco factory.  The  area  of  Cavite  prov- 
ince is  500  square  miles  and  the  popula* 
tion  of  the  city  (1907)  about  4,500. 

Cavour  (kd'voor'),  Camillo  Benso, 
Count  di,  the  restorer  of  Italian  unity 
and  nationality,  was  born  at  Turin,  Aug. 
10,  1 8 10,  of  an  old  noble  family  of  Pied- 
mont. He  was  a  student  of  the  military 
school^  and  when  only  16  was  made 
an  officer  of  engineers.  At  an  early  age 
he  was  stirred  with  a  desire  to  improve 


CAWNPORE 


354 


CEDAR  MOUNTAIN 


the  condition  of  his  country;  and  for 
1 6  years  he  studied,  traveled  and  ob- 
served the  workings  of  other  govern- 
ments. In  1847  he,  with  Count  Balbo, 
founded  a  newspaper  in  favor  of  a  freer 
form  of  government  for  Sardinia,  based 
on  that  of  England.  A  year  later  he  entered 
Sardinian  politics,  was  made  premier  in 
1852  and  until  his  resignation  in  1859 
was  the  originator  and  director  of  the 
Sardinian  policy.  He  greatly  improved  the 
financial  condition  of  the  country  and  made 
Sardinia  a  power  of  some  account  in  Europe. 
It  was  through  his  advice  that  Sardinia 
took  part  in  the  Crimean  War,  and  this 
gave  him  a  chance  to  bring  the  question 
of  unity  for  Italy  before  the  nations  of 
Europe.  In  1858  he  had  a  secret  meeting 
with  Napoleon  III  and  drew  up  a  plan  for 
driving  Austria  out  of  Italy,  which  resulted 
in  breaking  the  power  of  Austria  in  the 
Italian  peninsula;  but  Cavour  was  so  dis- 
appointed at  her  being  left  in  possession 
of  Venetia  by  the  peace  of  Villafranca 
that  he  resigned.  But  the  next  year  found 
him  in  office  again,  striving  to  attain  his 
object  more  earnestly  than  ever,  and  this 
time  more  successfully.  Parma,  Modena 
and  Tuscany  came  into  union  with  Sardinia 
under  King  Victor  Emmanuel.  He  secretly 
encouraged  the  expedition  of  Garibaldi, 
which  freed  Sicily  and  southern  Italy. 
In  1 86 1  an  Italian  parliament  was  sum- 
moned and  Victor  Emmanuel  made  king 
of  Italy.  Rome  and  Venetia  only  were 
wanting,  and  they  were  won  with  a  little 
patience.  The  strain,  however,  was  too 
much  for  him,  and  he  died  on  June  6,  1861. 
His  last  words  were:  "Brothers,  brothers, 
the  free  church  in  the  free  state." 

Cawnpore  (kan'pdor'),  a  city  of  India, 
on  the  Ganges,'  42  miles  southwest  of 
Lucknow.  It  became  a  British  possession 
in  1 80 1,  and  is  now  a  garrison  town  for 
British  troops.  Cawnpore  also  is  a  district 
in  the  Allahabad  division  of  the  northwest 
provinces  of  British  India.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  mutiny  in  May,  1857,  there 
were  1,000  Europeans  in  Cawnpore,  560 
of  whom  were  women  and  children.  Be- 
hind hastily  thrown  up  intrenchments  the 
few  defenders  held  out  for  three  weeks 
against  the  overwhelming  numbers  of  muti- 
neers led  by  Nana  Sahib,  when  they  sur- 
rendered on  promise  of  a  safe-conduct  to 
Allahabad.  The  Sepoys  marched  the  men 
to  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  but  hardly 
had  the  prisoners  embarked,  when  the 
Sepoys  opened  fire  on  them  and  only  four 
escaped.  Hearing  that  General  Havelock 
was  within  two  days'  march  of  the  place, 
Nana  Sahib  went  to  meet  him,  was  driven 
back,  and,  on  reaching  Cawnpore,  in  his 
rage  he  ordered  the  women  and  children 
to  be  massacred  at  once.  Dead  and  dy- 
ing they  were  thrown  into  a  well.  A 
memorial  arch  was  erected  over  the  in- 


trenchments and  a  mound  raised  over  the 
well.  Population,  197,170. 

C  ax' ton,  William,  the  first  English 
printer,  was  born  in  Kent  about  the  year 
1422.  He  served  as  an  apprentice  and 
prospered  in  business.  About  1476  he  set 
up  his  wooden  printing  press  at  Westminster. 
He  had  learned  to  print  at  Bruges,  and  in 
1474  printed  there  the  first  book  issued 
in  English,  but  the  Dictes  and  Sayings  of 
the  Philosophers,  brought  out  in  1477,  is 
the  first  book  certainly  known  to  have 
been  printed  in  England.  His  industry 
was  wonderful.  His  own  translations  filled 
more  than  4,500  pages,  while  his  press 
turned  out  over  18,000  folio  pages.  The 
books  he  printed  are  to-day  held  as  great 
rareties,  and  the  few  copies  still  left  are 
worth  many  thousand  dollars  each.  He 
died  in  1491  or  1492. 

Cayuga  (kd-ydd-ga)  Lake,  an  attractive 
body  of  water  in  central  New  York  on 
which  the  towns  of  Ithaca,  Aurora  and 
Cayuga  are  situated.  The  lake  has  ,a 
high  elevation,  and  is  drained  by  the 
Seneca  and  Oswego  Rivers  into  Lake 
Ontario.  It  is  about  35  miles  in  length, 
varies  from  one  to  three  miles  in  width, 
and  is  traversed  in  the  season  by  steamers 
plying. on  it  between  Ithaca  and  Cayuga 
Bridge.  It  is  the  resort  of  many  tourists 
and  summer  visitors. 

Ce'dar  (se'der),  species  of  the  genus 
Cedrus,  which  belongs  to  the  Conifers. 
They  are  large  and  ornamental  trees,  being 
native  to  northern  Africa,  Asia  Minor  and 
the  Himalayas.  The  great  durability  and 
firmness  of  the  wood  are  highly  esteemed 
qualities.  The  native  African  species,  C. 
Atlantica,  is  the  only  one  hardy  enough 
for  cultivation  in  the  northern  states. 
The  cedar  of  Lebanon,  (7.  Libani,  is  well- 
known,  in  maturity  forming  a  tree  with 
broad  head,  differing  decidedly  in  appear- 
ance from  the  pyramidal  form  of  the  African 
species.  Although  true  cedars  are  not 
native  to  America,  there  are  several  native 
conifers  which  are  commonly  called  cedars. 
For  example,  Thuja  is  known  as  arbor 
vitce  or  white  cedar;  Chamcecyparis  is 
called  southern  white  cedar;  while  a  species 
of  juniper  (Juniperus  Virginiana) ,  with 
odorous  red  wood,  is  universally  known 
as  red  cedar  and  is  used  in  large  quantities 
in  the  manufacture  of  lead  pencils. 

Cedar  Mountain,  a  cone-like  hill  in 
Culpeper  County,  Virginia,  where  was  fought 
a  spirited  battle,  Aug.  9,  1862,  between 
the  Union  troops  under  Gerneral  Banks 
and  the  Confederates  under  General  Jack- 
son. Near  evening  Banks  fell  back  to 
join  supports  forwarded  by  General  Pope, 
who  was  in  command  of  the  Army  of  Vir- 
ginia, leaving  the  Confederates  in  possession 
of  the  battlefield.  The  Confederates  did 
not  keep  their  ground,  but,  falling  back, 
joined  the  main  force  under  Lee  two  days 


355 


CELL-DOCTRINE 


later.  The  Confederate  loss  was  1,314; 
the  Union  loss  about  1,800. 

Cedar  Rapid  or  The  Cedars.  An  exten- 
sive rapid  on  the  St.  Lawrence  River, 
now  avoided  by  the  Soulanges  Canal,  and 
the  name  of  a  village  on  the  northern  bank 
of  the  river,  in  Soulanges  County,  Quebec. 
Here  Capt.  Forster  with  a  small  band  of 
regulars  and  Indians  captured  the  garrison 
of  400  Americans  in  their  retreat  from 
Quebec  in  May,  1776.  A  force  under  Maj. 
Sherburne  was  also  defeated  after  a  spirited 
engagement,  and  the  survivors  made  pris- 
oners. 

Cedar  Rapids,  la.,  a  city  in  Linn  County, 
on  Cedar  River.  It  is  a  considerable 
railroad-center,  and  has  a  number  of 
machine-shops,  employing  about  1,000  men. 
The  water-power  utilized  by  its  manufac- 
tories comes  from  the  Cedar  River.  Its 
industries  are  pork-packing  and  the  manu- 
facture of  flour,  pumps,  furniture,  agri- 
cultural implements,  starch,  creamery,  egg 
and  dairy  products.  Cedar  Rapids  is  the 
home  of  the  American  Cereal  Co.  and  the 
Pawnee  Cereal  Co.,  which  together  have 
a  daily  capacity  of  thousands  of  barrels 
of  cereals  and  give  employment  to  hun- 
dreds of  people.  The  city  has  the  service 
of  four  railroads,  excellent  public  schools, 
a  public  and  also  a  Masonic  library,  etc. 
Population,  .32,811. 

Celebes  (sel'e-bez),  an  island  possession 
of  the  Netherlands  in  the  East  Indies, 
lying  between  Borneo  on  the  west  and  the 
Moluccas  on  the  east.  It  was  first  visited 
by  the  Portuguese  in  1512,  but  in  1660 
was  taken  and  occupied  by  the  Dutch. 
The  center  and  north  of  the  island  are 
mountainous,  and  have  deposits  of  gold, 
copper,  tin  and  diamonds.  It  is  rich  in 
forest  wealth  and  its  vegetation  is  luxuriant. 
The  area  of  Celebes  is  49,390  square  miles, 
with  an  estimated  population  (1900)  of 
454,368.  Among  its  chief  products  are 
coffee,  sugar,  indigo  and  tobacco.  The 
capital  is  Macassar,  situated  on  the  south- 
western peninsula.  The  Celebes  Sea,  on 
the  north  of  the  island,  separates  the  latter 
from  the  Philippines ;  the  Strait  of  Macassar 
on  the  west  separates  it  from  the  island 
of  Borneo. 

Cell  (in  plants),  the  unit  of  structure 
in  the  bodies  of  plants  and  animals.  The 
bodies  of  the  smallest  plants  consist  of  a 
single  cell,  while  those  of  the  more  com- 
plex plants  consist  of  very  many  cells. 
The  free  cell  is  approximately  globular 
in  outline,  but  if  pressed  upon  by  neigh- 
boring cells  it  may  become  variously  modi- 
fied in  form.  Bounding  the  ordinary  plant- 
cell,  there  is  a  thin  elastic  wall  composed 
of  a  substance  called  cellulose.  This  cell- 
wall  forms  a  delicate  sac  within  which 
there  exists  the  living  substance  called 
protoplasm.  It  is  this  substance  which 
is  alive  and  works,  and  has  really  formed 


PLANT    CELLS    OF    DIFFERENT    AGES 

the  cell-wall  about  itself.  The  protoplasm 
of  a  living  cell  is  organized  into  various 

structures, 
which  have  dif- 
ferent duties. 
One  of  the  most 
conspicuous 
structures  is  a 
more  compact 
mass  of  proto- 
plasm, usually  of 
spherical  form, 
which  is  called 
the  nucleus.  The 
nucleus  i  s  im- 

ULOTHRIX,    SHOWING    THE    FOR-   bedded      in      the 

MATION,  ESCAPE  AND  BEHAVIOR  i        dense  oroto- 

OP  SWIMMING  CELLS 

plasm,      which 

receives  the  general  name  cytoplasm.  In 
addition  to  its  power  of  growth  the  living 
cell  is  also  able  to  divide  itself  intc 
two  cells.  The  process  of  ordinary  cell-divis- 
ion is  an  exceedingly  complicated  one,  and 
is  known  as  mitosis  or  karyokinesis.  It 
is  this  power  of  self-division  which  enables 
a  single  cell,  such  as  an  egg,  to  produce 
eventually  a  complex  body  composed  of 
numerous  cells.  JOHN  M.  COULTER. 

Cell  -  Doctrine,  the  doctrine  that  all 
the  tissues  of  animals  and  plants  are  con- 
structed of  cells.  It  unites  living  beings 
on  the  broad  ground  of  similarity  of  struct- 
ure, and,  for  the  understanding  of  animals 
and  plants,  is  one  of  the  most  important 
advances  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
cells  are  the  little  particles  that  are  fitted 
together  to  make  the  tissues,  and,  there- 
fore, we  may  speak  of  them  as  the  bricks 
of  organic  architecture.  Not  only  are  the 
parts  of  animals  and  plants  constructed 
of  cells,  but  every  living  being,  no  matter 
how  complex,  arises  from  a  cell.  The 
doctrine,  therefore,  is  a  broad  one,  and 
tends  to  unify  knowledge. 


CELL-DOCTRINE 


356 


CELL-DOCTRINE 


Let  us  see  some  of  the  facts  upon  which 
this  conclusion  rests:  If  a  very  thin  slice 
of  a  plant-stem  be  examined  under  the 
microscope,  it  will  be  found  to  be  constructed 
of  small  units  fitted  together.  If  the 
outer  epidermis  of  a  leaf  be  stripped  off 
and  properly  magnified,  it  will  likewise 
show  cellular  structure.  (See  illustration.) 
By  extending  our  observations,  any  part 
of  the  plant  may  be  proved  to  be  con- 
structed of  cells  or  their  derivatives.  In 
like  manner,  if  the  epidermis  of  an  animal 
be  magnified,  it  will  be  seen  to  be  constructed 
of  cell  elements.  (See  illustration.)  If 
animal  tissue,  for  example,  the  liver,  be 
hardened  in  alcohol  and  cut  into  thin  sec- 
tions, it  may  also  be  shown  to  be  made  of 
united  cells.  Now,  cartilage  presents  us 
with  a  modification;  in  it  the  cells  are 
separated  by  considerable  lifeless  substance 
in  which  the  cells  lie.  (See  illustration.) 
This  lifeless  substance  has  been  secreted 
by  the  cells  and  thrown  out  around  them. 
It  may  later  have  a  deposit  of  earthy  mat- 
ter in  it — as  in  bone — or  may  undergo 
other  changes.  These  afford  a  few  illus- 
trations of  cells  in  animals  and  plants. 
We  must  understand,  however,  that  there 
is  considerable  variation,  both  as  regards 
size  and  shape  of  the  different  cells,  but 
they  are  quite  uniform  for  the  same  kind 
of  tissue. 

This  theory  first  took  definite  form  in 
1839-40  through  publication  of  the  obser- 
vations of  Schleiden  and  Schwann,  and 
is  generally  known  as  the  cell  theory  of 


Cells  from  Epidermis  of  frog  (upper  left);  Epidermis 
of  leaf  (upper  right);  Cartilage  showing  matrix  (lower 
left);  and  fiver  (lower  right). 

Schleiden  and  Schwann.  But  cells,  espe- 
cially those  of  plants,  had  been  observed 
long  before  this  time.  Robert  Hooke,  the 
English  botanist,  in  1665  described  the 


plant-tissue  in  cork  as  made  up  of  "little 
boxes  or  cells  distinct  from  one  another." 
Malpighi  the  Italian,  Leeuwenhoek  of  the 
Netherlands  and  Grew  of  England  all 
made  sketches  within  a  few  years  of  this 
date,  to  show  the  cellular  structure  of 
plants.  These,  however,  were  individual 
observations,  and  Schleiden's  great  step 
consisted  in  applying  the  idea  to  all  plants 
without  exception;  and  Schwann  made 
a  general  application  to  animal  tissues. 
Both  these  men  had  a  wrong  idea  regarding 
the  cells.  They  thought  of  them  as  "box- 
like  compartments,"  something  like  the 
cells  in  honeycomb  or  a  wasp's  nest,  and, 
therefore,  looked  upon  the  cell-walls  as 
important;  but  the  idea  of  the  cell  changed 
and  gradually  came  to  mean  the  living 
particles  instead  of  little  boxes.  Within 
the  cavity  of  the  cell  is  a  jelly-like,  viscid 
substance  that  is  actually  alive  while  the 
cell-walls  are  lifeless.  The  living  substance 
is  protoplasm,  and  in  due  time  a  cell  came 
to  be  defined  as  a  small  mass  of  protoplasm 
containing  a  nucleus,  for  a  nucleus  or 
denser  portion  of  protoplasm  was  found 
in  all  living  cells.  Finally,  about  1860, 
the  original  idea  of  Schleiden  and  Schwann 
was  completely  replaced  by  the  true  one. 
Max  Schultze  did  more  than  any  other 
one  man  to  establish  this  idea,  which  is 
called  the  protoplasm  theory;  but  the 
work  was  greatly  aided  by  De  Bary  the 
botanist  and  Virchow  the  pathologist. 

In  the  meantime,  a  new  discovery  had 
been  made  and  partly  perfected,  viz.: 
that  the  egg  is  a  cell.  It  is  a  modified 
cell  of  the  body  of  the  parent,  and,  with 
this  new  fact  in  mind,  we  can  account 
for  the  origin  of  cells  in  the  body.  The 
egg  divides  into  2,  then  into  4,  8,  16,  32 
cells,  and  so  on,  so  that  what  was  a  single 
cell  becomes  many,  and  each  new  cell 
is  derived  by  division  from  a  formerly 
living  cell.  The  cells  produced  in  this 
way  become  grouped  into  layers  and,  later, 
into  tissues.  As  the  tissues  grow,  the 
cells  become  changed,  both  in  form  and 
as  regards  the  work  they  do,  and  so  we 
have  different  kinds  of  tissue.  Now,  since 
all  animals  arise  from  eggs,  the  substance 
of  the  egg  must  contain  everything  that 
an  animal  inherits  from  its  parents,  and 
it  follows  that  heredity,  in  the  long  run, 
is  a  question  to  work  out  on  cells. 

All  activities  have  been  shown,  likewise, 
to  take  place  in  the  protoplasm  of  cells; 
for  example,  the  liver  does  not  act  as 
a  whole,  but  each  cell  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed is  doing  a  part  of  the  work  of  the 
liver,  and  the  combined  action  of  all  repre- 
sents the  work  of  that  organ.  This  is 
the  case  with  any  other  organ  in  the  body, 
and,  therefore,  the  cell  is  important  m 
physiology  as  well  as  in  anatomy  and 
development.  Many  problems  are  to  be 
solved  by  work  on  cells.  The  recent 


CELLINI 


357 


CEMENT 


observations  on  cells  have  become  close 
and  technical,  and  cannot  be  dealt  with 
here.  See  Wilson:  The  Cell  -in  Develop- 
ment and  Heredity  (1900);  Hertwig:  Tne 
Cell  (1895);  Sedgwick  and  Wilson:  General 
Biology  (1895).  WM.  A.  Locv. 

Cellini  (chtl-le''nt),  Benvenuto,  an 
Italian  goldsmith,  sculptor  and  engraver 
and  the  author  of  a  very  interesting  account 
of  his  own  life,  was  born  at  Florence  in 
1500.  When  young,  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  his  skill  in  metal-work  gained  him 
the  favor  of  many  nobles.  He  seems  to 
have  been  somewhat  of  a  freebooter,  be- 
sides an  expert  swordsman  and  stabber, 
and  had  few  scruples  about  murdering  any 
one  he  chanced  to  quarrel  with.  His  book 
mentions  many  of  his  encounters.  He  usu- 
ally got  off  scot-free,  but  the  murder  of 
a  rival  goldsmith  brough  him  to  prison. 
He  was,  however,  in  such  favor  as  a  metal- 
worker as  to  be  quickly  set  free  again. 
He  was  summoned  to  the  court  of  France 
and  he  tells  us  how  pleased  Francis  I  was 
with  a  golden  spice-box  he  made  for  him. 
But  it  was  in  Florence  that  he  produced 
his  finest  piece  of  sculpture,  the  famous 
bronze,  Perseus  with  the  Head  of  Medusa. 
He  began  to  write  his  life  in  1558,  which 
is  of  the  greatest  interest.  Cellini  was  a 
shrewd  judge  of  men,  and  gives  a  faithful 
and  wonderfully  life-like  picture  of  Italian 
society  in  the  i6tn  century.  He  died 
in  1571. 

Celluloid  (sel'u-loid),  is  a  mixture  of 
gun-cotton,  camphor  and  various  other 
substances.  It  is  chiefly  manufactured  in 
the  United  States,  most  largely  at  Newark, 
N.  J.  Celluloid  has  many  valuable  proper- 
ties. It  is  buff  or  pale  brown  in  color,  but 
it  can  be  made  as  white  as  ivory  or  trans- 
parent. It  can  be  molded  or  p-essed 
into  any  form  and  turned,  planed  or  carved. 
It  is  not  affected  by  water  or  air.  It  can 
be  hardened,  and  is  then  used  for  combs, 
piano  keys  and  billiard  balls.  It  can  be 
colored  to  resemble  amber  or  tortoise-shell. 
As  an  imitation  of  red  coral,  it  is  used  in 
jewelry.  Among  the  many  articles  made 
from  it  are  knife-handles,  buttons,  napkin- 
rings,  card-cases,  thimbles,  dolls,  shirt  fronts 
and  collars. 

Cel'lulose  (sel'u-los),  the  peculiar  mate- 
rial which  forms  the  original  cell-walls  of 
plants.  See  CELL. 

Celsius  (sel'st-iis),  Anders,  a  Swedish 
astronomer,  born  1701,  died  1744.  Be- 
sides making  some  important  geodetic 
measurements,  he  invented  a  scale  of  tem- 
peratures, known  as  the  centigrade  scale, 
which  is  now  universally  used  in  scientific 
work.  The  centigrade  scale  is  defined 
by  dividing  the  interval  of  temperature 
between  melting  ice  and  beiling  water 
into  100  equal  parts. 

Celts  or  Kelts,  an  Aryan  or  Indo- 
European  race  that  spread  over  Europe 


in  early  times.  There  seem  to  have  been 
two  migrations,  the  first  Celts  conquering 
and  driving  westward  the  native  peoples, 
who  were  of  the  Ivernian  race,  and  in 
turn  being  driven  and  conquered  by  the 
second  horde  of  their  countrymen.  Therf 
was  no  common  Celtic  name  by  which 
all  Celts  were  known  to  the  Romans,  but 
they  were  known  as  Galli  or  Celtce.  The 
Celts  intermarried  with  the  natives  they 
conquered,  and  with  the  Romans  and 
Saxons  who  conquered  them;  but  some 
of  them  have  remained  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct, as  the  Irish,  Bretons,  Scotch  High- 
landers and  Welsh.  The  language  of  the 
Irish  and  Scotch  is  called  Gaelic;  and  a 
Gaelic  dialect  different  from  either  of  these, 
the  Manx,  is  still  spoken  in  the  Isle  of  Man, 
while  the  Cornish  dialect  in  the  south  of 
England,  was  spoken  so  late  as  a  hundred 
and  twenty-five  years  ago. 

Cement  (se-menf),  is  any  substance  which 
without  using  mechanical  rivets  unites  arti- 
cles by  solidifying  from  a  soft  or  liquid 
condition.  The  most  important  cements 
are  those  which,  when  mixed  with  water, 
form  a  hard,  stony  mass.  Mortar  sets 
in  open  air,  hydraulic  cements  under  water. 
They  are  used  with  sand  and  broken  stone 
in  making  concrete,  for  masonry  exposed 
to  water  and  for  material  in  other  situa- 
tions that  must  possess  exceptional  dur- 
ability. Stony  cements  may  be  natural, 
as  lime  and  Roman  cement,  or  artificial, 
as  Portland  cement.  The  latter  was  in- 
vented in  England  in  1824,  is  considered 
the  strongest  and  best  of  the  hydraulic 
cements,  and  is  the  chief  cement  con- 
sidered in  this  article.  In  1850  improved 
methods,  with  general  recognition  of  ce- 
ment's merit  as  a  building  material,  en- 
sured its  commercial  success.  Then  France 
and  Germany  took  up  the  industry  in  earn- 
est, and  their  scientific  methods  improved 
the  processes  and  quality  of  the  product. 
It  arrived  in  America  in  1865,  began  to  be 
manufactured  here  in  1872,  but  did  not 
number  even  1,000,000  barrels  a  year 
until  1905.  Its  true  value  as  a  structural 
substance  was  undreamed  of  in  1882,  and 
it  has  required  a  quarter-century  for  it 
to  win  universal  use,  but  in  1911  79>547>958 
barrels  were  produced  and  the  future  of 
cement  in  all  construction,  including  arti- 
ficial stone  for  house-building,  appears 
assured. 

Making  Portland  cement  is  a  simple 
process.  Rocks  containing  clay  and  lime 
are  quarried,  crushed  and  ground,  and 
then  burned  in  rotary  kilns  at  2,000°  F. 
This  cement-clinker,  as  the  product  is 
called,  is  cooled,  crushed  and  re  ground  to 
an  impalpable  powder.  Then  it  is  seasoned 
in  dry  bins,  and  finally  about  two  per  cent, 
of  finely  ground  plaster-of-paris  is  added. 

The  vast  use  of  cement  is  as  concrete 
and  reinforced  concrete.  Concrete  is  arti- 


CEMETERY 


358 


CENCI 


ficial  stone  made  from  broken  granite, 
trap-rock  or  screened  gravel  (the  sizes 
ranging  from  a  walnut  to  an  egg),  clean 
coarse  sand  and  cement.  Sand  fills  the 
spaces  between  stones,  cement  those  be- 
tween grains  of  sand.  The  stone,  gravel 
and  (if  strength  be  not  indispensable) 
brick,  cinders  or  terracotta  form  the  aggre- 
gate, on  whose  character  the  concrete's 
final  durability  chiefly  depends.  Rein- 
forced concrete  is  ordinary  concrete  in 
which  iron  or  steel  rods  or  bars  are  imbedded, 
and  is  needed  if  concrete  is  exposed  to 
pulling  or  bending.  In  1882  the  employ- 
ment of  concrete  was  virtually  confined 
to  foundations  and  underground  work,  and 
reinforced  concrete  was  undreamed  of; 
but  in  1885  the  twisted  bar  was  invented 
and  the  principle  and  method  of  rein- 
forcing concrete  demonstrated;  and  in  1906 
buildings  of  reinforced  concrete  endured 
the  California  earthquakes  practically  un- 
scathed. Now  not  only  are  huge  ware- 
houses, 800  feet  long  and  nine  stories  high, 
built  of  concrete,  but  bridges,  cellars,  chim- 
neys, cisterns,  curbs,  culverts,  dams,  drains, 
floors,  hogpens,  horseblocks,  poultry-yards, 
porches,  shingles,  sidewalks,  stalls,  tanks 
and  troughs. 

Portland  cement  is  the  sole  hydraulic 
cement  that  the  builder  of  concrete  blocks 
can  seriously  consider.  Natural  and  slag 
cements  and  hydraulic  lime,  when  exposed 
to  dry  air,  are  its  inferiors  in  strength  and 
durability.  Moreover,  the  speed  with  which 
it  hardens  and  develops  its  full  strength 
would  alone  throw  other  cements  out  of 
consideration.  The  price  of  cement  has, 
for  years  been  lessening  steadily,  until 
now,  at  a  fifth  of  a  cent  (wholesale)  per 
pound,  it  is  cheaper  than  stone  in  general, 
not  seldom  even  cheaper  than  brick,  while 
well-made  construction  cement  equals  the 
best  stone.  The  combination  of  steel  and 
concrete  seems  as  nearly  fireproof  a  com- 
position as  men  may  devise,  and  will, 
when  generally  employed,  reduce  insurance 
rates  materially.  In  building  on  sandy 
soils,  the  stone  or  brick  piers  that  are  often 
built  for  considerable  distance  below  sur- 
face as  foundations  are  filled  in  with  cement, 
and  when  this  has  hardened  there  prac- 
tically is  a  huge  single  mass  of  stone.  The 
buildings  of  the  future  are  likely  to  con- 
sist almost  entirely  of  steel  and  cement. 
When  cement  costs  only  five  dollars  a  ton, 
the  speediest  means  of  building  a  house 
will  be  to  make  rough  molds  and  cast  the 
walls  from  solid  cement.  Then  stone  houses 
can  be  made  for  the  cost  of  wooden  ones. 
In  view  of  the  expensiveness  of  lumber 
already  and  the  impending  exhaustion  of 
our  forests,  this  fact  is  of  incalculable 
importance.  Edison  is  constructing  iron 
molds  and  devising  machinery  to  cast  a 
full-sized  house  in  twelve  hours.  At  the 
end  of  six  days  the  molds  can  be  removed, 


and  the  house  will  be  complete  and,  after 
drying  six  more  days,  be  ready  for  occu- 
pancy. 

Slag-cement  also  is  coming  into  general 
use.  Slag  is  a  product  of  the  blast  furnace, 
resulting  from  the  blending  of  iron  ore  and 
limestone.  To  the  ironmaker  it  is  so  value- 
less that  vast  piles  accumulate  as  waste. 
When  it  is  suddenly  cooled,  dried  and 
mixed  with  25%  of  slaked  lime,  it  forms 
a  fine  material  for  cement.  Germany  an- 
ticipated America  in  seeing  the  merit  in 
slag-cement  and  in  establishing  factories 
for  producing  it.  American  manufacture 
of  slag-cement  began  in  1902. 

Pure  white  cement  is  now  made.  When 
mixed  with  white  sand,  white  quartz  and 
white  marble  or  limestone,  it  produces 
pure  white  concrete.  By  the  addition  of 
small  amounts  of  ordinary  pigments  to 
white  cement,  it  yields  concrete  of  brilliant, 
delicate  and  lasting  colors. 

Cemetery  (sem'e-ter-y),  (meaning  a  sleep- 
ing place),  may  mean  any  graveyard,  but 
it  has  lately  come  to  be  applied  to  the 
large  ornamental  burial-grounds  which  have 
taken  the  place  of  the  old  custom  of  burying 
within  and  around  churches.  Western  na- 
tions have  got  this  idea  from  the  Turks 
whose  fine  burial-grounds,  especially  around 
Constantinople,  are  famous  and  are  dense 
forests  of  cypresses.  A  Mohammedan  grave 
is  never  reopened,  but  after  each  death  a 
cypress  is  planted.  Paris  was  the  first 
western  city  (in  1804)  to  set  apart  a  modern 
cemetery,  Pere  la  Chaise,  which  has  become 
famous  throughout  Europe.  The  Campo 
Santo  (Sacred  Field)  of  Pisa,  an  oblong 
court  surrounded  by  marble  arches  and 
adorned  with  noted  frescoes  and  works 
of  art  and  the  Campo  Santo  of  Genoa, 
with  its  wealth  of  sculpture,  are  both  of 
them  noted  in  Italy.  There  is  an  odd 
cemetery  in  Naples.  In  it  are  366  deep 
pits,  one  of  which  is  opened  each  day, 
and  in  it  all  the  burials  of  the  day  take 
place,  and  it  is  not  again  opened  until  the 
same  day  in  the  following  year.  The 
park-like  adornment  of  cemeteries  has  had 
most  attention  in  the  United  States.  The 
best  known  are  Spring  Grove  at  Cincinnati, 
Mt.  Auburn  near  Boston,  Greenwood  in 
Brooklyn  and  Laurel  Hill  near  Philadelphia. 

Cenci  (chen'che),  Beatrice,  was  the 
daughter  of  Francesco  Cenci,  a  wealthy 
Roman  nobleman.  According  to  the  popu- 
lar story,  the  beauty  of  Beatrice  awakened 
in  him  an  evil  love  of  his  own  daughter. 
The  outraged  girl,  but  16  years  old, 
in  revenge  planned  with  her  stepmother 
and  brother  her  father's  murder,  into 
whose  brain  two  hired  murderers  drove 
a  large  nail.  The  crime  was  discovered, 
she  and  her  brother  were  put  to  the  tor- 
ture, but,  though  the  brother  confessed, 
Beatrice  maintained  that  she  was  innocent. 
All  three,  however,  were  beheaded.  On 


CENSUS 


359     CENTRAL  AFRICA  PROTECTORATE 


the  story  Shelley  founded  his  tragedy  of 
The  Cenci.  Researches  have  shown  that 
Francesco  was  not  so  bad  as  he  has  been 
painted,  that  Beatrice  was  not  so  beautiful 
and  virtuous  as  she  has  been  pictured  and, 
lastly,  that  the  sweet  and  mournful  face 
that  forms  one  of  the  treasures  of  the 
Barberini  Palace  at  Rome  cannot,  as  was 
thought,  be  a  portrait  of  Beatrice  by 
Guido,  who  never  painted  in  Rome  until 
nine  years  after  Beatrice  was  executed 

(I599)- 

Cen'sus,  meaning  the  counting  of  the 
people.  The  word  is  a  Latin  one  and  was 
first  applied  to  the  duty  of  counting  the 
people,  which  was  intrusted  to  the  Roman 
censors.  Solon  also  established  a  census 
in  Athens.  The  first  careful  census  of  a 
European  nation  was  undertaken  by  Sweden 
in  1749.  A  count  was  made  in  France 
in  1700,  but  the  first  reliable  one  was  not 
undertaken  until  1801.  In  America  the 
first  census  was  taken  in  1790;  in  England 
in  1 80 1.  Censuses  are  now  taken  in  the 
United  States,  England,  India,  most  of 
the  British  colonies.  Austria,  Belgium,  Italy, 
Norway,  Sweden,  Russia  and  Switzerland 
every  ten  years;  in  France  and  Germany 
every  five  years;  in  Spain  irregularly. 
Hardly  any  two  countries  agree  as  to  the 
subjects  on  which  information  is  asked. 
Thus,  some  inquire  whether  there  are  in 
households  infirm  persons,  blind,  deaf  and 
dumb,  idiots,  insane  persons,  persons  who 
have  been  convicted  of  a  crime;  how  many 
languages  are  spoken  by  the  persons  en- 
tered; how  many  are  at  school,  how  many 
vote,  how  many  rooms  and  windows  are  in 
the  house,  and  so  on.  Without  being  too 
inquisitorial,  the  design  of  the  census-returns 
should  at  least  afford  information  not  only 
as  to  the  vital  statistics  of  a  country  or 
nation  but  as  to  its  industrial  and  economic 
resources,  including  the  extent  and  char- 
acter of  its  chief  industries,  manufactures, 
mines,  if  any,  and  the  growth  and  nature 
of  its  agricultural  products.  The  United 
States  census  is  the  most  important  of  any, 
as  the  representation  of  the  states  in  the 
lower  house  depends  upon  it.  It  was  pro- 
vided for  in  the  constitution.  It  aims  at 
giving  a  specially  full  view  of  the  condition 
of  the  people,  and  is  illustrated  with  maps 
on  almost  all  the  many  branches  of  in- 
quiry, such  as  the  amount  of  land  occupied 
by  different  crops  and  where  various  dis- 
eases prevail,  as  well  as  the  indicated  scope, 
extent  and  nature  of  its  manufacturing 
interests,  its  mining  resources,  etc.  The 
thirteenth  (1910)  census  gives  the  United 
States  a  total  population,  including  Alaska 
and  the  territories,  of  93,402,151.  The  cen- 
sus of  1900,  embraced  in  a  series  of  ten 
volumes,  devotes  two  to  population,  two 
to  other  vital  statistics,  two  to  manufac- 
tures. The  census-bureau,  organized  as 
a  permanent  one  in  1902,  is  under  the 


Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  and 
its  periodic  bulletins  are  of  the  utmost 
value. 

Centaurs  (sen' tars)  (meaning  bull-kil- 
ers),  a  wild  race  of  men,  who  lived  in  early 
times  in  the  forests  of  Thessaly  and  spent 
their  time  in  bull-hunting.  Homer  first 
tells  about  them,  picturing  them  as  savage, 
gigantic  in  stature  and  covered  with  hair. 
It  was  not  until  the  time  of  the  poet  Pindar 
that  they  are  spoken  of  as  half-man  and 
half-horse.  In  Greek  myths  these  horse- 
centaurs  are  described  as  fighting  with  a 
people  called  the  Lapithae  and  with  Her- 
cules. The  most  famous  was  Chiron,  who 
was  the  teacher  of  Achilles.  When  the 
Mexicans,  who  had  never  seen  horses, 
first  set  eyes  on  the  Spaniards  on  horse- 
back, they  believed  that  the  horse  and 
man  together  made  one  animal,  or  a  cen- 
taur, as  the  Greeks  would  call  it. 

Centigrade  Scale.     See  CELSIUS. 

Centiped  (s$nftt-p&d)t  the  common  hun- 
dred-legged worm  of  warm  regions.  The 
body  is  divided  into  a  number  of  similar 
jomts,  and  each  joint  is  provided  with  a 
pair  of  legs,  of  which  there  are  from  21  to 
23.  The  enlarged  front  joint  is  the  head, 
with  eyes,  jaws  and  long  many-jointed 
feelers.  Although  resembling  worms  in 
form,  they  are  really  more  closely  related 


CENTIPED 

to  insects.  They  resemble  the  larval  stages 
of  the  latter  in  external  and  internal  struc- 
ture, having  jointed  appendages,  antennae 
or  feelers,  and  breathing  by  air-tubes. 
These  traits  are  not  possessed  by  worms, 
but  by  insects,  spiders,  etc.  The  centipeds 
proper  represent  one  group  (Scolopendra) 
of  a  larger  subclass  called  Myriopoda. 
The  largest  centipeds,  from  nine  inches  to 
one  foot  long,  live  in  the  East  Indies,  but 
one  in  South  America  attains  nearly  equal 
size.  Their  fore  feet  are  modified  into 
poison-claws,  and  their  bite  is  fatal  to 
small  animals  and  dangerous  to  man.  The 
centipeds  are  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
millepeds  which  are  common  in  the  United 
States  and  Europe,  but  a  few  centipeds 
are  found  within  the  borders  of  the  southern 
states,  the  largest  of  which  is  five  and  one- 
half  inches  long.  The  centipeds  live  on 
insects  and  small  animals,  the  millepeds 
mainly  on  decaying  wood.  The  latter  are 
harmless. 

Central  Africa  Protectorate,  The,  con- 
tains 40,980  square  miles,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  750  Europeans  and  nearly  a  mil 
lion  natives.  The  chief  settlement  is  Blan- 
tyre,  in  the  Shire1  Highlands,  with  abou* 


CENTRAL  AMERICA 


360 


CERES 


6,ooe  inhabitants.  It  lies  along  the  south- 
ern and  western  shores  of  Lake  Nyasa, 
extending  toward  the  Zambezi.  There  are 
good  roads  everywhere,  and  life  and  prop- 
erty are  safe,  with  the  inhabitants  prosper- 
ous and  content.  The  prevailing  religion  is 
Mohammedanism,  with  nine  Christian  mis- 
sions at  work  having  61,000  natives  under 
instruction.  Tobacco,  coffee,  cotton,  rice 
can  all  be  cultivated  in  either  the  low- 
lands or  highlands.  The  trading  is  chiefly 
done  at  Port  Herald  and  Chiromo  on  the 
lower  Shire"  and  at  Kotakota  on  Lake 
Nyasa.  Imports  are  largely  cloths, 
ironware  and  food;  exports  include  coffee, 
cotton,  tobacco,  beeswax  and  rubber.  For 
purposes  of  administration  the  protectorate 
is  divided  into  12  districts,  and  there  is 
a  small  force  of  Sikhs  and  natives  under 
British  officers.  Twenty  post-offices  in 
1903  handled  391,599  pieces.  There  are 
railway,  telegraph  and  telephone  lines,  and 
a  water-power  electric  light  plant  at  Zomba. 
In  1906  it  was  made  the  Nyasaland 
Protectorate. 

Central  America.    See  AMERICA. 

Central  Falls,  R.  I.,  a  manufacturing 
city  in  Rhode  Island,  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad,  six  miles 
from  Providence.  It  is  situated  in  Provi- 
dence County  and  was  taken  from  the 
town  of  Lincoln,  and  incorporated  as  a 
city  in  1895.  It  has  a  number  of  factories, 
foundries,  extensive  cotton,  woolen,  thread 
and  silk-mills,  haircloth  manufactories, 
foundries  and  machine-shops.  Population 
22,754. 

Cen'tral  Park,  the  great  park  of  New 
York  city  and  one  of  the  largest  and  finest 
in  the  world,  was  laid  out  in  1858.  It  lies 
in  what  is  now  the  heart  of  the  city,  two 
and  a  half  miles  long  and  one  half-mile 
wide,  inclosing  843  acres,  with  an  addition 
of  24  acres  on  the  northwest.  A  part  of 
it  is  used  for  two  Croton  water-reservoirs. 
The  surface  at  first  was  all  rock  and  marsh, 
and  the  expense  necessary  to  level  and  fill 
in  forbade  its  being  made  into  city  lots. 
Making  it  into  a  huge  park  was  a  happy 
idea;  the  marshes  have  become  lakes, 
some  of  the  bare  rocks  are  now  grassy 
slopes,  while  the  massive  bowlders  and 
tall  rock-walls  face  one  at  every  turn  of 
the  winding  path  or  smooth  driveway. 
There  is  thus  the  wild  appearance  of  moun- 
tain and  forest,  the  contrast  being  height- 
ened by  the  solid  rows  of  brownstone  city- 
fronts  that  line  the  bordering  avenues, 
far  surpassing  the  effects  usually  produced 
in  small  city  parks,  where  everything  is 
so  evidently  artificial.  The  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art  and  the  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History  occupy  two  large  and 
handsome  buildings  in  the  park.  Some 
of  the  points  of  interest  are  the  obelisk, 
casino,  mall,  lake,  cave,  labyrinth  and 
menagerie. 


Centra'lia,  III.,  a  city  in  Marion  County 
on  the  111.  Central,  Chicago,  Burlington  & 
Quincy,  the  Southern  and  the  111.  Southern 
railroads,  60  miles  east  by  south  of  St. 
Louis.  Settled  in  1852,  the  city  was  in- 
corporated seven  years  later,  and  is  now 
governed  by  a  charter  passed  in  1872  and 
subsequently  amended.  It  is  situated  in 
a  fine  fruit-growing  region,  where  there  is 
also  much  coal-mining.  Besides  the  car 
and  repair  shops  of  the  111.  Central  Railway, 
its  industries  embrace  the  manufacture 
of  envelopes,  boxes,  pick-handles,  crates, 
besides  glassware  and  the  product  of  its 
flour-mills.  Population,  15,000. 

Centrifugal  Force  is  due  to  rotation. 
If  a  particle  is  in  motion  along  any  path 
other  than  a  straight  line,  it  is  acted  upon 
by  a  force  which  is  directed  toward  the 
convex  side  of  the  curve.  This  is  called  a 
centrifugal  force.  In  particular,  if  a 
particle  of  mass  m  be  moving  in  a  circle 
of  radius  r  with  a  uniform  speed  v,  the 
centrifugal  force  is  at  each  instant  directed 
along  the  radius  passing  through  the  particle, 


and  the  amount  of  the  force  is 


mv* 


Cen- 


tripetal force  is  merely  the  negative  aspect 
of  centrifugal  force.  If  we  consider  New- 
ton's Third  Law  and  call  centrifugal  force 
action,  then  centripetal  force  is  merely 
the  reaction,  which  is  equal  and  opposite 
to  the  action. 

Century  Plant.     See  AGAVE. 

Ceramics  (s^-rdm'iks  or  ke-ram'iks) ,  a 
name  given  to  the  plastic  and  decorative 
arts,  which  covers  such  objects  of  baked 
clay  as  are  included  in  earthenware  and 
porcelain,  ornamentally  treated  in  colors, 
glazing  and  firing.  The  term  is  applied 
to  include  such  artistic  utensils  and  deco- 
rated wares,  known  to  experts  as  Majolica 
and  Japan  ware,  the  famous  faience  of 
Limoges,  the  porcelains  of  Worcester,  Doul- 
ton  and  Sevres,  Balleek  china,  plaques, 
pigs,  vases,  punch-bowls,  candelabra,  etc., 
artistically  modeled,  painted,  glazed  and 
enameled.  The  term,  it  will  be  seen,  is 
a  comprehensive  one,  and  is  applied  to 
such  objects  of  ornamental  earthenware 
and  porcelain  as  come  under  the  category 
of  fictile  art. 

Cerberus  (ser'bS-rus),  the  fabulous  watch- 
dog who  guarded  the  entrance  to  the  lower 
world  or  Hades,  is  generally  described  as 
a  monster  having  three  heads.  The  twelfth 
and  final  labor  of  Hercules  was  to  drag 
forth  Cerberus  to  the  light  of  the  upper 
world,  and  that  without  use  of  a  weapon. 
Orpheus,  lacking  the  strength  of  Hercules, 
is  said  to  have  lulled  Cerberus  to  sleep 
with  his  lyre  on  his  journey  to  Hades  for 
the  lost  Eurydice.  Milton  speaks  of  Melan- 
choly as  "of  Cerberus  and  blackest  mid- 
night born"  (L' Allegro). 

Ceres  (se'rez),  the  Roman  goddess  who 
protects  agriculture  and  the  fruits  of  the 


CERRO  GORDO 


361 


CEYLON 


earth.  Her  first  temple  in  Rome  was  built  in 
496  B.  C.  to  ward  off  a  f  amine  with  which  the 
city  was  threatened.  A  great  festival  with 
games,  called  Cerealia,  was  set  up  in  her  honor. 

Cerro  Qordo  (ser'rd  gdr'dd),a  mountain- 
pass  in  Mexico,  on  the  main  highway  to 
the  City  of  Mexico.  Here  was  fought  a 
battle  between  the  Americans  and  Mexi- 
cans, April  18,  1847.  General  Scott's  force 
was  8,500,  and  Santa  Anna's  over  12,000. 
The  engagement  lasted  from  sunrise  until 
2  P.  M.,  the  Americans  conquering  with 
a  loss  of  but  431  killed  and  wounded.  The 
Mexican  loss  was  from  1,000  to  1,200, 
with  3,000  prisoners,  including  five  generals. 
Stores  and  artillery  were  surrendered. 

Cervantes  Saavedra  (ser-van'tez  sd-d- 
vd-drd),  Miguel  de,  the  author  of  Don 
Quixote,  was  born  in  1547,  of  an  old  and 
noble  Castilian  family.  In  1569  we  find 
some  effusions  of  his  on  the  death  of  the 
queen,  that  show  he  had  begun  to  be  a 
writer;  but  the  next  year  we  find  him  in 
Italy  enlisted  as  a  soldier  and  receiving 
three  gunshot  wounds  at  the  battle  of 
Lepanto.  Coming  home  to  Spain,  he  was 
captured  by  pirates,  carried  to  Algiers 
and  enslaved  for  five  years.  He  made 
four  daring  attempts  to  free  himself  and 
his  companions,  but  only  regained  his 
liberty  by  his  family  beggaring  themselves 
to  raise  the  large  ransom  demanded.  He 
now  began  to  write  plays,  which  were  not 
very  successful  and  are  all  forgotten,  ex- 
cept Numancia,  which  is  acknowledged  to 
be  the  most  powerful  tragedy  in  the  Spanish 
language.  In  1605  he  brought  out  the 
first  part  of  his  great  book,  Don  Quixote. 
It  at  once  gained  the  greatest  popularity, 
and  the  next  year,  in  all  the  pageants 
throughout  the  country,  men  dressed  to 
represent  Don  Quixote  and  his  faithful 
Sancho  Panza  paraded  the  streets.  Strange 
to  say,  Cervantes  himself  never  thought 
it  a  great  book;  certainly  no  great  book 
was  ever  written  so  carelessly.  He  worked 
at  it  by  fits  and  starts,  sending  it  to  the 
printers  without  revising  it  and  then  laugh- 
ing at  their  and  his  own  blunders.  Nor 
did  he  take  the  trouble  to  bring  out  the 
second  part  for  ten  years,  though  all  this 
time  he  was  a  busy  writer;  and  only  at 
last  published  it  because  somebody  else 
had  written  a  false  second  part.  Cer- 
vantes, who  knew  what  real  bravery  was, 
wrote  Don  Quixote  to  make  fun  of  the 
mock  bravery  that  strutted  about  in  the 
guise  of  chivalry;  but  he  also,  before  the 
book  was  finished,  took  the  liberty  of 
laughing  at  a  great  many  other  foolish  things. 
Cervantes  died  at  Madrid,  April  23,  1616. 

Cervera  (thar-vd'rd) ,  Pascual,  a  Spanish 
admiral  who  figured  prominently  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Spanish-American  War, 
was  born  at  Madrid,  in  1832,  of  a  family 
of  naval  heroes.  Early  in  his  career  he 
saw  service  in  Morocco,  in  Cochin-China, 


in  the  Philippines  and  in  the  Spanish 
blockade  of  Cuba  in  1870.  He  was,  for  a 
time,  a  naval  attache  of  Spain  at  Wash- 
ington, and  subsequently  rose  to  the  rank 
of  rear-admiral.  When  war  broke  out  with 
Spain,  Cervera,  with  an  inefficient  squadron 
was  ordered  by  his  government  to  Cuban 
waters,  and  in  May,  1898,  was  blockaded 
in  Santiago  harbor  by  a  United  States  fleet. 
Realizing  that  he  could  make  no  effective 
defense,  he  determined  to  run  the  block- 
ade, but  was  overtaken  and  his  ships  were 
destroyed.  His  flagship,  the  Maria  Teresa, 
took  fire  in  the  contest  and  had  to  be 
beached.  Cervera,  escaping  on  a  life-raft, 
was  rescued  and  taken  on  board  the  Glouces~ 
ter,  where  he  surrendered  and  was  held 
a  prisoner  of  war  until  the  peace  protocol 
was  signed,  in  August,  1898.  He  died  in  1909. 

Cetewayo  ( ka-chwd'yo ) ,  a  noted  Kafir 
chief,  king  of  the  Zulus,  who  in  1878  re- 
belled against  British  suzerainty,  and  in 
the  following  year  annihilated  a  British 
regiment  at  Isandula,  South  Africa.  Later 
in  the  same  year  Cetewayo  was  defeated 
by  the  British  under  Lord  Chelmsford  at 
the  battle  of  Ulundi,  taken  prisoner  and 
held  captive  till  1882.  In  that  year  he 
was  brought  to  England,  and  there  lionized 
by  the  Liberals,  who  were  in  favor  of  local 
autonomy  in  South  Africa.  The  attempt 
was  afterward  made  to  reinstate  him  as 
king  of  Zululand;  but  having  lost  favor 
with  his  people,  he  was  kept  by  the  British 
at  Ekove  until  1884,  when  he  died. 

Ceylon  (se-lon'),  an  island  and  British 
colony  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  southeast  of 
India.  Its  greatest  length  is  260  miles; 
its  greatest  width  140  miles;  area,  25,332 
square  miles.  The  sea  of  sapphire-blue 
beating  against  tall  rocks  and  the  rich 
evergreen  forests  towering  above,  till  they 
are  lost  in  the  clouds,  make  a  picture  that 
can  vie  with  any  scenery  in  the  world. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  Rolling  plains 
cover  the  most  of  the  island,  and  in  the 
south  mountains  rise  8,000  feet  in  height. 
There  are  but  one  important  river  and  two 
natural  harbors;  but  the  breakwater,  which 
has  been  built  at  the  capital,  Colombo,  has 
brought  the  bulk  of  commerce  thither. 

Plants  and  Animals.  Most  of  the  great  trop- 
ical plants  and  trees  are  found  here,  noticeably 
tree-ferns  often  25  feet  high,  scarlet  flowering 
rhododendrons  and  tufted  bamboos.  The 
largest  animal  is  the  elephant,  usuallv  with- 
out tusks.  Of  the  natives,  the  most  numerous 
are  the  Singhalese,  who  are  believed  to  be 
colonists  from  the  valley  of  the  Ganges. 

Products  and  Resources.  The  great  ex- 
ports are  tea,  coffee  and  cinchona  bark. 
The  gems  of  Ceylon  are  well  known.  Here 
are  found  sapphires,  rubies,  topazes,  gar- 
nets and  amethysts,  while  the  pearl-fisheries 
form  a  great  British  monopoly. 

People  and  Religion.  The  men  look  very 
womanish,  with  their  delicate  features,  then 


CHAD,  LAKE 


362 


CHALEURS 


earrings,  their  long  hair  brushed  back  from 
the  forehead  and  held  by  combs  and  their 
waist-cloths  like  petticoats.  The  Singha- 
lese are  Buddhists  and  do  homage  to  the 
footstep  of  Buddha  on  the  top  of  Adam's 
Peak,  while  his  tooth  is  carefully  kept 
in  a  rich  shrine.  Good  work  is  being  done 
in  Ceylon  by  Christian  missions  and  schools. 

History.  In  the  north  of  the  island 
ruined  cities  have  been  discovered,  bring- 
ing to  light  rock-hewn  temples,  cave  tem- 
ples, relic  shrines  which  almost  compare 
with  the  pyramids  of  Egypt  and  gigantic 
water-canks  on  which  an  immense  amount 
of  labor  must  have  been  bestowed.  The 
Portuguese  settled  on  the  island  in  1517, 
but  were  driven  out  by  the  Dutch  in  1658, 
who  were  in  turn  conquered  by  the  British 
in  1796.  The  chief  town  is  Colombo  (popu- 
lation, 158,228).  Population,  chiefly  Singha- 
lese and  Tamils,  3,592,397. 

Chad,  Lake.     See  TSAD,  LAKE. 

Chadbourne  (chad'burn),  Paul  Ansel, 
an  American  educator,  was  born  at  North 
Berwick,  Me.,  Oct.  21,  1823,  and  died  at 
New  York,  Feb.  23,  1883.  In  1848  he 
graduated  at  Williams  College,  where  he 
wras  subsequently  professor  of  chemistry 
and  botany,  and  conducted  some  scientific 
expeditions  with  its  students  in  Florida, 
Newfoundland,  Iceland  and  Greenland.  In 
1867  he  became  first  president  of  the  State 
Agricultural  College  at  Amherst,  Mass.,  and, 
though  he  left  this  post  to  assume  other 
duties,  he  returned  here  in  1882  and  spent 
his  last  years  in  its  work.  In  the  interval 
he  was  successively  president  of  Wisconsin 
University  and  of  Williams  College,  of  the 
latter  of  which  he  was  an  LL.D.  He  was 
also  a  licentiate  in  the  ministry,  and  held 
the  degree  of  D  D.  from  Amherst.  He 
published  a  number  of  works,  chiefly  con- 
sisting of  courses  of  lectures  before  the 
Lowell  institute  and  the  Smithsonian  in- 
stitution and  of  baccalaureate  sermons 
and  addresses.  These  include  Natural  The- 
ology; Instinct  in  Animals  and  Men;  Rela- 
tions of  Natural  History  to  Intellect,  Taste, 
Wealth  and  Religion;  The  Strength  of  Men 
and  the  Stability  of  Nations,  etc. 

Chaffee,  Major-General  Adna  Ro- 
manza,  United  States  army,  in  command  of 
the  American  military  contingent  in  China 
that  acted  with  the  Japanese  and  European 
troops  in  the  advance  (August,  1900)  on 
Pekin,  for  the  relief  of  the  besieged  lega- 
tions at  the  capital.  Born  April  14,  1842, 
at  Orwell,  Ohio,  he  entered  the  army  in 
1861;  became  lieutenant  in  1865  of  the 
Sixth  cavalry,  major  of  Ninth  cavalry  in 
1888  and  lieutenant-colonel  of  Third  cavalry 
in  1897.  He  gained  a  lieutenancy  for  gal- 
lantry at  Gettysburg  and  a  captaincy  for 
gallantry  at  Dinwiddie  Court-House,  Va. 
He  was  made  major  and  subsequently 
lieutenant-colonel  for  gallantry  against  the 
Indians  in  Texas  and  Arizona;  appointed 


brigadier-general  in  1898  of  United  States 
volunteers;  and  served  in  the  Santiago 
campaign  and  was  made  major-general 
of  volunteers  in  July  of  the  same  year. 
In  1900,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Boxer 
riots  in  China,  he  was  appointed  to  com- 
mand the  United  States  troops  acting  with 
the  European  allies  in  the  advance  from 
Tien-tsin  to  Pekin.  In  1901  he  was  made 
major-general  in  the  United  States  army, 
and  placed  in  command  of  the  forces  in 
the  Philippines,  of  which  he  was  appointed 
military  governor.  In  1904  he  was  pro- 
moted to  lieutenant-general  and  appointed 
chief- of -staff.  He  was  retired  from  the  army 
in  February,  1906.  He  died  November  i,  1914. 

Chagos  (cka'gos)  Islands.  These  are 
largely  islets  and  dependencies  of  Mauritius. 
The  largest  of  them,  Diego  Garcia,  lies  in 
7°  south  latitude  and  between  72°  and  73° 
east  longitude,  and  is  12^  miles  long  and 
6J  broad,  with  526  inhabitants. 

Chaiilu,  Paul  du.     See  Du  CHAILLU. 

Chalazogamy  (kal'a-zog'a-mi},  in  plants. 
In  ordinary  angiosperms  the  pollen  tube, 
having  passed  through  the  style,  enters 
the  micropyle  of  the  ovule  and  so  reaches 
the  egg.  In  certain  dicotyledons,  as  walnut, 
birch,  alder,  etc.,  it  has  "been  found  that  the 
pollen-tube  does  not  enter  the  micropyle, 
the  natural  passageway  to  the  egg,  but 
penetrates  directly  through  the  external 
parts  of  the  ovule  and  burrows  its  way  to  the 
egg  from  the  side  or  from  beneath.  The  name 
has  been  given  from  the  fact  that  the  basal 
region  of  the  ovule  is  known  as  the  chalaza, 
which  is  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  ovule 
from  the  micropyle.  The  habit  is  a  curious 
one,  and  its  significance  is  not  clear. 

Chalcedony  (kal-sed'o-ny),  a  beautiful 
mineral.  It  is  a  variety  of  quartz,  with  a 
mixture  of  opal.  It  was  found  abundantly 
near  Chalcedon,  in  Bithynia,  which  gave  it 
its  name.  It  is  found  lining  or  wholly 
filling  cavities  in  old  rocks,  like  the  basalt 
rock  of  Scotland,  Iceland,  etc.  Chalcedony 
composes  the  whole  or  main  part  of  many 
agates.  It  is  generally  translucent,  has 
a  waxy  luster  and  is  usually  white  or  bluish 
white;  sometimes  reddish  or  milk  white; 
more  rarely  gray,  blue,  green,  yellow, 
brown  or  black.  Chalcedony  is  much  used 
in  jewelry  for  brooches,  necklaces  and  orna- 
ments of  all  sorts;  and  large  pieces  are 
often  made  into  little  boxes,  cups,  etc. 
The  people  of  olden  times  prized  it  highly, 
and  many  beautiful  engraved  specimens 
can  be  seen  in  museums.  Petrified  plants 
are  sometimes  found  in  chalcedony,  in 
which  they  seem  to  have  been  incased 
while  it  was  forming.  Sometimes  a  speci- 
men with  a  little  water  inside  is  discovered. 

Chaldaea.  See  BABYLONIA. 

Chaleurs  (slid-ler') ,  Bay  of,  extends  west- 
ward.in  between  the  provinces  of  Quebec  and 
New  Brunswick.  It  forms  more  than  half 
of  the  northern  boundary  of  New  Bruns- 


CHALK 


363 


CHAMBERS 


wick.  Said  to  have  neither  shoal  or  reef. 
Its  fisheries  (salmon,  cod,  herring,  mackerel 
and  lobster)  are  very  important. 

Chalk.  Chalk  is  a  variety  of  soft  lime- 
stone, made  up  chiefly  of  the  shells  of 
microscopic  sea-animals,  called  Forami- 
n-ifera,  which  in  life  swim  at  or  near  the 
surface  of  the  water.  After  the  death  of 
the  animals  their  shells  sink  to  the  bottom. 
A  cubic  inch  of  chalk  has  been  estimated 
to  contain  more  than  1,000,000  shells. 
With  the  shells  of  the  Foraminifera  shells 
of  other  animals  are  sometimes  mingled. 
In  certain  periods  of  the  past  these  minute 
shells  have  accumulated  in  such  numbers 
as  to  make  beds  scores  of  feet  in  thickness 
over  great  areas  of  the  sea-bottom.  Some 
portions  of  the  sea-bottom  on  which  these 
chalk-beds  accumulated  have  subsequently 
been  converted  into  land  by  uplift,  so  that 
chalk- formations  now  occur  on  the  conti- 
nents. Oozes  similar  to  chalk  are  now 
accumulating  on  some  parts  of  the  ocean- 
bed.  Contrary  to  the  earlier  belief,  the 
chalk-formations  known  on  the  land  were 
made  in  shallow,  not  in  deep,  water.  The 
chalk  of  our  country  is  found  principally 
in  the  western  plains,  from  Texas  to 
Nebraska.  In  foreign  countries  it  is  found 
especially  in  France  and  England.  Most  of 
the  known  chalk  was  formed  in  the  Cretace- 
ous period  (see  GEOLOGY).  In  color  it  is 
usually  white  or  whitish,  and  in  composition 
it  is  chiefly  carbonate  of  lime.  Chalk  is 
used  extensively  in  the  arts  and  to  a  slight 
extent  in  medicine.  Various  other  sub- 
stances, such  as  red  chalk,  yellow  chalk, 
black  chalk,  French  chalk,  etc.,  which  are 
soft  and  will  make  a  mark,  as  on  a  black- 
board, are  erroneously  called  chalk. 

Chalmers  (chal'merz) ,  Thomas,  a  Scottish 
divine,  was  born  in  Fife,  Scotland,  March  17, 
1780.  He  was  graduated  at  St.  Andrews 
University,  and  began  to  preach  when  but 
19  years  old.  What  made  him  the 
earnest  Christian  leader  he  became  was  the 
careful  study  he  made  of  Christ's  divinity, 
when  asked  to  write  an  article  on  the  sub- 
ject for  an  encyclopaedia.  Then  his  great 
genius  broke  forth  like  the  sunshine.  Called 
to  the  Tron  church,  Glasgow,  his  oratory 
took  the  city  by  storm;  visiting  London, 
his  preaching  soon  made  him  as  well-known 
as  at  home.  To  wrestle  with  the  ignorance 
and  vice  of  Glasgow,  he  became  minister 
of  St.  John's  parish,  with  its  2,000  families 
of  work-people.  Here  he  set  up  day- 
schools  and  40  or  50  Sunday-schools.  The 
authorities  left  him  the  whole  manage- 
ment of  the  poor  in  his  parish,  and  in 
four  years  he  reduced  the  amount  expended 
on  paupers  from  $7,000  to  $1,120.  This 
work  ruined  his  health,  and  he  left  it  to 
take  a  professorship  in  St.  Andrews  and, 
afterward,  in  Edinburgh.  He  ie't  very 
strongly  on  the  questions  that  then  divided 
the  Scottish  church,  and,  followed  by  470 


clergymen,  he  led  a  secession  movement  and 
founded  what  is  known  as  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland.  All  his  life  he  was  a  busy 
writer.  His  works  extend  to  34  volumes, 
mostly  on  theological,  Christian  and  social 
subjects.  As  a  pulpit  orator  he  was  un- 
rivaled. Gentle,  guileless  and  genial- 
hearted,  he  combined  great  brain-power 
and  imagination  with  the  shrewdest  com- 
mon sense.  He  died  on  May  31,  1847. 

Cham'berlain,  Rt.  Hon.  Joseph,  an 
English  statesman  and  M.P.,  for  Birming- 
ham West,  was  born  in  London,  in  July 
1836,  and  educated  at  University  College. 
He  began  his  political  career  as  an  advanced 

Radical,  was 
thrice  elected 
mayor  of  Bir- 
mingham and 
was  in  1876  re- 
turned to  Par- 
liament for 
that  city,  and 
represented  it 
until  the  year 
1885.  In  early 
life  he  was  an 
active  member 
of  the  firm  of 
Messrs.  Nettle- 

JOSEPH  CHAMBERLAIN  *°ld    &    Co., 

screw  manufac- 
turers of  Birmingham.  In  1880  he  became 
president  (Of  the  board  of  trade  in  Mr. 
Gladstone's  cabinet,  and  came  into  promi- 
mence  as  an  able  politician  and  forceful 
debater.  Taking  issue  with  his  political 
chief  on  the  subject  of  Irish  home-rule,  he 
in  1886  allied  himself  with  the  Conservatives. 
Though  at  first  disliked  by  the  latter,  he 
afterward  became  their  leader  in  the  house 
of  commons,  where  he  was  regarded  as  a 
fierce  fighter  and  hard  hitter  as  well  as  a 
man  of  great  force  and  ability.  He  took 
office  in  the  Tory  ministry  of  Lord  Salisbury 
as  colonial  secretary,  and  did  much  to  pro- 
mote colonial  enthusiasm  for  the  war  with 
the  Boers  in  South  Africa,  to  bring  about 
Australian  federation  and  in  his  masterful 
way  in  Parliament  to  defend  the  Tory  govern- 
ment for  the  mistakes  and  shortcomings 
in  the  Boer  War.  He  was  an  earnest  ad- 
vocate of  municipal  reform  and  of  the  better- 
ment of  the  condition  of  the  working  classes. 
He  was  lord-rector  of  Glasgow  University. 
In  1888  he  married,  as  his  third  wife,  Mary, 
daughter  of  W.  C.  Endicott,  formerly  United 
States  secretary  of  war.  Age  and  ill-health 
withdrew  him  from  many  of  his  activities. 
He  died  July  2,  1914. 

Chambers  (chdm'berz),  William,  was  born 
on  April  16,  1800,  at  Peebles,  Scotland.  The 
boy's  schooling  ceased  in  his  thirteenth 
year,  owing  to  his  father's  business  troubles. 
After  a  five  years'  apprenticeship  to  an 
Edinburgh  bookseller,  he  started  in  business 
• 


CHAMBERSBURG 


364 


CHAMOIS 


for  himself,  soon  adding  printing  to  book- 
selling. In  1832  he  founded  Chambers' 
Edinburgh  Journal,  the  pioneer  of  a  class 
of  cheap  and  popular  periodicals  of  a  whole- 
some kind,  now  so  general.  Together  with 
his  brother  Robert,  he  wrote  and  published 
many  useful  books,  especially  the  Cyclo- 
pcedia  of  English  Literature  and  Chambers' 
Encyclopaedia  in  ten  volumes.  He  died 
on  May  20,  1883. 

Cham'bersburg,  Pa.,  a  borough,  the  seat 
of  Franklin  County,  on  Conococheague 
Creek  and  on  the  Western  Maryland, 
and  the  Cumberland  Valley  railroads,  about 
50  miles  southwest  of  Harrisburg  and  150 
west  of  Philadelphia.  It  is  an  attrac- 
tive town,  with  many  fine  buildings,  in- 
cluding churches  and  schools,  besides  Wilson 
(Presb.)  College  for  women;  and  in  the 
neighborhood  are  Mont  Alto,  Wolf  Lake 
and  Pen-Mar  Parks.  The  city  owns  and 
operates  its  electric-light  plant  and  water- 
works, and  in  addition  to  the  Cumberland 
Valley  Railway  car  and  machine-shops,  has 
manufactures  of  paper,  iron,  engines,  boilers 
and  milling  machinery;  also  establishments 
for  the  manufacture  of  shoes,  furniture, 
gloves,  hosiery,  woolen  goods  and  flour. 
Population  13,500. 

Chambord  (shdn'bor'),  Henri  Charles, 
Comte  de,  and  Due  de  Bordeaux,  claimant 
to  the  French  throne  as  the  last  representa- 
tive of  the  elder  branch  of  the  French  Bour- 
bon dynasty,  was  born  at  Paris,  Sept.  29, 
1820,  and  died  near  Vienna,  Aug.  24,  1883. 
He  was  the  son  of  the  Due  de  Berri,  and  in 
1836  married  the  Princess  of  Modena,  but 
IHt  no  children  In  1830  his  grandfather, 
Charles  X,  abdicated  in  the  Count  of  Cham- 
bord's  favor,  when  he  assumed  the  title  of 
Henri  V;  but  his  claim  was  unrecognized 
by  France,  and  Louis  Philippe  came  to  the 
throne,  while  the  Count  had  to  go  into  exile. 

Chameleon,  a  lizard  of  Africa  and  Mada- 
gascar, with  the  power  of  changing  its  color 
to  correspond  with  that  of  surrounding 
objects.  The  name  properly  belongs  to 
the  Old  World  form,  though  it  is  now  com- 
monly applied  to  certain  small  lizards 
of  the  southern  United  States,  which  have 
the  same  power  of  quickly  changing  color, 
though  this  is  not  confined  to  the  chamele- 
ons. Nearly  all  lizards  have  it  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree,  but  it  is  highly  perfected 
in  the  chameleon.  Even  a  passing  cloud 
is  said  to  affect  the  particular  shade  of  its 
color.  The  true  chameleon  of  Africa  is 
covered  with  granular  scales  and  has  a 
rigid  head  but  very  movable  eyes.  The 
long  tongue  is  worm-like,  with  a  knob  on 
the  end,  and  is  run  out  with  remarkable 
quickness  to  catch  insects.  The  tail  is 
clinging.  It  is  also  capable  of  puffing  out 
the  neck  with  air.  The  American  chame- 
leon belongs  to  a  different  family.  It  is  a 
smaller  animal,  covered  with  minute  scales, 
and  very  abundant  in  the  southern  United 


States  and  the  island  of  Jamaica.  Its 
body  is  about  three  to  three  and  one  half 
inches  long,  and  the  tail  alone  is  about  six 
inches.  It  is  white  below,  but  above  can 
change  rapidly  to  shades  from  emerald 


CHAMELEON 


green  to  dark  bronze.  It  assumes  most 
perfectly  the  green  color,  and,  on  the  leaves 
of  palmettoes,  can  scarcely  be  seen  if  looked 
at  from  above,  but,  by  looking  from  under- 
neath, _the  dark  shadow  of  the  animal 
shows  its  position.  It  sleeps  during  the 
night  and  is  most  active  in  the  daytime, 
when  insects  are  moving.  The  cat  is  its 
natural  enemy,  and  will  leave  all  other 
kinds  of  food,  even  fish,  for  the  chameleon. 
Various  explanations  have  been  suggested 
to  account  for  its  ability  to  change  color. 
The  outermost  layer  of  skin  is  transparent, 
and  underneath  are  two  colored  layers — 
the  upper  layer  lighter  and  the  deeper  one 
darker.  Both  of  these  can  be  changed  in 
intensity  by  contraction  or  expansion  of 
the  coloring  substance.  This  is  probably 
effected  through  the  nervous  system. 

Chamois,  ( sham' my"  or  shd-moi' ),  a  small 
mountain  antelope  inhabiting  the  European 
Alps  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Caucasus. 
It  is  about  3  feet  long  and  z\  feet  high  at 
the  shoulders.  It  may  be  known  by  the 
horns,  which  are  carried  by  both  sexes. 
They  are  from  six  to  eight  inches  long,  black, 
slender  and  round;  they  rise  almost  ver- 
tically from  the  iorehead,  and  at  the  ex- 
tremities suddenly  hook  backward  and 
downward.  The  body  is  covered  with 
coarse  reddish-brown  hair,  paler  on  the 
head,  with  a  dark-brown  streak  on  each 
side.  The  hair  becomes  lighter  in  the 
spring.  Underneath  the  hair  is  a  short, 
thick,  grayish  wool.  The  tail  is  short  and 
black.  They  are  shy  and  live  in  herds,  al- 
ways posting  a  sentinel  when  feeding.  The 
signal  of  danger  is  a  whistling  sound,  ac- 
companied by  stamping  of  the  fore  feet. 
Chamois-hunting  in  Switzerland  used  to 
be  a  favorite  but  dangerous  amusement. 
The  hunter  followed  the  animals  into  almost 
inaccessible  places  and  sometimes  bared 
the  feet  and  scratched  them  enough  to 
cause  slight  bleeding,  in  order  to  prevent 
slipping  on  the  smooth  rocks.  Chamois 
were  once  common  in  the  Swiss  Alps,  but 


CHAMOUNI 


CHAMPLAIN 


are  now  greatly  reduced  in  numbers.  In 
the  Austrian  mountains,  where  they  have 
been  better  preserved,  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  see  bands  of  20  or  30  individuals. 
The  agility  and  climbing  powers  of  the 


CHAMOIS 

chamois  are  famous;  its  foot  is  especially 
well  formed  for  laying  hold  of  slight  pro- 
jections on  the  rocks.  The  outer  margin 
of  the  solid  hoof  is  lower  than  the  sole, 
forming  a  shallow  depression.  In  summer 
chamois  ascend  to  the  limits  of  the  snow-line ; 
in  winter  they  descend  to  the  wooded  dis- 
tricts that  border  the  glaciers.  They  do 
not  hesitate  to  spring  over  chasms  nor 
to  leap  downward  20  or  30  feet  against  the 
rocky  face  of  an  apparently  perpendicu- 
lar precipice.  The  fine  soft  leather  known 
as  Shammy  was  originally  made  from 
chamois-skin,  though  many  of  the  skins 
now  sold  under  that  name  are  manufactured 
from  sheep-skin.  The  flesh  is  prized  as  food, 
and  resembles  venison  in  flavor. 

Chamouni  (  shd'mo'ne'),  a  celebrated  val- 
ley among  the  French  Alps,  is  about  3,400 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  about 
13  miles  long  ajid  two  broad.  On  the 
south  is  the  giant  group  of  Mont  Blanc, 
from  which  great  glaciers  glide  down,  even 
in  summer,  almost  to  the  bottom  of  the 
valley.  The  chief  of  these  is  the  Glacier 
des  Bois,  which  in  its  upper  course  expands 
into  a  large  mountain  lake  of  ice,  called 
the  Mer  de  Glace.  Over  15,000  tourists 
visit  the  valley  every  year,  and  from  this 
point  Mont  Blanc  is  usually  ascended. 
The  beauties  of  Chamouni  have  been  writ- 
ten of  by  Byron,  Coleridge,  Shelley,  Words- 
worth, Lamartine  and  Ruskin. 

Champagne  and  The  American'  Wine 
Industry.  Great  strides  have  of  recent 
years  been  made  in  the  production  and  im- 
proved quality  of  the  wines  of  the  United 
States,  with  the  gratifying  result  that  they 
have  largely  supplanted  the  importation 
and  use  of  the  product  of  the  foreign-grown 
grape.  The  total  yield  of  the  native  wine 
has  now  risen  to  close  upon  forty  million 


gallons  per  year.  The  region  of  its  chief 
cultivation  is  still  California;  though  produc- 
tion has  of  late  largely  risen  in  the  states 
of  New  York  and  Ohio  as  well  as  in  sev- 
eral of  the  western  and  southern  states. 
The  superior  quality  of  the  native  wine 
has  now  become  a  matter  of  national  and 
local  felicitation,  which  is  evidenced  by 
the  fact  that  it  is  increasingly  rivalling 
the  imported  vintages  of  the  Old  World. 
Of  sparkling  wines  there  has  been  a  great 
increase  in  Californian  production,  especially 
in  the  last  10  or  12  years,  both  the  soil 
and  the  climate  of  the  state,  over  a  large 
area,  favoring  the  vineyard  yield,  and  that  to 
well-nigh  perfection.  There  the  manu- 
facture of  champagne  is  now  a  great  and 
remunerative  industry,  while  it  is  increas- 
ingly satisfactory  to  the  taste  of  wine 
connoisseurs.  At  Urbana  and  Rheims, 
N.  Y.,  as  well  as  at  Brockton  and  Ripley  in 
the  same  state,  and  at  Erie,  Pa.,  Sandusky 
and  Toledo,  O.  and  on  Lake  Erie  Island 
there  are  also  successful  winemaking 
establishments,  their  collective  output  an- 
nually being  la/ge  and  constantly  increas- 
ing in  yield  and  in  improved  brands. 

Champaign  (sham-pan'),  a  city  in  Cham- 
paign County,  111.,  128  miles  south  of  Chi- 
cago. It  has  the  service  of  the  Illinois 
Central,  the  "Big  Four"  and  several  other 
railroads.  It  is  situated  in  a  rich  agricul- 
tural region,  and  has  foundries,  machine- 
shops  and  a  number  of  manufacturing  in- 
terests. Located  here  is  the  Burnham 
Athenaeum  and  Hospital.  The  cities  of 
Urbana  and  Champaign  join,  and  they  have 
electric  service.  The  University  of  Illi- 
nois is  located  between  Champaign  and 
Urbana.  Population,  15,823. 

Champ-de-Mars  (shon'de-mdrz'),  a  large 
square  on  the  outskirts  of  Paris,  where 
military  reviews  are  held.  The  first  great 
feast  of  the  Revolution  was  held  here  on 
July  14,  1790.  At  that  time  the  place 
was  not  ready,  and  all  Paris,  men  and  women, 
turned  out  and  worked  night  and  day  to 

Eut  it  in  readiness.     It  has  been  used  for 
lirs,     feasts,     great    mass    meetings     and 
demonstrations  of  mobs. 

Cham  plain  (sham- plan'),  a  beautiful  lake 
separating  the  states  of  New  York  and 
Vermont.  It  is  no  miles  long  and  from 
one  to  15  broad.  It  empties  into  the  St. 
Lawrence  through  the  Richelieu  River, 
and  a  canal  joins  it  to  the  Hudson.  Here 
the  Americans  defeated  the  British  in  a 
naval  battle  in  1814.  The  lake  is  named 
from  its  discoverer,  Samuel  de  Champlain. 

Champlain,  Samuel  de  ( 1567-1635).  Of 
the  most  striking  figure,  perhaps,  in  Canadian 
history  during  the  French  regime,  Sir  John 
Bourinot  says:  "It  was  not  in  Acadia  but 
in  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  that  France 
made  her  great  effort  to  establish  her  do- 
minions in  North  America.  Samuel  Cham- 
plain,  the  most  famous  man  in  the  history 


CHAMPS-ELYSEES 


366 


CHANNEL  ISLANDS 


of  French  Canada,  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  present  City  of  Quebec  in  the  month 
of  June,  1608,  or  three  years  after  the  re- 
moval of  the  little  Acadian  colony  from 
St.  Croix  Island  to  the  Basin  of  the  Annapo- 
lis. For  27  years  Champlain  struggled 
against  accumulating  difficulties  to  estab- 
lish a  colony  on  the  St.  Lawrence.  He 
won  the  confidence  of  the  Algonquin 
and  Huron  tribes  of  Canada  who  then  lived 
on  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Ottawa  Rivers 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  Georgian  Bay.  He 
recognized  the  necessity  of  an  alliance  with 
the  Canadian  Indians  who  controlled  all  the 
principal  avenues  to  the  great  fur-bearing 
regions  ...  It  was  during  Champlain's  ad- 
ministration of  affairs  that  the  Company 
of  the  Hundred  Associates  was  formed 
under  the  auspices  of  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
with  the  express  object  of  colonizing  Canada 
and  developing  the  fur-trade  and  other 
commercial  enterprises  on  as  large  a  scale 
as  possible.  The  company  had  ill-fortune 
at  the  outset  .  .  .  When  Champlain  died  on 
Christmas  Day,  1635,  the  French  popula- 
tion of  Canada  did  not  exceed  150  souls,  all 
dependent  on  the  fur-trade.  Canada  so 
far  showed  none  of  the  elements  of  pros- 
perity; it  was  not  a  colony  of  settlers  but 
of  fur-traders.  Still,  Champlain  by  his 
indomitable  will,  gave  to  France  a  foot- 
ing in  America  which  she  was  to  retain 
for  a  century  and  a  quarter  after  his  death. 
He  stands  foremost  amongst  the  pioneers 
of  European  civilization  in  America." 

Dr.  Dawson,  in  his  volume  on  the  St. 
Lawrence  Basin,  gives  the  following  in- 
teresting sketch  of  Champlain:  "Cham- 
plain  was  a  many-sided  man,  strong  in 
body  as  in  mind.  He  was  as  much  at  home 
in  the  brilliant  court  of  France  as  in  a  wig- 
wam on  a  Canadian  lake,  as  patient  and 
politic  with  a  wild  band  of  savages  on  Lake 
Huron  as  with  a  crowd  of  grasping  traders 
in  St.  Malo  or  Dieppe.  Always  calm,  al- 
ways unselfish,  always  depending  on  God. 
in  whom  he  believed  and  trusted,  and 
thinking  of  France  which  he  loved,  this 
simple-hearted  man  resolutely  followed 
the  path  of  his  duty  under  all  circumstances; 
never  looking  for  ease  or  asking  for  profit, 
loved  by  the  wild  people  of  the  forest,  re- 
spected by  the  courtiers  of  the  king  and 
trusted  by  the  close-fisted  merchants  of 
the  maritime  cities  of  France." 

Champs-Elysees  (shori 'zd-le-zd')  (mean- 
ing elysian  fields),  celebrated  gardens  and 
an  avenue-promenade  in  Pans,  between 
the  Place  de  la  Concorde  and  the  Arc  de 
Triomphe.  It  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  city  in  1828,  and  is  extensively  used  as 
a  public  resort. 

Chan'cellorsville,  a  village  in  Virginia, 
south  of  the  Rappahannock  River,  where 
a  series  of  battles  were  fought  May  2-4, 
1863,  between  the  Army  of  the  Potomac 
under  General  Hooker  and  the  Confederate 


army  under  General  Lee.  The  Union  army, 
though  superior  in  numbers,  after  three 
days  terrible  fighting  was  defeated  and 
retreated  across  the  Rappahannock,  with 
a  loss  of  18,000  men.  The  Confederate 
loss  was  13,000,  including  the  brave  and 
able  Stonewall  Jackson,  who  was  acci- 
dentally shot  by  his  own  men  and  died 
eight  days  later. 

Chandler,  Zachariah,  United  States 
senator  from  Michigan  (1857-75  and  again 
in  1879)  and  secretary  of  the  interior 
(1875-77),  was  born  at  Bedford,  N.  H., 
Dec.  10,  1813,  and  died  suddenly  at  Chi- 
cago, 111.,  Nov.  i,  1879.  He  was  for  a 
time  in  the  dry-goods  business  in  Detroit, 
Michigan,  where  as  an  active  anti-slavery 
Whig,  he  took  interest  in  the  "underground 
railroad,"  by  which  slaves  found  their  way 
to  freedom  in  Canada.  In  1857  he  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  senate,  and 
continued  a  member  of  that  body  till  his 
death,  with  the  intermission  of  the  years 
1875  to  1879.  In  1875  he  was  secretary 
of  the  interior  in  the  Grant  administration. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  was  loyal  to  the 
Union,  and  rigidly  defended  it  against  the 
slave-states.  He  also  opposed,  for  the 
time,  the  admission  of  Kansas. 

Chang-Choo-Fou,  a  large  city  of  China, 
in  the  province  of  Fokien,  35  miles  from 
Amoy,  its  port  on  the  coast,  It  is  well 
built,  and  has  a  large  Buddhist  temple. 
Population,  estimated  at  1,000,000. 

Channel,  The  English,  is  the  narrow 
sea  between  England  and  France.  It 
joins  the  North  Sea  at  the  Strait  of  Dover, 
where  it  is  only  21  miles  wide.  From  here 
to  its  junction  with  the  Atlantic,  where  it 
is  100  miles  wide,  its  length  is  280  miles 
It  contains  the  Channel  Islands,  the  Isle  of 
Wight  and  others. 

Channel  Islands,  a  group  of  small  is- 
lands off  the  coast  of  France,  subject  to 
Great  Britain.  Jersey,  Alderney,  Sark  and 
Guernsey  are  the  largest..  The  whole  group 
covers  75  square  miles,  with  a  population 
of  95,618.  The  islands  contain  much  fine 
scenery.  They  belonged  to  Normandy 
when  William  the  Conqueror  invaded 
England,  and  have  belonged  to  England 
ever  since.  The  people  still  speak  Nor- 
man-French; while  modern  French  is  the 
official  language  used  in  courts  and  the 
legislature.  Politically,  the  islands  are  ad- 
ministered by  their  own  laws  and  customs, 
each  by  a  lieutenant-governor  with  judicial 
and  other  functionaries,  and  a  states' 
assembly,  partly  elective.  Jersey  has  a 
separate  legal  existence.  Guernsey,  Al- 
derney and  Sark  have  a  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor in  common,  but  otherwise  their  gov- 
ernments are  separate.  In  these  respects, 
the  islands  may  well  be  called  the  Land 
of  Home-Rule.  The  islanders  are  mainly 
farmers,  and  fertilize  their  lands  with  the 
rich  seaweed  gathered  on  the  coasts.  The 


CHANNING 


367 


CHARITY,  SISTERS  OF 


fine  breeds  of  Alderney  and  Jersey  cattle 
come  from  here. 

Chan 'n  ing,  William  Ellery,  a  great 
American  preacher  and  writer,  was  born  on 
April  7,  1780,  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island. 
He  graduated  from  Harvard  in  1798,  and 
preached  first  as  pastor  of  a  Congregational 
church  in  Boston.  Here  his  sermons  soon 
became  famous  for  their  fervor,  solemnity 
and  beauty.  He  gradually  drifted  toward 
the  Unitarian  creed,  His  interest  was 
not  confined  to  religion  alone,  for  he  advo- 
cated temperance  and  education  and  was 
opposed  to  war  and  slavery.  He  stands 
high  also  as  an  essayist.  Among  his  most 
popular  essays  are  those  on  National  Litera- 
ture, John  Milton,  Fenelon  and  Self-Culture. 
He  died  at  Bennington,  Vermont,  Oct.  2,1842. 

Chantilly  (shdn-te-ye1),  a  town  in  France, 
in  the  department  of  the  Oise,  25  miles 
north-northeast  of  Paris,  noted  for  its  fine 
lace-manufactures.  The  famous  races  of 
the  French  Jockey  Club  are  held  here.  Here 
was  the  magnificent  palace  of  the  great 
Cond6,  which  was  destroyed  during  the 
Revolution.  The  Due  d'Aumale,  in  1850, 
built  a  fine  castle  here,  which,  with  its 
domains  about  it,  he  presented  in  1887 
to  the  French  Institute.  Population,  4,500. 

Chapleau,  Hon.  Joseph  Adolphe,  was 
born  in  Terrebonne  (Quebec),  in  1840. 
He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1861,  and  was 
created  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
(France)  in  1882.  A  professor,  in  Laval 
University,  of  Criminal  Jurisprudence.  He 
was  solicitor-general  under  Mr.  Ouimet 
in  1873,  was  appointed  provincial  secre- 
tary, 1876,  and  in  1879  was  premier  of 
Quebec.  Appointed  Secretary  of  State  in 
Canada  in  1882.  He  was  elected  to  the 
parliament  of  Canada  in  1867,  1871  and 
1875,  and  was  elected  for  Terrebonne  in 
the  House  of  Commons  in  1882.  He  was 
a  very  prominent  and  influential  French 
Canadian  for  at  least  a  quarter  of  a  century. 
His  death  occurred  in  1889. 

Chapui tepee  (chd-pool'td-pek'),  a  Mexi- 
can fortress,  built  on  a  rock  150  feet  high, 
about  two  miles  from  the  city  of  Mexico. 
On  Sept.  8,  1847,  General  Scott  first  stormed 
Molino  del  Rey,  an  old  powder-mill  in  rear 
of  the  fortress  and  then,  September  12, 
brought  four  batteries  to  bear  on  Chapul- 
tepec  from  the  opposite  ridge.  After  can- 
nonading a  day  and  a  half,  attacks  on  the 
two  sides  were  made  at  the  same  time, 
which  carried  the  castle,  with  slight  loss 
to  the  Americans.  This  victory  threw 
open  the  causeway  leading  to  the  city,  and, 
the  day  after,  United  States  troops  occupied 
the  Mexican  capital.  To-day  Chapulte- 
pec  is  occupied  as  the  summer  residence 
of  the  president  of  Mexico,  General  Diaz; 
it  is  the  seat  also  of  an  observatory  and  a 
military  school. 

Characeae     (kd-rd's$-e).       A     group     of  l 
aquatic    plants,    commonly    called    stone    ; 


worts  and  usually  included  among  the 
green  alga;  (chlorophycea) .  They  have  no 
other  coloring  matter  than  chlorophyll,  but 
they  are  so  different  from  the  other  green 
algae  that  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  should 
be  included  with  them.  They  are  more 
complex  than  the  other  algas,  growing  in 
fresh  or  brackish  waters  and  being  fixed 
to  the  bottom.  They  often  form  great 
masses,  even  choking  up  shallow  ponds. 
They  are  coarse,  thready  and  branching 
growths,  whose  walls  become  incrusted  with 
a  deposit  of  lime,  which  makes  them  harsh 
and  brittle  and  suggests  the  common  name, 
stoneworts. 

Char'coal.  Animal  charcoal  is  made 
from  bones  by  heating  in  a  closed  vessel  or 
retort,  when  the  gases,  water-vapor  and  oil 
are  given  off,  and  bone-black,  mainly  car- 
bon, remains.  It  is  seen  usually  in  coarse 
grains,  from  the  size  of  peas  to  pin-heads, 
and  is  used  mostly  in  removing  colors  from 
liquids.  Syrup  of  sugar,  for  example,  is 
allowed  to  drip  through  a  layer  of  bone- 
black;  all  color  is  held  by  the  charcoal  and 
the  syrup  runs  through  clear  and  colorless. 
This  is  due  to  the  charcoal's  earthy  matter 
and  also  to  its  being  porous.  Bone-black 
is  also  used  to  absorb  disagreeable  smells. 
Wood-charcoal  is  one  of  the  most  important 
varieties  of  carbon.  Wood  consists  of  car- 
bon, hydrogen  and  oxygen.  When  heated 
in  the  open  air,  it  burns  away,  except  a 
small  white  ash;  but  if  the  air  is  partially 
cut  off,  only  the  gaseous  matters  escape, 
leaving  the  carbon.  Billets  of  wood  are 
stood  on  end  in  rows,  making  a  large  cone- 
like  heap,  which  is  covered  with  turf  or 
moistened  charcoal  ashes,  and  holes  left  at 
the  bottom  for  air  to  get  in.  An  open  space 
for  a  chimney  is  also  left  at  the  top,  and 
the  wood  burns  slowly  from  top  to  bottom 
and  from  center  to  outside.  When  fully 
burned,  the  heap  is  covered  and  left  to  cool 
two  or  three  days.  One  hundred  parts  of 
wood  average  24  parts  by  weight  of  char- 
coal. Charcoal  is  black  and  brittle,  and 
keeps  its  wood-form.  It  is  never  pure 
carbon,  usually  from  65  to  96  per  cent. 
Charcoal  is  largely  used  as  a  fuel,  in  some 
countries  taking  the  place  of  coal.  Its  use 
in  the  reduction  of  iron-ore  is  important. 
Fence  posts,  telegraph  poles  and  piles  driven 
in  mud  or  beds  of  nvers  for  foundations  are 
often  charred  on  the  outside  to  preserve 
them  from  decay.  It  is  also  used  in  water 
filters,  for  tooth  powder  and  as  a  medicine. 

Chares  of  Lindus,  the  Rhodian  sculptor. 
See  COLOSSUS  OF  RHODES. 

Charity,  Sisters  of,  an  organization 
usually  consisting  ot  nuns  or  celibate  women, 
founded  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  near  Paris 
at  out  the  year  1633.  The  object  of  the 
sisterhood  was  to  take  care  of  the  poor, 
especially  the  sick,  and  to  educate  children. 
Prisons,  free  schools,  hospitals  and  alms- 
houses  were  at  once  placed  under  their  care. 


CHARLEMAGNE 


368 


CHARLES  II 


The  archbishop  of  Paris  gave  them  the 
name  of  Servants  of  the  Poor,  which  they 
have  proudly  kept  ever  since.  The  sisters 
became  so  useful  and  beloved  that  they 
were  spared  by  the  Revolution.  They  have 
since  spread  to  almost  every  civilized  coun- 
try, and  are  doing  a  good  and  faithful  work. 

Charlemagne  (shdr'tt-mdn),  meaning 
Charles  the  Great,  born  April  2,  742,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Pepin,  the  first  king  of 
the  Franks,  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty. 
He  was  at  first  joint-king  with  his  brother 
Carloman,  but  on  the  latter's  death  in  771 
he  became  sole  king.  Six  wars  made  him 
master  of  the  Saxons,  whom  he  Christian- 
ized. Crossing  the  Alps  with  two  armies, 
he  overthrew  the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards 
in  774.  In  778  he  invaded  Spain,  and  by 
his  campaign  against  the  Moors  added  a 
large  region  south  of  the  Pyrenees  to  his 
kingdom.  Ten  years  later  Bavaria  was 
made  a  part  of  his  empire,  and  the  savage 
Avars  were  conquered.  In  800  he  fought 
as  the  ally  of  the  pope  against  the  rebellious 
Romans.  Here,  while  worshiping  in  St. 
Peter's  church  on  Christmas  Day,  the  pope 
set  a  crown  upon  his  head  and,  amid  the 
shouts  of  the  people,  saluted  him  as  the 
emperor  of  the  Romans.  The  remainder  of 
his  reign  was  spent  in  strengthening  his 
vast  empire,  which  extended  from  the  Ebro 
to  the  Elbe.  Bishoprics  were  founded;  the 
country  was  divided  into  districts  ruled  by 
counts;  and  counts,  called  markgrafen,  de- 
fended the  frontiers  from  attack.  A  further 
element  of  strength  was  a  great  yearly 
military  muster,  attended  by  the  high 
officials  of  the  empire.  Charlemagne  was 
not  merely  a  soldier;  a  learned  man  for  his 
era,  he  had  a  school  in  the  palace  for  the 
sons  of  his  servants  and  set  up  schools 
throughout  the  country.  He  promoted 
commerce  and  manufactures;  he  also  took 
an  interest  in  farming,  and  had  fruit  trees 
brought  from  southern  Europe  and  planted 
by  his  subjects  on  their  lands.  His  fame 
spread  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  the  great 
Caliph  Haroun-al-Raschid  sending  an  em- 
bassy to  show  his  respect.  Charlemagne 
was  tall  and  looked  every  inch  a  nobleman. 
The  greatness  of  his  kingdom  ended  with 
his  own  life.  His  successors  were  weaklings, 
and  the  great  empire  fell  to  pieces.  Yet 
his  attempt  to  maintain  order  and  observ- 
ance of  law  among  his  people  and  to  gather 
small  tribes  into  one  great  nation,  had 
great  effect  in  making  Europe  civilized. 
He  died  Jan.  28,  814. 

Charles  I,  king  of  England,  born  Nov. 
19,  1600,  was  a  weakly  child,  unable  to 
speak  until  his  fifth  year  or  to  walk  until 
his  seventh.  He,  however,  outgrew  both 
defects,  became  active  in  outdoor  sports 
and  was  an  accomplished  scholar.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1625,  and  the  same 
year  welcomed,  at  Dover,  his  little  bright- 
eyed  queen,  the  French  Princess  Henrietta 


Maria,  whom  he  had  married  by  proxy  six 
weeks  earlier.  At  first  he  was  the  mere 
tool  of  Buckingham,  but  after  that  noble's 
murder  in  1628,  he  gradually  submitted 
himself  to  the  guidance  of  his  wife.  It  was 
his  yielding  to  her  influence  and  also  to 
that  of  Stafford  and  Laud,  that  caused  the 
rupture  between  the  king  and  Parliament. 
The  struggle  was  caused  by  Charles'  deter- 
mination to  get  money  without  rendering 
an  account  of  it.  For  eleven  years  he 
ruled  without  summoning  a  parliament. 
His  attempt  to  make  the  inland  counties 
pay  a  ship-tax  was  met  by  the  resistance  of 
Hampden;  while  Laud's  foolish  attempt  to 
force  the  Scottish  church  to  become  English 
arrayed  the  whole  northern  kingdom  against 
him.  In  1640  two  parliaments  met;  the 
short  parliament,  which  lasted  but  three 
weeks,  and  the  long  parliament,  which  out- 
lasted Charles.  Afraid  that  the  queen 
would  be  impeached,  he  signed  the  bill 
which  sent  Stafford  to  the  block.  Then 
came  Pym's  Grand  Remonstrance,  as  it 
was  called,  and  Charlies'  attempt  to  arrest 
the  five  members  of  Parliament  who  had 
gone  farthest  in  opposing  him.  In  1642 
began  the  Civil  War,  in  which  Charles 
showed  great  bravery  but  which  resulted 
at  the  battle  of  Naseby,  in  the  utter  destruc- 
tion of  his  cause.  He  was  tried  and  con- 
demned to  death,  and  on  the  3oth  of 
January.  1649,  was  beheaded.  His  faults 
were  as  a  ruler.  As  a  man,  a  husband  and 
a  father,  one  English  prince  alone  is  worthy 
of  being  named  beside  him — the  late  prince 
consort.  It  has  been  well  said :  "  No  man 
so  good  was  ever  so  bad  a  king." 

Charles  II,  king  of  England,  born  May 
29,  1630,  was  present  with  his  father  at  the 
battle  of  Edgehill.  when  but  12  years  old, 
and  in  1646  he  escaped  to  France.  In 
1650  he  landed  in  Scotland,  was  crowned 
at  Scone,  and  with  10,000  Scots  marched 
into  England,  but  was  defeated  and  his 
army  put  to  rout  by  Cromwell  at  Worcester. 
For  six  years  Charles  wandered  about,  a 
fugitive  with  a  price  of  £1000  set  on  his 
head  now  hiding  in  an  oak  tree  and  anon 
disguised  as  a  serving-man.  More  than  40 
persons  shared  in  his  secret,  yet  not  one 
betrayed  him,  and  he  escaped  from  the 
country.  On  the  fall  of  the  protectorate 
in  1660  he  was  recalled  to  the  throne.  His 
first  adviser  was  Lord  Clarendon,  who  was 
succeeded  by  the  cabal  or  cabinet,  and  they 
by  Shaftesbury.  He  was  unpatriotic,  sell- 
ing to  France  Dunkirk,  a  French  town 
which  the  English  had  long  held,  and  also 
secretly  taking  money  from  Louis  XIV  for 
not  opposing  the  schemes  of  France.  Two 
wars  with  Holland;  religious  troubles  at 
home;  the  struggle  to  prevent  the  king's 
brother  James,  duke  of  York,  from  being 
declared  heir  to  the  throne;  and  the  Popish 
and  Rye  House  plots  made  up  the  political 
incidents  of  his  reign.  Under  Charles  II 


CHARLES  VII 


369 


CHARLES  XII 


happened  the  great  plague,  when  nearly 
70,000  Londoners  died,  and  the  great  fire 
which  burned  13,200  houses.  His  reign  has 
been  called  the  worst  in  English  history; 
a  friend  said  that  "he  never  said  a  foolish 
thing,  nor  ever  did  a  wise  one";  yet  he  was 
interested  in  science,  was  always  popular 
and  was  nicknamed  the  Merry  Monarch. 
Charles  died  Feb.  6,  1685. 

Charles  VII,  king  of  France,  born  Feb. 
22,  1403,  succeeded  his  father,  Charles  VI, 
in  1422,  when  all  northern  France  was  held 
by  the  English,  who  proclaimed  Henry  VI, 
of  England  king  of  France.  The  English, 
after  some  successes,  laid  siege  to  Orleans, 
the  capture  of  which  would  wholly  cut  off 
the  French  from  the  north.  At  this  time 
the  famous  Joan  of  Arc,  the  Maid  of  Or- 
leans, by  her  wonderful  courage  and  be- 
lief that  she  was  sent  by  Heaven  to  deliver 
her  country  roused  the  courage  of  nobles 
and  people.  The  siege  was  raised,  the 
English  retreated,  and  soon  lost  all  they 
had  gained  in  France.  In  1437  Charles 
entered  Paris  and  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  reign  in  restoring  order  and  prosperity 
to  France,  after  the  great  misfortunes  the 
country  had  suffered.  He  died  July  22,1461. 

Charles  IX,  king  of  France,  the  second 
son  of  Henry  II  and  Catherine  dei  Medici, 
was  born  in  15  50  and  succeeded  his  brother, 
Francis  II,  in  1560.  He  was  weak  and 
wavering,  and  led  in  all  things  by  his 
mother.  It  was  her  counsel  that  drove  him 
to  authorize  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Day.  He  died  May  30,  1574. 

Charles  X,  king  of)  France,  the  grandson 
of  Louis  XV,  was  born  at  Versailles,  Oct.  9, 
1757.  He  received  the  title  Comte  d'  Artois, 
and  in  1773  married  Maria  Theresa  of 
Savoy.  After  the  fall  of  the  Bastille,  in 
1789,  he  headed  the  first  emigration  of 
nobles  and  took  the  lead  in  the  attempts 
made  to  restore  the  monarchy.  Under 
Louis  XVIII  Artois  headed  the  royalist 
party,  and  by  the  death  of  that  monarch 
became  king  under  the  title  of  Charles  X. 
At  first  he  was  popular  with  all  parties,  but 
it  was  soon  plain  that  he  wished  to  make 
his  rule  as  absolute  as  that  of  the  old 
French  monarchy.  The  people  became  dis- 
contented, and  a  struggle  ensued  with  the 
chamber  of  deputies.  On  July  26,  1830, 
the  king  signed  the  five  well-known  ordi- 
nances, putting  an  end  to  the  freedom  of 
the  press,  making  a  new  mode  of  election 
and  dissolving  the  chamber  that  had  just 
been  elected.  Paris  at  once  took  up  arms. 
In  three  days  the  revolution  was  finished, 
Charles  was  driven  from  the  capital,  and 
Louis  Philippe  declared  king.  Charles  lived 
the  remainder  of  his  life  in  exile.  He  died 
Nov.  6,  1836. 

Charles  V,  emperor  of  Germany,  was 
born  at  Ghent  in  1500.  From  his  father  he 
inherited  the  Low  Countries  and  from  his 
mother  Spain  and  Naples,  together  with  the 


Spanish  colonies  in  America.  In  1516  he 
became  joint-ruler  of  Spain  with  his  mother 
Juana,  and  in  1519  he  was  made  emperor 
of  Germany.  The  hisliory  of  western  Europe 
for  the  next  quarter  of  a  century  is  largely 
made  up  of  the  rivalry  of  Charles  and  Francis 
I  of  France.  The  other  powers.  Henry  VIII 
of  England  and  the  different  popes  favored 
first  one  and  then  the  other,  which  resulted 
in  war  between  the  monarchs  during  much 
of  the  era.  Most  of  the  fighting  was  done 
in  Italy,  where  the  possession  of  Milan  was 
in  dispute.  First,  Charles  V  drove  the 
French  out  of  Italy  and  besieged  Marseilles. 
The  next  year  Francis,  in  trying  to  recover 
Milan,  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Pavia  and  had  to  buy  his  freedom  by  giv- 
ing up  all  he  had  been  fighting  for.  Charles 
was  now  so  successful  that  the  Holy  League, 
with  the  pope  at  its  head,  was  formed 
against  him.  An  army  under  Constable 
Bourbon  sacked  Rome  and  imprisoned  the 
pope,  Charles  claiming  to  have  nothing  to 
do  with  it;  but  it  left  him  master  of  Italy. 
But  now  trouble  called  him  home  to  Spain. 
An  insurrection  had  arisen,  which  he  put 
down,  and  at  the  same  time  by  his  tact 
made  himself  popular  throughout  the 
country.  In  Germany  he  found  himself 
opposed  by  the  Protestants,  who  had  formed 
in  defense  the  League  of  Smalkald.  Threat- 
ened by  an  invasion  of  the  Turks,  he  was 
forced  to  agree  to  many  of  their  demands. 
In  1535  he  accomplished  the  most  brilliant 
of  all  his  exploits,  the  destruction  of  the 
power  of  the  great  corsair,  Barbarossa,  and 
the  capture  of  Tunis.  A  later  expedition  to 
put  down  the  Algerian  pirates  was  badly 
wrecked,  and  Charles  himself  had  great 
trouble  in  reaching  the  coast  of  Spain.  By 
two  more  wars  with  France,  when  Francis 
went  so  far  as  to  call  on  the  Turks  to  help 
him,  he  triumphed  over  the  French  king. 
Two  things  he  now  wished  to  effect,  but  in 
both  of  which  he  failed,  were  to  suppress 
the  Protestant  party  in  Germany  and  nave 
his  son  Philip  accepted  as  heir  to  the  em- 
pire, and  not  merely  to  the  throne  of  Spain. 
The  young  and  brilliant  Maurice  of  Saxony, 
by  suddenly  opposing  Charles  with  a 
secretly  gathered  army  when  his  own  was 
scattered,  obtained  from  him  lawful  recog- 
nition for  the  Protestants.  The  German 
princes  declared  in  favor  of  Philip's  brother 
Ferdinand  as  their  next  emperor.  Baffled 
by  his  unruly  German  subjects,  seeing  no 
way  to  keep  his  empire  from  being  divided 
at  his  death,  the  disappointed  emperor 
resigned  his  throne  in  1555.  The  three 
remaining  years  of  his  life  (he  died  Sept 
21,  1558)  were  spent  in  retirement  in  a 
Spanish  monastery.  Charles  was  in  person 
slight,  graceful  in  manner  and  popular  with 
all  classes  of  his  subjects  among  the  various 
peoples  under  his  sway. 

Charles  XII,  king  of  Sweden,  was  born 
June  27,  1682,  the  son  of  Charles  XI.     As- 


CHARLES  XIV 


370 


CHARLES,   LAW  OP 


cending  the  throne  when  15  years  old,  his 
boyishness  tempted  Denmark,  Poland  and 
Peter  the  Great  of  Russia  to  attack  Sweden, 
at  that  time  the  great  power  of  the  north. 
Charles  at  once  besieged  Copenhagen  and 
forced  a  peace.  Next,  with  8,000  Swedes, 
he  attacked  the  camp  of  the  Russians, 
50,000  strong,  and  in  the  battle  of  Narva 
routed  them  with  great  slaughter.  The 
king  of  Poland  was  now  driven  into  the  heart 
of  Saxony,  conquered  and  dethroned.  In 
1700  Charles  invaded  Russia  with  an  army 
of  43,000,  almost  captured  the  czar  and 
won  several  battles.  But  here,  trusting  to 
the  promises  of  the  Cossack,  Mazeppa,  the 
Swede  turned  southward  to  meet  him. 
Mazeppa  and  his  troop  failed  to  come  up. 
His  reinforcements  cut  off,  he  was  forced 
to  winter  in  a  hostile  and  barren  country, 
losing  half  his  army;  and  though  in  the 
spring  he  marched  at  once  on  Peter,  he 
was  defeated.  With  a  handful  of  attendants 
he  fled  across  the  Turkish  border,  but  in- 
stead of  gaining  the  sultan  as  an  ally, 
Russian  spies  spread  such  reports  about 
him  that  he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned. 
In  1714  he  escaped  and  made  his  way 
through  Germany  and  Hungary  in  16  days. 
But  his  love  of  fighting  was  only  intensified 
by  his  misfortunes,  and  a  project  now 
entered  his  head  that  promised  fighting 
enough.  This  was  to  make  peace  with 
Peter,  conquer  Norway,  next  land  in  Scot- 
land and  replace  the  house  of  Stuart  on 
the  English  throne.  When  at  peace  with 
the  czar,  he  burst  into  Norway,  and  early 
in  1718,  while  urging  on  siege- works  in  the 
dead  of  winter,  he  was  killed  by  a  musket- 
ball  from  the  fortress.  Charles  was  almost 
foolishly  brave;  his  dress  was  simple,  and 
he  shared  the  coarsest  food  and  the  hardest 
labor  with  the  common  soldiers  with  a 
cheerfulness  that  won  their  devotion. 

Charles  XIV  of  Sweden.  See  BERNA- 
DOTTE. 

Charles  the  Bold  (Duke  of  Burgundy), 
son  of  Philip  the  Good  of  Burgundy,  was 
born  Nov.  10,  1433.  He  succeeded  his 
father  as  duke  in  1467.  He  was  the  life- 
long enemy  of  Louis  XI  of  France.  Join- 
ing with  other  great  nobles  in  fighting  for 
what  they  considered  their  rights  as  against 
the  crown,  their  army  threatened  Paris  and 
defeated  the  king.  The  province  of  Bur- 
gundy had  once  been  a  kingdom,  and  Charles 
now  planned  to  restore  it  by  conquering 
Lorraine,  Switzerland  and  Provence.  In 
this,  however,  he  was  not  successful,  being 
twice  defeated  by  the  Swiss.  Finally,  in  a 
battle  against  the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  fight- 
ing with  his  usual  courage  and  boldness,  he 
was  killed,  Jan.  5,  1477.  Richer  and  more 
powerful  than  any  prince  of  his  time,  of 
great  size  and  strength,  his  great  ambi- 
tion and  reckless  boldness  combined  to 
make  him  the  most  striking  figure  of  the 
period. 


Charles  Edward  (the  Young  Pre- 
tender), the  son  of  James  Stuart,  the 
first  Pretender,  was  born  at  Rome,  Dec. 
31,  1720.  Unlike  his  father  and  grand- 
father, he  was  talented  and  firm  of  purpose. 
As  a  boy  he  served  in  the  Spanish  army 
against  Austria.  On  the  breaking  out  of 
war  between  France  and  England  in  1744, 
the  French  furnished  him  with  a  powerful 
fleet  and  an  army  under  the  command  of 
Marshal  Saxe,  the  greatest  soldier  of  the 
time,  with  which  to  secure  the  throne  of 
the  Stuarts,  but  the  expedition  was  driven 
back  by  storms.  The  French  refusing  to 
let  him  try  again,  he  managed  to  collect 
enough  funds  to  fit  out  two  small  vessels. 
One  was  driven  off  by  a  British  cruiser,  but 
the  second  bore  Charles  to  Scotland,  where 
an  army  of  Highlanders  slowly  gathered 
about  him.  He  destroyed  an  English  army 
sent  against  him  at  Prestonpans,  which 
gave  him  such  a  reputation  that  he  marched 
to  within  100  miles  of  London,  which  he  could 
have  captured,  but  the  Highlanders  forced 
him  to  retreat.  After  winning  the  battle  of 
Falkirk,  his  Highland  chiefs  forced  him  again 
to  retreat  to  the  Highlands,  where  the  dis- 
astrous defeat  of  Cufioden  ruined  his  cause. 
He-  might  have  won  this  battle,  too,  had  not 
the  MacDonald  clan  refused  to  charge,  sulking 
because  they  had  been  moved  from  their 
traditional  position  on  the  right  wing.  After 
months  of  wandering,  the  Pretender  escaped 
from  the  country.  He  lived  in  Europe  as 
the  Count  of  Albany,  until  his  death  at 
Rome  in  1768. 

Charles  I,  Emperor  of  Austria,  born 
Aug.  17,  1887,  succeeded  Francis  Joseph  on 
the  throne  Nov.  21,  1916.  He  was  educated 
in  the  public  schools  of  Vienna  and  later 
entered  the  army,  taking  an  active  part  in 
the  Great  War.  He  is  simple  and  unaffected, 
greatly  beloved  by  his  people. 

Charles,  Law  of.  When  a  constant 
mass  of  gas  is  heated,  either  or  both  of  two 
things  may  happen  to  it.  (  i  )  The  effect 
may  be  to  increase  the  volume  of  the  gas 
while  the  pressure  remains  the  same;  (2) 
the  effect  may  be  to  increase  the  pressure 
of  the  gas  while  the  volume  remains  con- 
stant; or  (3)  both  the  volume  and  the 
pressure  may  be  changed  simultaneously. 
Charles'  law,  which  might  more  properly 
be  called  Gay-Lussac's  law,  tells  us  just 
how  these  changes  take  place.  If  the  mass 
and  piessure  of  the  gas  remain  constant, 
then  the  volume  of  the  gas  increases  ¥|, 
part  for  each  degree  centigrade  through 
which  it  is  heated.  Thus,  if  we  denote  by 
V0  the  volume  of  the  gas  at  the  temper- 
ature of  melting  ice,  its  volume  at  any 
other  temperature,  Vt,  will  be  given  by 
the  following  equation: 

Vt=V0[i  +  o.  003665  t°] 


The  fact  thus  described  is  known  as  Charles' 
law.     if  the  volume  remains  constant  and 


CHARLES  MARTEL 


371 


CHARLESTOWN 


the  pressure  changes,  the  effect  is  described 
by  the  following  equation: 

Pt=P0[i-ro.  003665  t°] 
where  P0  is  the  pressure  at  the  temperature 
of  melting  ice  and  Pt  the  pressure  at  t°. 
If  pressure  and  volume  both  change,  then 

PtVt=P0V0[i+o.  003665  t°] 
The  student  should  be  warned  that  this 
law  of  Charles  is  very  accurately  true  for 
all  gases  throughout  a  moderate  range  of 
pressures,  but  is  not  exactly  true  for  any 
gas,  and  does  not  hold  at  all  in  the  case 
of  vapors. 

Charles  Martel,  meaning  CHARLES  THE 
HAMMER,  was  born  about  688.  He  was 
mayor  of  the  palace  under  the  last  Frankish 
kings  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty,  and  was 
the  real  ruler  of  the  Franks.  He  carried 
on  wars  with  the  Saxons,  the  Alamanni 
and  the  Bavarians;  but  his  great  service  to 
Europe  was  his  driving  back  of  the  Saracens. 
They  had  already  taken  Bordeaux  and  had 
advanced  to  the  Loire,  when  Charles  met 
them  in  732,  and  after  a  hard-fought  battle 
wholly  defeated  them.  This  was  one  of 
the  most  important  victories  in  the  world's 
history,  and  probably  kept  Europe  from 
becoming  a  Mohammedan  country  and 
being  to-day  no  further  advanced  than 
Arabia.  Charles  died  in  741. 

Charleston,  the  chief  city  of  South 
Carolina,  was  founded  in  1670  as  an  English 
colony.  It  was  captured  by  the  British  in 
1780.  The  first  ordinance  of  secession  was 
passed  here,  and  the  reduction  of  Fort 
Sumter  in  its  harbor  was  the  first  conflict 


CHARLESTON 
HARBOUR 

INGUSHMII.U 


of  the  Civil  War.  In  1861  nearly  half  of 
the  city  was  burned  to  the  ground,  and  it 
was  in  a  state  of  siege  during  the  last  two 
years  of  the  war.  Then  again,  in  1886,  a 
heavy  earthquake  visited  the  city  and 
wrought  $8,000,00©  of  damage. 


Charleston  is  situated  on  a  peninsula, 
formed  by  the  Ashley  and  Cooper  Rivers, 
while  a  third  river,  the  Wando,  unites  with 
the  Cooper  at  the  city.  The  estuary  formed 
by  these  rivers  makes  a  magnificent  harbor. 
It  is  even  regarded  as  the  safest  on  the 
Atlantic  coast. 

Fort  Moultrie,  at  Sullivan's  Island  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  harbor,  is  one  of  the 
best  equipped  defenses  on  the  coast.  It 
and  the  naval  station  at  Charleston,  which 
occupies  a  tract  on  Cooper  River,  have 
cost  the  government  several  millions. 

Charleston's  commerce  was  almost 
destroyed  by  the  Civil  War,  but  much  of 
that  which  entered  other  channels  has  been 
recovered,  and  the  terminal  docks  for  two 
ocean-freight  lines  which  were  established 
in  Charleston  in  1901  have  also  increased 
the  city's  commercial  prestige.  Eleven 
manufactories  are  engaged  in  producing 
phosphate  fertilir^rs,  which  is  the  leading 
industry;  others  of  importance  are  tobacco, 
foundry  and  machine-shop  products,  oil 
and  rice  milling,  bagging-factories,  turpen- 
tine-casks and  baskets  for  shipping  veg- 
etables and  fruits. 

Charleston  has  good  public  and  parish 
school  systems,  and  for  higher  education, 
the  Charleston  and  Meninger  High  School, 
Academy  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy,  Smith's 
school  for  young  ladies,  the  South  Carolina 
Military  Academy,  a  state  institution  estab- 
lished in  1843,  the  state  Medical  College 
and  many  others. 

The  city  has  60  churches  and  many 
charitable  institutions.  The  buildings  of 
note  are  the  postoffice,  built  of  Carolina 
granite,  and  the  U.  S.  Custom-House 
erected  of  white  marble.  Population, 

58.833 

Charleston,  capital  of  West  Virginia 
and  county  seat  of  Kanawha  County,  is 
situated  on  the  Kanawha  River  at  its 
junction  with  the  Elk.  The  Kanawha  has 
an  excellent  system  of  locks  and  dams, 
which  afford  facilities  for  shipping  coal 
from  the  rich  New  River  mines.  Charleston 
is  the  center  ot  trade  for  large  coal  and 
lumber  interests.  Its  industries  include 
woolen-mills,  machine-shops,  boiler-works, 
iron-foundries,  steel-plants,  dye-works, 
marble-works,  wagon-shops,  glass-works, 
furniture-factories  and  one  of  the  largest 
axe-factories  in  the  world.  It  has  many 
fine  public  buildings,  among  which  are  the 
Capitol  and  Capitol  Annex,  Court-House, 
Y  M.  C.  A.  building,  modern  and  well- 
equipped  houses  and  handsome  churches. 
Population,  30,000. 

Charlestown,  Mass.  Charlestown  is 
situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Charles  River, 
opposite  the  old  city  of  Boston.  In  1873 
it  was  annexed  to  the  city  of  Boston.  At 
that  time  it  had  a  population  of  28,000. 
It  is  the  scene  of  the  first  real  battle  of  the 
Revolution,  that  of  Bunker  Hill. 


CHARLOTTE 


372 


CHATHAM 


Charlotte,  N.  C.,  a  growing  city  and 
railroad  center,  the  capital  of  Mecklenburg 
County,  situated  on  Sugar  Creek,  no  miles 
north  of  Columbia,  capital  of  South  Caro- 
lina. Its  balmy  climate  and  high  average 
temperature  are  favorable  for  invalids. 
Gold  has  been  found  in  the  vicinity,  and 
there  is  here  a  branch  of  the  United  States 
mint.  It  is  the  seat  of  Queen's  College  for 
girls.  It  has  numerous  manufactories  and  a 
good  trade  in  cotton-goods,  tobacco,  iron- 
castings,  and  agricultural  implements.  Popu- 
lation, 50,000. 

Charlot'tenburg  is  a  large  suburb  lying 
to  the  west  of  Berlin.  It  is  visited  by 
tourists  for  the  sake  of  the  royal  palace, 
built  here  in  1696  by  Frederick  I  for  his 
second  wife,  Sophia.  The  grounds  and 
statuary  are  of  great  beauty.  Charlotten- 
burg  has  become  the  seat  of  many  factories ; 
and  its  population,  which  in  1871  was  esti- 
mated at  less  than  20,000,  has  multiplied 
no  less  than  tenfold. 

Char'lottesville,  Va.f  a  city,  the  seat 
of  Albemarle  County,  on  the  Rivanna 
River  and  on  the  Southern  and  the  Chesa- 
peake &  Ohio  railroads,  about  100  miles 
northwest  of  Richmond.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  University  of  Virginia,  founded  in  1819 
by  Thomas  Jefferson  of  Monticello,  near 
by;  also  the  seat  of  Albemarle  College, 
Rawlings  Female  Institute  and  other  edu- 
cational institutions.  Settled]  in  1744, 
Charlottesville  became  a  city  in  1888. 
It  became  a  city  of  the  first  class  in  1916, 
by  the  annexation  of  adjacent  territory.  Its 
industries  embrace  cigar-factories,  wine- 
presses, flour,  planing  and  woolen  mills 
and  textile  manufactures.  Population 
12,000. 

Char'lottetown,  the  capital  of  Prince 
Edward  Island  (which  is  separated  from 
New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  by  Nor- 
thumberland Strait)  has  a  population  of 
13  ooo.  It  is  nicely  located  on  a  good 
harbor  in  Hillsborough  Bay.  It  has  the 
main  trade  of  the  island.  Its  main  industry 
is  shipbuilding.  The  Prince  Edward 
Island  Railway,  owned  by  the  government 
of  Canada,  connects  Charlottetown  with 
the  towns  of  the  island,  and  a  submarine 
telegraph  connects  the  island  with  the 
province  of  New  Brunswick,  a  distance  of 
nine  miles. 

Charter-House,  a  famous  'school  and 
hospital  of  London,  founded  in  1611.  It 
first  provides  a  good  home  for  80  "poor 
brethren."  The  Charter-House  school  main- 
tains some  60  scholarships,  worth  from 
$375  to  $475,  which  are  open  to  boys  from 
12  to  15  years  old.  Besides  the  holders  of 
these  scholarships,  many  Londoners  send 
their  boys  to  this  school  because  of  its 
reputation.  Blackstone,  Addison,  Steele, 
John  Wesley,  Grote  Thackeray,  John 
Leech,  Eastlake  and  many  other  men  of 
note  and  ability  were  educated  there.  In 


1872  the  school  was  removed  to  Godal- 
ming  in  Surrey. 

Charter-Oak.  See  ANDROS  and  HART- 
FORD. 

Chase,  Salmon  P.,  chief -justice  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  at  Cornish,  N.  H., 
Jan.  13,  1808.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College,  and  entered  the  law,  practicing  at 
Washington,  D.  C.  His  edition  of  the 
Statutes  of  Ohio,  now  court  authority,  made 
him  known  as  a  jurist,  while  his  arguments 
in  several  cases  intrusted  to  him,  in  favor 
of  the  rights  of  fugitive  slaves,  brought 
him  into  great  prominence.  In  1841  Chase 
entered  politics  as  an  opponent  of  slavery 
extension  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Free-soil  party.  In  1849  he  was  chosen 
senator  from  Ohio  as  a  Democrat,  but 
withdrew  from  that  party  soon  after  on 
the  slavery  question.  On  his  record  in  the 
senate  he  was  elected  governor  of  Ohio  by 
the  Republican  party  in  1855,  and  re- 
elected  two  years  later.  He  was  secretary 
of  the  treasury  in  President  Lincoln's  cab- 
inet from  1861  to  1864.  On  him  fell  the 
burden  of  finding  the  ways  and  means  of 
carrying  the  government  financially  through 
the  war.  Legal-tender  greenbacks,  issuing 
of  bonds  and  the  national  banking  system 
were  the  chief  means  used.  In  1864  he 
became  chief-justice  of  the  United  States, 
and  as  the  head  of  the  supreme  court  pre- 
sided at  the  impeachment  trial  of  President 
Johnson.  He  died  at  New  York  on  May 

7.  l873- 

Chateaubriand  (shd-to'bre'dn') ,  Francois 
Rene,  Vicomte  de,  a  French  man-of-letters, 
was  born  in  Brittany,  Sept.  14,  1768.  At 
the  time  of  the  French  Revolution  he  took 
part  at  first  with  the  exiled  royalists,  but, 
returning  to  France,  was  employed  in  a  dip- 
lomatic service  by  Napoleon.  On  the  murder 
of  the  Due  d'Enghein,  he  threw  up  his  office 
as  ambassador  to  the  Republic  of  Valais.  He 
supported  the  restoration  monarchy,  becom- 
ing a  minister  of  state,  and  was  appointed 
ambassador-extraordinary  to  England.  He 
visited  America  when  a  young  man,  and 
afterwards  traveled  in  the  east.  His  love 
story  of  savage  life,  A  tola,  made  his  literary 
reputation.  This  appeared  in  1801,  and  the 
Genius  of  Christianity  added  its  quota  to 
raise  him  to  the  foremost  place  among  French 
writers  of  the  day.  Chateaubriand  s  books 
abound  in  passages  of  brilliant  description, 
and  there  is  no  French  author  before  him 
whose  prose  writings  can  compare  with  his 
in  the  power  of  conveying  the  beauty  and 
mystery  of  nature.  Chateaubriand  is  called 
the  father  of  the  French  romantic  school  of 
writers.  He  died  at  Paris,  July  4,  1848. 

Chateauguay  (  sha'td'ga' ) ,  a  village  in  the 
county  of  that  name  in  the  province  of  Que- 
bec, possessing  a  monument  erected  in  1895 
to  commemorate  the  victory  there  gained  by 
Col.  de  Salaberry  over  the  Americans  in  1813. 

Chatham,  Earl  of.  See  PITT. 


CHATHAM 


373 


CHAUCER 


Chatham  (chafam) ,  Northumberland 
County,  N.  B.,  is  the  chief  town  on  the  gulf 
coast  of  the  province,  lying  on  Mirarmchi 
Bay,  with  a  fine  harbor  and  much  activity 
in  shipyards,  mills,  foundries  and  lumber.  It 
has  a  population  of  about  5,000.  To  the 
southwest,  along  the  Miramichi  River,  are 
the  best  salmon  grounds  in  Canada. 

Chat' ham,  a  city  of  10,317  in  western 
Ontario.  Situated  on  the  River  Thames. 
Considerable  manufacturing  is  done  here.  A 
carriage-manufactory  is  one  of  its  largest 
industries.  It  is  in  the  natural-gas  and  oil 
district.  The  district  surrounding  it  is 
particularly  rich  and  fertile.  It  is  growing 
rapidly,  its  natural  advantages  proving 
attractive. 

Chattahoochee  (chaftahoo'chd),  a  river 
in  Georgia,  which  takes  its  rise  in  the  north- 
east part  of  the  state,  in  the  Blue  Ridge 
Mountains,  and,  flowing  south,  between 
Georgia  and  Alabama,  unites  with  Flint 
River  to  form  the  Appalachicola.  Its  length 
is  over  500  miles,  and  it  is  navigable  for  over 
200  miles  to  Columbus.  It  is  famous  in 
literature  as  the  subject  of  Lanier's  poem, 
The  Song  of  the  Chattahoochee. 

Chat'tanoo'ga,  Tenn.,  a  city,  the  county 
seat  of  Hamilton  County,  on  the  Tennessee 
River  and  on  a  number  of  railway  trunk- 
lines.  For  eight  or  nine  months  of  the  year 
the  river  is  navigable  as  far  as  Chattanooga. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of  Chatta- 
nooga, McCallie  Preparatory  School,  Baylor 
School,  Girls'  Preparatory  School,  and  also  of 
Baroness  Erlanger  Hospital;  it  has  many 
fine  civic  buildings,  an  opera  house,  public 
library  and  a  number  of  attractive  churches 
and  fine  schools.  The  city  has  a  large 
trade  in  coal,  iron,  grain  and  lumber,  its 
industries  embracing  the  manufacture  of 
steel  and  iron,  machinery  of  various  kinds, 
furniture,  bricks  and  tiles,  cotton  goods, 
carnages  and  cars.  In  the  vicinity  is  the 
Chickamauga  National  Military  Park,  mark- 
ing the  scene  of  the  battle  of  Chickamauga 
(Sept.  1863).  During  the  Civil  War  the 
city  and  neighborhood  were  the  scenes  of 
much  and  calamitous  fighting,  the  city  espe- 
cially suffering.  A  sad  evidence  of  the  bloody 
struggle  of  the  era  is  the  national  cemetery 
here,  which  contains  about  13,400  graves. 
Population,  57,000. 

Chattanooga,  Battle  of,  a  series  of 
bloody  engagements,  in  the  Civil  War, 
fought  at  Chattanooga,  T«nn.,  and  immedi- 
ate neighborhood,  Nov.  23-25,  1863,  between 
the  Federal  army  (60,000  strong)  under 
General  Grant  and  the  Confederate  forces 
(numbering  40,000)  under  General  Bragg, 
and  ending  disastrously  for  the  south.  The 
battle  had  for  its  initial  acts  the  expulsion 
of  Bragg  by  Rosecrans  from  Chattanooga, 
and  the  battle  fought  at  Chickamauga  (Sept. 
19-20,  '63),  in  which  the  Union  army  was 
defeated  and  driven  back  to  Chattanooga, 
where  General  Thomas,  who  had  succeeded 


Rosecrans  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the 
Cumberland,  was  besieged  by  Bragg.  At 
this  juncture  General  Grant,  who  had  been 
placed  in  command  of  the  northern  armies 
operating  in  the  region,  came  on  the  scene, 
bringing  with  him  General  Sherman  with  a 
part  of  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee,  Hooker 
with  reinforcements  from  the  east  having 
just  preceded  them.  Ordering  Hooker's 
corps  to  attack  Bragg's  left,  Grant  entrusted 
to  Sherman  the  duty  of  attacking  the  south- 
ern right,  while  Thomas  was  to  engage  the 
center.  Hooker  forced  his  way  up  Lookout 
Mountain  and  had  a  notable  engagement 
with  the  enemy  in  what  is  romantically 
known  as  the  Battle  above  the  Clouds,  after- 
wards gaining  a  position  on  Bragg's  left  and 
rear.  Sherman's  attack  met  with  stubborn 
resistance,  and  desperate  fighting  ensued 
without  decisive  results.  Finally  the  forces 
under  Thomas  charged  and  carried  the  en- 
emy's rifle-pits  at  the  foot  of  the  Ridge  and 
in  the  absence  of  orders,  rushed  up  the  steep 
face  of  Missionary  Ridge,  and  won  the  crest 
and  the  day.  The  storming  of  this  Ridge 
has  been  noted  as  one  of  the  most  heroic 
achievements  of  the  war,  besides  being  vi- 
tally disastrous  to  Bragg  and  his  army, 
which  retreated  toward  Atlanta.  See  War 
of  the  Rebellion  Records,  also  The  Army  of 
the  Cumberland  and  Battles  and  Leaders  of 
the  Civil  War. 

Chaucer  (cha'ser),  Geoffrey,  English 
poet  and  man  of  affairs,  was  born  about  1340. 
Of  his  early  boyhood  we  know  nothing.  At 
the  age  of  seventeen  we  find  him  a  page  in 
the  service  of  the  wife  of  the  Duke  of  Clar- 
ence, and  at  nineteen  see  him  in  the  army 
of  Edward  III  fighting  the  French,  when  he 
was  taken  prisoner,  but  later  on  was  ran- 
somed. He  married  about  1360  the  sister 
of  the  future  wife  of  John  of  Gaunt.  He 
was  given  a  pension  by  the  king,  and  sent 
afterward  to  the  Continent  as  commissioner 
or  diplomat.  In  1386  he  lost  two  of  the 
offices  he  was  holding,  why  we  know  not, 
and  from  that  time  until  his  death  misfor- 
tune pursued  him.  He  seems  never  to  have 
made  provision  for  old  age,  and  now  many 
dark  days  came  to  him,  though  things  went 
a  little  better  when  Henry  IV,  the  son  of 
his  old  friend,  John  of  Gaunt,  came  to  the 
throne.  While  on  the  king's  business  he 
visited  Italy,  and  we  find  in  most  of  his 
poems  indications  that  his  idea  of  poetry, 
what  it  is  and  should  be,  as  well  as  his  style 
and  many  of  his  plots  and  subjects,  were 
taken  from  the  great  Italian  poets,  Dante, 
Petrarch  and  Boccaccio.  The  first  of  his 
great  poems  was  Troilus  and  Cressida,  but 
not  until  the  darkness  of  poverty  and  old 
age  came  upon  him,  did  he  write  the  Canter- 
bury Tales,  of  which  the  Prologue  is  the  chief 
work.  The  Tales  are  related  by  a  company 
of  pilgrims  on  their  way  to  Canterbury,  who 
gather  at  an  inn  and  agree  each  to  tell  a 
tale  in  going  and  returning;  he  who  should 


CHAUDIERE 


374 


CHEMISTRY 


tell  the  best  tale  was  to  be  treated  by  the 
others  with  a  supper  at  the  inn.  Chaucer  is 
known  as  the  father  of  English  poetry,  and 
not  only  is  he  the  first  great  poet  of  the 
race,  but,  in  order  of  merit,  he  is  among  the 
first  of  all  our  poets.  Chaucer  wrote  when 
the  English  language  and  spelling  were  not 
yet  fixed,  and  one  needs  almost  to  learn  a 
new  language  to  read  him,  though  some  of 
his  poems  have  been  published  with  modern 
spelling  and  explanatory  notes.  Spenser 
called  him  "that  welle  of  Englishe  unde- 
fyled."  The  poet  died  about  the  year  1400, 
and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Chaudiere  ( sho'dy&r1 ) ,  a  Canadian  river 
about  1 20  miles  in  length,  which  flows 
through  the  southern  portion  of  the  province 
of  Quebec.  Its  source  is  in  Lake  Megantic, 
near  the  border  of  the  state  of  Maine  and  it 
joins  the  St.  Lawrence  opposite  Quebec,  or, 
rather,  some  seven  miles  above  the  historic 
city.  Near  its  mouth  occurs  one  of  the  cata- 
racts known  as  Chaudiere  Falls,  whose  height 
is  about  100  feet.  Another  cataract  of  the 
same  name  occurs  in  the  Ottawa  River,  near 
the  Dominion  capital. 

Chautauqua  (sha-ta'kwa),  a  popular  re- 
sort on  Chautauqua  Lake,  New  York  state. 
Here  Lewis  Miller  founded  in  1874  the 
Chautauqua  Assembly  to  give  instruction  to 
Sunday-School  teachers,  and  out  of  it  grew 
the  wider  Literary  and  Scientific  Circle,  "to 
direct  the  reading  habits  of  grown  people." 
It  consists  of  a  fou  years'  course  of  home 
reading  under  the  oversight  of  the  Chautau- 
qua officers.  There  are  about  two  hundred 
thousand  members  of  the  circle,  scattered 
over  the  world.  Dr.  John  H.  Vincent,  chan- 
cellor, was  the  best  exponent  of  the  spirit  of 
the  institution.  As  expressed  by  him,  the 
"Chautauqua  idea"  is  "a  plea  for  universal 
education."  He  was  convinced  that  "a 
college  is  possible  in  every-day  life  if  one 
choose  to  use  it." 

Checkers  or  Draughts,  a  popular  game, 
supposed  to  have  come  in  early  times  from 
Egypt,  and  played  on  a  board,  somewhat 
after  the  chess-board  pattern,  in  various 
ways  in  many  modern  countries.  The  fa- 
miliar form  is  that  played  by  two  persons, 
each  being  given  12  checkers,  (one  using 
the  white  ones  and  his  opponent  the  black, 
or  vice  versa),  on  a  square  board,  divided 
into  64  equal  squares,  alternately  black  and 
white,  the  checkers  at  the  beginning  of  the 
game  being  placed  on  the  three  near  lines 
of  squares  (usually  on  the  black  ones) .  The 
moves  are  made  diagonally  across  the  board 
on  to  an  unoccupied  square,  with  the  design, 
at  close  range  of  one's  adversary,  of  cap- 
turing his  men  by  jumping  over  the  piece 
and  removing  it,  the  moves  being  made 
diagonally  to  a  square  unoccupied  and  clear 
to  land  on.  The  jump  or  move  may  be  con- 
tinued, if  other  men  on  the  opponent's  side 
are  also  exposed  to  capture,  when  they  are 
similarly  leaped  ov«r  and  removed  from  the 


board,  provided  that  there  be  again  a  vacant 
square  to  occupy  in  making  the  leap.  When 
the  opponent's  back  line  of  squares  is  reached 
and  occupied,  the  player  gets  his  man  kinged 
or  crowned,  by  placing  another  checker  of 
the  same  color  on  top  of  it.  This  kinged 
man  is  then  free  to  move  back  and  forth  on 
the  board,  one  square  at  a  time  (unless 
checked  by  the  adversary),  and  is  thus  in  a 
more  favorable  position  to  win  the  game. 
For  further  details  see  any  checker's  manual 
or  treatise  on  games. 

Chelsea  (chel'sS),  a  western  suburb  of 
London,  England,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Thames.  The  town  has  been  the  home  of 
many  famous  English  characters,  Sir  Thomas 
More,  Princess  Elizabeth,  Walpole,  Swift, 
Carlyle,  George  Eliot  and  others.  It  is 
widely  known  as  the  seat  of  Chelsea  Hospital 
for  old  and  disabled  soldiers,  whose  founda- 
tion-stone was  laid  by  Charles  II  in  1682. 
About  550  pensioners  are  housed  here,  but 
all  of  the  pensioners  of  the  empire  (about 
88,000)  are  called  out-pensioners  of  Chel- 
sea. 

Chelsea,  a  city  of  Suffolk  County,  Mass., 
population,  43,121.  Chelsea  is  a  suburb 
of  Boston;  it  was  settled  as  a  part 
of  Boston  in  1625,  was  set  off  as  a 
town  in  1739,  and  became  a  city  in  1857. 
It  is  connected  with  Boston  by  railroad, 
electrics  and  ferry.  This  ferry,  the  Win- 
nisimmett,  is  the  oldest  in  the  country,  dat- 
ing from  1631.  While  most  of  its  citizens 
do  business  in  Boston,  manufacturing  inter- 
ests have  increased.  Wall  paper,  clocks, 
boxes,  boots,  shoes,  brass  goods,  pot- 
tery, rubber  goods  and  hard-wood  veneers 
are  among  the  products.  There  are 
excellent  schools,  church  and  social  organ- 
izations and  a  public  library.  A  United 
States  naval  hospital  faces  the  Mystic  River, 
which  separates  Chelsea  and  Charlestown. 
In  area  the  city  is  very  compact,  comprising 
little  more  than  two  square  miles.  In  1908 
it  was  almost  completely  destroyed  by  fire. 

Cheltenham  (chelt'nam),  a  fashionable 
watering  place  in  Gloucestershire,  England. 
Its  popularity  came  first  from  the  benefit 
George  III  got  by  drinking  its  salt-spring 
waters.  There  are  several  colleges  and  fine 
buildings,  and  the  absence  of  manufactures 
makes  it  a  pleasant  place  to  live  in.  Popula- 
tion 50,842. 

Chemistry.  The  science  of  chemistry 
deals  with  the  nature  and  composition  of  sub- 
stances and  with  a  certain  class  of  changes 
which  substances  undergo.  Chemical  changes 
produce  substances  which  are  permanently 
different  from  the  things  from  which  they 
are  formed.  They  take  place  when  anything 
burns,  ferments,  decays  or  rusts;  when  sub- 
stances combine  to  form  new  substances  or 
when  they  are  divided  into  other  things; 
also  when  substances  exchange  some  of  their 
constituents.  Examples  of  chemical  changes 
are  the  explosion  of  gunpowder,  where  the 


CHEMISTRY 


375 


CHEMISTRY 


solid  substance  disappears  and  products 
which  are  largely  gases  are  formed;  the 
burning  of  a  candle,  where  the  fat  or  wax 
combines  with  oxygen  from  the  air  to  form 
water- vapor  and  carbon  dioxid;  the  rusting 
of  iron,  where  a  brown  earthy  substance  is 
produced  by  the  slow  action  of  oxygen  and 
moisture;  the  destruction  of  sugar  by  heat- 
ing, where  water-vapor  and  pungent  gases 
come  off  and  charcoal,  a  form  of  carbon,  is 
left  behind;  the  slaking  of  quick-lime,  where 
water  combines  with  the  lime  and  much  heat 
is  produced;  the  action  of  metallic  zinc  in  a 
solution  of  lead  acetate,  where  zinc  changes 
place  with  lead  and  a  lead-tree  is  formed, 
together  with  soluble  zinc  acetate.  The 
most  careful  experiments  have  shown  that 
no  gain  or  loss  of  total  weight  takes  place 
during  any  chemical  change.  Matter  cannot 
be  destroyed,  therefore,  nor  can  it  be  pro- 
duced in  any  circumstances  whatever. 
This  fact  leads  to  the  statement  that  there 
is  a  law  like  this  in  regard  to  energy.  Phys- 
ical changes  are  distinguished  from  those 
that  are  chemical  in  being  merely  changes 
of  condition.  For  example,  when  a  piece  of 
glass  is  heated  to  redness  it  becomes  soft, 
but  it  remains  unchanged  chemically  and  has 
the  same  composition  and  properties  after  it 
has  cooled;  when  water  is  changed  to  steam 
by  heating  or  to  ice  by  cooling,  it  undergoes 
no  chemical  change,  for  the  steam  and  ice 
may  be  readily  turned  into  water  again; 
when  a  piece  of  sulphur  is  crushed  to  powder 
the  change  is  merely  physical,  for  every  one 
of  the  small  particles  is  still  sulphur;  when 
common  salt  is  dissolved  in  water  it  under- 
goes a  physical  change,  for  it  may  be  regained 
unchanged  by  boiling  off  the  water. 

Chemistry  has  to  do  with  the  composition 
of  all  substances;  not  only  those  that  occur 
naturally  in  the  earth  as  minerals,  or  are 
produced  by  plants  and  animals,  but  those 
that  are  prepared  artificially  by  chemical 
changes.  Analytical  chemistry  deals  with 
finding  out  what  is  contained  in  substances. 
This  is  qualitative  analysis  when  only  the 
identity  of  the  constituents  is  sought,  while 
it  is  quantitative  analysis  when  their  quan- 
tities are  determined.  A  vast  amount  of  re- 
search has  shown  that  the  innumerable  ob- 
jects that  have  been  analyzed  contain  com- 
paratively few  kinds  of  matter  or  elements. 
As  far  as  we  know,  each  element  contains 
only  one  thing,  and  all  the  evidence  goes  to 
show  that  it  is  impossible  to  change  any 
element  into  another,  even  to  the  slightest 
extent.  At  the  present  time  seventy-six 
elements  are  recognized  by  chemists,  as 
follows : 

Gaseous  non-metallic  elements.  Argon, 
chlorine,  fluorine,  helium,  hydrogen,  kryp- 
ton, neon,  nitrogen,  oxygen  and  xenon. 

Other  non-metallic  elements.  Boron,  bro- 
mine, carbon,  iodine,  phosphorus,  selenium, 
silicon  and  sulphur. 

More   common   or  important   metallic  ele- 


ments. Aluminium,  antimony,  arsenic,  ba- 
rium, bismuth,  cadmium,  calcium,  chro- 
mium, cobalt,  copper,  gold,  iron,  lead,  lith- 
ium, magnesium,  manganese,  mercury,  -odi- 
um, nickel,  platinum,  potassium,  silver, 
strontium,  thorium,  tin,  titanium  and  zinc. 

Rarer  or  less  important  metallic  elements. 
Beryllium,  caesium,  erbium,  gadolinium, 
gallium,  germanium,  indium,  indium,  lan- 
thanum, molybdenum,  neodymium,  niobium, 
osmium,  palladium,  praseodymium,  rho- 
dium, rubidium,  ruthenium,  samarium, 
scandium,  tantalum,  tellurium,  thallium, 
thulium,  tungsten,  uranium,  vanadium, 
ytterbium,  yttrium  and  zirconium. 

Most  of  the  elements  included  in  the  last 
list  are  exceedingly  rare,  and  are  found  only 
in  minerals  which  occur  in  small  quantities 
and  in  but  few  places.  The  elements  given 
in  the  other  lists  vary  enormously  in  their 
abundance.  About  one  fifth  of  the  atmos- 
phere, exactly  eight  ninths  of  pure  water 
and  nearly  one  half  of  the  earth  s  crust  are 
made  up  of  oxygen.  Silicon,  which  occurs 
in  combination  with  oxygen  as  quartz  and 
in  silicates,  is  next  to  oxygen  in  abundance, 
while  calcium,  the  metal  of  limestone,  and 
aluminium,  the  metal  of  clay,  occur  in  large 
quantities.  Magnesium,  iron,  potassium  and 
sodium  are  also  very  important  constituents 
of  rocks;  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen  and  ni- 
trogen make  up  the  greater  part  of  plants 
and  animals;  but  calcium,  phosphorus, 
potassium,  sulphur,  iron  and  a  ^ew  other 
elements  are  also  required  by  living  things 
in  larger  or  smaller  quantities.  Plants  get 
their  carbon  from  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the 
air;  hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  taken  in  by 
the  roots  in  the  form  of  water,  and  from  the 
soil  also  are  taken  the  nitrogen  and  the  other 
elements  that  plants  require.  Animals  ob- 
tain their  nounshment  directly  or  indirectly 
from  plants,  so  that  they  contain  no  elements 
that  are  not  found  in  vegetable  matter.  The 
term,  organic  chemistry,  originally  referred 
to  the  chemistry  of  the  substances  produced 
by  plants  and  animals,  and  it  was  formerly 
supposed  that  these  substances  could  be  pro- 
duced only  by  living  organisms.  Many  of 
the  products  of  life,  however,  such  as  alcohol, 
some  of  the  sugars,  indigo,  oil  of  winter- 
green  and  many  others,  have  now  been  made 
artificially,  so  that  there  is  no  necessity  for 
classifying  these  products  by  themselves. 
For  convenience,  however,  substances  con- 
taining carbon,  the  characteristic  element  of 
living  things,  are  still  called  organic,  and 
they  include  a  vast  number  of  artificial  sub- 
stances that  do  not  occur  in  nature.  The 
chemistry  of  all  substances  that  do  not  con- 
tain carbon  is  called  inorganic  chemistry. 

All  substances  that  are  not  elements  are 
either  mixtures  or  chemical  compounds,  con- 
taining two  or  more  elements.  These  two 
classes  are  to  be  distinguished  by  the  fact 
that  compounds  do  not  vary  in  composition, 
while  mixtures  may  vary  greatly.  Examples 


CHEMOTAXIS 


376 


CHEROKEES 


of  chemical  compounds  are  water,  composed 
•f  hydrogon  and  oxygen;  sugar  and  alcohol, 
both  of  which  contain  carbon,  hydrogen  and 
•xygen;  common  salt,  which  is  made  of 
•odium  and  chlorine  and  has  the  chemical 
lame  of  sodium  chloride;  quartz,  called  sil- 
i«*  or  silicon  dioxide,  which  contains  ailicon 
amd  oxyja*;  and  pota»«ium  chlorate,  which 
is  coat  posed  of  potasiiuai,  «hlorin«  and  oxy- 
fen.  Different  aamplae  of  any  chemical 
compound,  when  pure,  always  contain  the 
same  element*  in  exactly  the  same  propor- 
tions by  weight  or  in  definite  proportions. 
The  same  elements  often  form  several  com- 
pounds by  combining  in  several  different 
proportions;  there  are  hundreds  of  com- 
pounds containing  only  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen. It  is  true,  also,  that  the  same  elements, 
combined  in  exactly  the  same  proportions, 
may  form  a  number  of  entirely  different 
substances.  This  last  fact,  as  well  as  many 
other  chemical  facts,  is  explained  by  sup- 
posing that  the  elements  are  composed  of 
exceedingly  small  indivisible  particles  called 
atoms.  All  the  atoms  of  each  element  are 
believed  to  be  alike,  and  atoms  of  different 
elements  are  supposed  to  make  up  the  mole- 
cules or  smallest  possible  parts  of  compounds. 
The  existence  of  several  compounds  of  the 
same  composition  is  explained  by  assuming 
that  the  atoms  have  different  arrangements 
in  the  molecules.  The  atomic  theory  has 
been  developed  so  elaborately  that  chemists 
are  able  to  assign  definite  relative  positions 
to  the  atoms  in  the  molecules  of  a  great 
many  compounds,  and  the  relative  weights 
of  the  atoms  of  most  of  the  elements  have 
been  determined  with  great  accuracy,  al- 
though their  actual  weights  are  unknown. 
However,  since  atoms  have  never  been  seen 
(and  in  all  probability  never  will  be  seen  on 
account  of  their  small  size),  their  existence 
cannot  be  said  to  be  proven. 

Most  of  the  substances  met  with  in  every- 
day life  are  mixtures  of  chemical  compounds. 
Such  are  most  articles  or  materials  of  food 
and  raiment,  wood,  bricks,  paper,  glass, 
rocks,  soils,  etc.  There  are  a  few  familiar 
mixtures  of  elements,  such  as  metallic  alloys, 
steel  and  also  atmospheric  air,  which  consists 
chiefly  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen. 

Our  present  chemical  theories  and  the 
greater  part  of  our  chemical  knowledge  have 
beea  developed  in  comparatively  recent 
tiai«6.  The  discovery  of  oxygen  by  Priestley 
in  1774,  the  correct  explanation  of  combus- 
tion shortly  afterward  by  Lavoisier  and  the 
founding  of  th«  atomic  theory  by  Dalton 
during  the  first  decade  of  the  last  century 
were  important  events  which  mark  the  begin- 
nings of  modern  chemical  science.  Chemical 
knowledge  is  still  rapidly  increasing.  In  both 
the  inorganic  and  the  organic  fields  natural 
sabstanoes  are  being  examined,  new  com- 
f*t*tds  are  being  prepared  and  the  laws 
wWfch  govern  chemical  changes  are  being 
studied. 


Chemistry  has  given  and  is  giving  much 
assistance  in  a  practical  way  to  medicine, 
agriculture,  metallurgy  and  many  other 
branches  of  art  and  industry,  and  still  more 
important  advances  in  these  directions  are 
to  be  expected  in  the  future. 

HORACE  L.  WELLS. 

Chem'otax'i*  (in  plants) ,  the  sensitiveness 
of  an  organism,  free  to  move  about,  to  a  one- 
sided chemical  stimulus  (see  IRRITABILITY), 
to  which  it  responds  by  taking  up  a  definite 
attitude  with  respect  to  the  direction  from 
which  the  substance  is  diffusing.  Since  no 
plants  (except  possibly  the  myxomycetes  or 
slime-moulds,  which  see)  are  free  to  orient 
themselves  thus  unless  they  are  immersed 
in  water,  it  follows  that  the  substance  in 
order  to  act  must  be  soluble  and  diffusible  in 
water.  Thus  the  sperms  (male  cells)  of 
mosses  will  so  place  themselves  in  a  diffusing 
current  of  sugar  particles  that,  as  they  swim, 
they  move  toward  the  source  of  the  sugar. 
Such  agencies  are  believed  to  determine  the 
movement  of  the  sperms  toward  the  egg  in 
many  plants. 

Chemot'ropism  (k$-mot'r$-p%z'm) ,  the  sen- 
sitiveness of  a  plant  to  a  onesided  chemical 
stimulus  (see  IRRITABILITY)  to  which  it  re- 
sponds by  changing  the  rate  of  its  growth  in 
certain  regions,  and  thereby  putting  the  part 
affected  in  a  new  position  with  respect  to  the 
diffusing  particles.  It  differs  from  chemo- 
taxis  only  in  the  nature  of  the  reaction. 
Diffusing  gases  or  solutes  (but  usually  the 
latter)  may  effect  the  reaction.  Thus  the 
growth  of  the  germ-tubes  arising  from  grow- 
ing spores  of  fungi  is  directed  by  their  che- 
motropism.  When,  for  example,  a  spore  falls 
upon  a  leaf  on  or  in  which  the  fungus  can 
develop,  it  sprouts,  and  when  the  young 
germ-tubes  reach  the  stomata  (which  see), 
they  turn  in  and  ramify  in  the  interior.  Or 
they  may  penetrate  an  epidermal  cell  at 
once.  It  has  been  shown  in  both  cases  that 
the  directive  influence  is  the  presence  of  foods 
in  the  leaf.  The  pollen-tubes  are  similarly 
controlled  in  their  growth  down  the  style  to 
the  ovules  (see  FERTILIZATION). 

Che'ops.     See  PYRAMIDS. 

Cherbourg.     See  BREAKWATER. 

Cherokees  (cher'd-kSz),  a  tribe  of  North 
American  Indians  who  were  found  by  the 
whites  in  possession  of  the  upper  valley  of 
Tennessee  River  and  the  rivers  and  moun- 
tains of  the  Alleghenies,  and  occupying  64 
towns.  Meeting  the  English  colonists  first, 
they  became  their  friends  and  took  part  with 
them  in  the  wars  against  the  French.  During 
1757—61  they  were  most  of  the  time  at  war 
with  the  English,  the  trouble  growing  out  of 
robberies  of  provisions  from  the  settlers  by 
the  Cherokees,  who  were  driven  to  thievery 
by  hunger  on  the  homeward  march,  after 
fighting  for  the  colonists.  They  yielded  to 
the  whites,  after  losing  most  of  their  houses, 
cattle  and  horses.  During  the  Revolution 
they  took  the  side  of  the  British.  After  the 


CHERRY 


377 


CHESAPEAKE 


war  a  part  of  the  trib«  im»ved  west  of  the 
Mississippi  to  find  better  hunting-grounds, 
and  in  1838  the  government  removed  the 
remainder.  In  the  Civil  War  they  divided, 
Cherokees  being  in  each  army.  The  tribe 
learned  several  kinds  of  manufacturing, 
gradually  gave  up  hunting,  and  up  to  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  held  many  slaves.  There 
have  been  schools  and  missions  among  them 
for  a  long  time.  They  are  also  rich,  the 
go  vernment  holding  for  them  over  $  i ,  5  o  o  ,o  o  o . 
They  number  about  14,000. 

Cher'ry,  certain  species  of  the  genus 
Prunus,  which  belongs  to  the  rose  family. 
The  cultivated  tree-cherries  are  said  to  have 
come  from  two  European  species.  The  ber- 
ries are  also  distinguished  in  general  as  sweet 
and  sour  cherries.  It  is  the  latter  kind  which 
is  usually  cultivated  for  canning,  the  sweet 
cherries  being  mostly  confined  to  dooryard 
planting.  In  Japan  cherries  are  specialized 
for  their  beauty,  Cherry-blossom  time  being 
a  holiday  season.  Our  wild  red  cherry,  pin, 
bird  or  pigeon  cherry,  is  a  graceful  little  tree, 
its  bark  smooth  and  shining,  its  leaves  ever 
twinkling,  and  none  could  pass  it  by  unno- 
ticed in  April  and  May,  then  all  snowy, 
fragrant  bloom.  Its  rich  red  fruit  is  a  prime 
favorite  with  the  birds.  This  tree,  a  quick 
grower  and  short-lived,  is  an  excellent  nurse 
for  young  forest  trees.  The  choke-cherry  is 
generally  but  a  shrub,  though  attaining  con- 
siderable size  in  the  region  lying  between 
Nebraska  and  northern  Texas.  Both  in 
time  of  blossoming  and  in  fruit-bearing  it 
is  very  attractive,  the  blossoms  having  long, 
fleecy  bunches.  Later  the  branches  droop 
with  the  long  stems  aset  with  glowing  gems, 
ohanging  through  various  shades  of  yellow 
and  red  to  the  dark  crimson  of  the  ripe  fruit 
— occasionally  yellow  when  ripe.  The  fruit 
is  very  good  to  look  at  but  very  bitter  to 
eat,  puckery  and  harsh  to  the  taste. 

The  wild  black  cherry  or  rum-cherry,  is 
a  very  valuable  timber  tree.  It  grows  to 
the  height  of  50  to  90  feet,  the  polished 
wood,  a  rich,  lustrous  brown,  rivalling  ma- 
hogany and  rosewood.  It  was  once  abundant 
on  the  Alleghany  slopes,  but  is  now  quite 
scarce.  See  Rogers:  The  Tree  Book',  Louns- 
berry:  A  Guide  to  the  Trees. 

Cherubini  (kd-roo-be1  ne) ,  Maria  Luigi 
Carlo  Zenobio  Salvatore,  an  Italian  com- 
poser, was  born  at  Florence  in  1760.  He 
began  to  study  music  at  the  age  of  six.  He 
produced  successful  operas,  and  in  1800 
brought  out  one  of  his  masterpieces,  The 
Water-Carrier.  Soon  after  he  turned  his 
mind  to  church-music,  in  which  he  became 
very  distinguished,  his  first  work  being  the 
Mass  in  F.  His  operas  resembled  Mozart's 
in  many  respects.  He  died  March  15,  1842. 

Chesapeake  Bay  (ches'd-pek),  meaning 
mother  of  waters,  the  greatest  inlet  in  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States,  enters 
Virginia  and  extends  into  Maryland.  It  is 
200  miles  long  and  from  four  to  forty  miles 


wide.  Cape  Charles  and  Cape  Henry  mark 
its  entrance.  It  receives  the  Susquehanna, 
Potomac,  James  and  other  rivers.  The 
Chesapeake  is  so  deep  that  the  largest  ships 
can  steam  up  its  entire  length.  It  is  also 
the  most  southern  oi  the  deep-water  bays, 
all  those  to  the  south  being  shallow. 

Chesapeake,  The,  a  frigate  of  the  United 
States  Navy,  historically  noted  in  the  War  of 
1812  with  Great  Britain  and  in  the  prelim- 
inary impressment-controversy  period.  The 
latter  period  was  the  one  when  the  British 
government'  refused  to  recognize  the  natural- 
ization abroad  of  her  subjects  as  absolving 
them  from  their  inalienable  allegiance.  In  the 
intercourse  between  this  country  and  Eng- 
land, early  in  the  last  century,  it  was  a 
frequent  practice  on  the  part  of  British 
seamen,  when  their  ships  touched  at  Ameri- 
can ports,  to  desert  and  become  American 
subjects.  This  naturally  offended  England 
and  annoyed  the  captains  and  officers  of  her 
ships  when  desertions  occurred  on  this  side; 
so  much  so  that  it  became  a  frequent  occur- 
rence to  overhaul  American  ships  and  take 
from  them  deserters  and  even  American 
subjects  on  the  high  seas.  One  instance  of 
this  connects  itself  with  the  United  States 
frigate,  The  Chesapeake,  which  soon  after 
sailing  from  Hampton  Roads,  on  June  22, 
1807,  was  overhauled  for  deserters  by  the 
British  warship  Leopard.  Though  unpre- 
pared for  action,  The  Chesapeake  resented  the 
insult  to  the  American  flag  and  refused  to 
submit  to  inspection  or  to  surrender  any  of 
the  foreign  portion  of  her  crew.  At  this  The 
Leopard  opened  fire  and  forced  The  Chesa- 
peake to  haul  down  her  flag  and  give  up  the 
three  colored  deserters  aboard  her.  The 
unfriendly  act,  though  disowned  by  Britain 
(the  government  of  the  latter  refusing  all 
redress)  did  much  to  embroil  the  two  nations 
and  precipitate  the  War  of  1812-14.  When 
the  latter  was  in  progress,  The  Chesapeake 
was  again  to  figure  in  a  sharp  encounter 
with  a  British  warship,  The  Shannon,  com- 
manded by  Captain  Broke  and  carrying  52 
guns.  On  this  occasion,  The  Chesapeake, 
which  was  then  commanded  by  Captain 
Lawrence,  and  had  an  armament  of  50  guns, 
was  in  better  shape  than  formerly  to  take 
her  part  in  the  action  that  followed,  save 
that  she  had  a  practically  untrained  crew. 
The  two  frigates  met  just  outside  of  Boston, 
on  June  i,  1813,  and  at  once  an  engagement 
ensued.  So  hot  was  the  Shannon's  fire,  and 
so  indifferently  was  it  returned  by  her  Ameri- 
can adversary,  that  the  encounter  lasted  but 
fifteen  minutes,  when  The  Chesapeake  was 
forced  to  surrender,  in  spite  of  her  gallant 
captain's  charge  to  his  men,  as  he  was 
carried  below  mortally  wounded:  "Don't 
give  up  the  ship."  The  Chesapeake  became 
The  Shannon's  prize,  and  was  taken  by  the 
latter  into  Halifax  harbor,  afterwards  and 
for  a  few  years  sailing  under  the  British 
flag.  The  casualties  of  the  encounter  were 


CHESAPEAKE  AND  OHIO  CANAL 


378 


CHESTNUT' 


many  on  both  sides;  out  of  a  crew  of  379 
The  Chesapeake  lost  61  in  killed  or  mortally 
wounded,  and  85  more  or  less  severely 
wounded;  The  Shannon's  losses  (out  of  a 
crew  of  330)  were  33  killed  and  50  wounded. 
See  Cooper's  History  of  the  Navy  of  the  United 
States  and  Roosevelt's  The  Naval  War  of 
1812. 

Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal,  a  project, 
favored  in  1774  by  Washington,  to  connect 
the  great  inland  lakes  by  a  navigable  water- 
way from  Lake  Erie  across  the  Alleghenies, 
utilizing  the  affluents  of  the  Ohio  River, 
thence  to  tidewaters  on  the  Potomac.  The 
undertaking  was  not  in  his  day  put  into 
effect;  though  in  1820  it  was  revived  by  the 
state  of  Virginia,  and  a  company  was  organ- 
ized to  construct  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
Canal,  from  Georgetown,  D.  C.,  to  Cumber- 
land, Md.,  by  utilizing  the  waterway  of  the 
Potomac  and  tunneling  the  mountains  be- 
yond Paw- Paw  Bend,  thence  to  Cumberland. 
The  project  was  completed  in  1850,  at  a  cost 
exceeding  n-J  million  dollars.  The  canal 
has  a  length  of  185  miles,  and  by  means  of 
about  75  locks  (100  feet  in  length  by  15  feet 
in  width)  it  gains  a  total  elevation  of  over 
600  feet,  the  water  being  supplied  by  the 
Potomac.  The  depth  of  the  canal  is  6  feet, 
while  its  width  to  Harper's  Ferry  is  60  feet 
on  the  surface  and  42  feet  at  the  bottom. 
The  continuation  of  the  canal  to  tap  the 
inland  lakes  is  a  matter  still  in  the  future; 
though  of  late  the  city  of  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  has 
taken  hearty  interest  in  the  scheme,  both 
by  urging  the  Federal  authorities  to  carry 
the  canalization  of  the  Monongahela  River 
south  to  Fairmont,  W.  Va.,  and  by  planning 
to  construct  a  canal,  16  feet  deep  and  esti- 
mated to  cost  over  $30,000,000,  from  Pitts- 
burg  to  Ashtabula,  Ohio,  on  Lake  Erie. 

Chess,  a  game  played  with  pieces  of  dif- 
ferent value  upon  a  board  chequered  in  two 
colors  and  divided  in  sixty-four  squares,  is 
the  most  ancient  of  all  the  current  games 
of  skill.  Chess  is  probably  of  Asiatic  origin, 
although  a  game  similar  to  it  was  known 
to  the  Egyptians.  One  of  the  earliest  books 
to  be  printed  in  English  was  Caxton's  Ye 
Game  and  Playe  of  ye  Chesse  (1479).  The 
literature  upon  chess  is  at  the  present  time 
enormous. 

The  pieces  at  the  disposal  of  each  player 
are  a  king,  a  queen,  two  bishops,  two  knights, 
two  castles  or  rooks  and  eight  pawns.  The 
king  moves  in  any  direction  one  square;  the 
queen,  so  far  as  the  board  is  free,  either  diag- 
onally or  horizontally;  the  bishop,  diagon- 
ally on  its  own  color;  the  knight,  one  square 
horizontally  or  vertically  and  one  square 
diagonally;  the  castle,  horizontally  and  ver- 
tically; the  pawns,  to  the  next  square  in 
front.  For  the  peculiar  moves  in  castling, 
capturing  and  moving  two  squares  with 
pawns,  and  "queening^  the  pawn,  the  reader 
is  referred  to  books  upon  chess. 

In  theory,  since  the  forces  of  each  player 


are  equal,  every  game  of  chess  if  rightly 
played  should  end  in  a  draw.  But  the  charm 
of  chess  arises  from  its  infinite  variety.  No 
two  games  are  alike.  None  the  less,  the  best 
openings  in  chess  have  been  reduced  to  a 
science,  so  that  the  earnest  student  of  the 
game  needs  to  practise  the  standard  openings 
as  given  in  books.  There  is  no  better  plan 
for  the  learner  than  to  play  over  the  pub- 
lished games  of  the  great  masters. 

The  strategy  of  chess  imitates  that  of 
war.  The  king  is  for  each  player  the  final 
object  of  attack  and  defence.  Often,  how- 
ever, it  is  better  to  direct  the  attack  upon 
some  other  piece,  and  to  weaken  the  enemy 
before  attempting  to  checkmate  him.  A 
king  is  checkmated  when  he  is  attacked  in 
such  a  manner  that  if  he  were  not  the  king 
he  must  needs  be  taken.  The  value  of  chess 
as  a  mode  of  mental  recreation  is  almost 
beyond  praise.  At  the  same  time  it  may 
be  too  serious  a  study  for  the  good  of  the 
scholar  whose  mind  is  overtaxed  by  mental 
work.  Moreover,  the  virtue  which  chess  is 
held  to  possess,  of  training  the  mental  powers 
for  other  purposes  than  the  game  itself, 
would  seem  to  have  been  exaggerated. 

Ches'ter,  a  city  in  Delaware  County,  Pa., 
on  the  Delaware  River,  13  miles  from 
Philadelphia.  It  has  a  military  and  other 
colleges,  shipbuilding  yards  and  manufactures 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  engines,  etc. 
It  was  founded  by  the  Swedes  in  1643, 
and  is  the  oldest  town  in  the  state.  Popu- 
lation 40,000. 

Ches'terfield,  Philip  Dormer  Stan- 
hope, Lord,  was  born  in  London,  Eng., 
Sept.  22,  1694.  He  studied  at  Cambridge, 
and  was  a  member  of  Parliament.  He  was 
acquainted  with  Swift,  Pope,  Johnson  and 
other  authors.  It  was  by  offering  his  pat- 
ronage to  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  after  his 
famous  dictionary  appeared,  though  he 
had  withheld  it  before,  that  he  drew  from 
the  indignant  Johnson  the  witty  letter  de- 
clining the  courtesy  that  is  so  famous  in 
English  literature.  Chesterfield  is  best  re- 
membered by  his  Letters  to  His  Son.  He 
died  March  24,  1773. 

Chest' nut,  species  of  the  genus  Castanea, 
which  is  closely  related  to  the  beech. 
There  are  about  five  species,  which  occur 
in  the  temperate  regions  of  northeastern 
America,  Europe,  northern  Africa  and  Asia. 
The  peasants  of  Italy  and  Spain  regard  the 
chestnut  as  quite  important.  This  chestnut 
is  not  sweet  like  ours,  but  very  good  when 
cooked.  Three  species  are  cultivated  in 
this  country  for  the  fruit,  namely,  the 
European  chestnut  (C,  sativa),  also  known 
as  French,  Spanish  and  Italian  chestnut; 
the  American  chestnut  (C.  Americana); 
and  the  Japanese  chestnut  (C.  crenata). 

The  European  chestnut  is  a  tall,  spreading 
tree  the  burrs  very  large,  the  nuts  larger 
than  the  American  chestnut.  The  Japanese 
chestnut  is  a  dwarfish,  slender  tree  and 


CHEVIOT 


379 


CHICAGO 


bears  very  large  nuts,  in  quality  generally 
not  equal  to  the  other  chestnuts,  though 
excellent  when  cooked. 

The  American  chestnut  rises  to  a  height 
of  60  to  100  feet,  and  is  a  symmetrical  tree 
with  a  heavy  top.  The  bark  is  gray;  the 
glossy  leaves,  from  six  to  eight  inches 
long,  taper  at  both  ends,  making  foliage 
of  marked  beauty  and  abundance;  the 
flowers  are  catkins,  which  open  in  June 
and  July  and  exhale  a  sweet  heavy  odor;  two 
to  three  nuts  are  the  fruit.  The  nuts  hold 


CHESTNUT 

first  rank  among  chestnuts,  and  are  mark- 
eted in  large  quantities  from  the  forests  of 
the  Appalachian  region,  from  Maine  to 
Georgia  in  the  east  and  westward  to  Michi- 
gan, Mississippi  and  Louisiana.  The  tree 
is  a  valuable  lumber-tree,  the  wood  being 
used  for  interior  finish,  for  furniture,  rail- 
road ties,  fence  posts  and  fuel. 

A  miniature  chestnut  is  the  chinquapin, 
occurring  from  Pennsylvania  to  Florida 
and  west  to  Arkansas  and  Texas;  in  the 
last  two  states  reaching  the  dignity  of  a 
tree,  east  of  the  Mississippi  only  a  shrub. 
A  single  sweet  nut  is  its  fruit.  Chinquapin 
nuts  are  on  sale  in  their  season  in  the  mar- 
kets of  southern  towns.  The  horse-chest- 
nut does  not  belong  to  the  same  family  as 
the  above,  but  is  treated  under  horse- 
chestnut.  See  Rogers:  The  Tree  Book; 
B  ailey :  Cyclopedia  of  A  merican  Horticulture; 
Hodge:  Nature  Study  and  Life,  chapter 
on  Elementary  Forestry. 

Cheviot  ( che've-ut )  rlills,  a  mountain 
range  in  Northumberland  and  Roxburgh 
Counties,  on  the  English  and  Scotch  bor- 
ders, 35  miles  long.  These  hills  are  used  as 
pasture-lands  by  the  fine  Cheviot  breed 
of  sheep.  Here  were  fought  many  bloody 
battles  between  the  Scotch  and  the  English, 
and  the  name  is  commemorated  in  the 
famous  old  ballad  of  Chevy  Chase. 

Chevy  Chase.     See  BALLADS. 

Cheyenne  (shi'en'),  the  capital  of  Wyo- 
ming. It  was  founded  in  1867,  when  the 
Union  Pacific  Railroad  reached  that  point 
It  has  large  railroad  shops,  is  a  supply. 


point  for  surrounding  ranches  and  mining 
camps,  and  is  a  shipping  place  of  beef- 
cattle.  Many  cattle-men  and  mine-owners 
live  here.  Population,  n>320 

Cheyennes,  a  tribe  of  Indians  belong- 
ing to  the  great  Algonquin  family.  They 
were  found  by  the  travelers,  Lewis  and 
Clarke,  in  1803,  on  the  Cheyenne  River  near 
the  Black  Hills.  The  tribe  afterward  di- 
vided, one  part  remaining  in  the  north, 
joining  the  Sioux  and  fighting  against  the 
Crows;  the  other  going  south  to  the  Arkansas 
and  joining  the  Arapahoes.  Treaties  were 
made  between  both  bands  and  the  United 
States;  but  failure  to  carry  out  a  treaty 
made  in  1861  and  an  inhuman  attack, 
made  in  1864,  by  whites  on  what  is  known 
as  Sand  Creek  village,  killing  100  Cheyenne 
men,  women  and  children  drove  the  tribe 
into  the  field  against  the  whites  for  the 
first  time.  This  war  cost  the  government 
many  lives  and  about  $30,000,000.  The 
troops  of  General  Hancock  and  Custer,  in 
1867,  forced  them  to  go  on  a  reservation. 
The  Cheyennes  do  not  take  kindly  to  schools. 
They  number  about  3,500. 

Chicago.  In  the  University  of  Chicago, 
there  is  a  relief  map  which  shows  that  the 
site  of  the  second  city  in  the  United  States 
and  the  fourth  in  the  world,  was,  at  no 
very  remote  age,  covered  by  the  waters  of 
Lake  Michigan.  You  would  have  had 
only  to  watch  workmen  excavating  earth 
for  any  one  of  the  nearly  12,000  buildings 
erected  in  1912  to  see  the  sand  of  this  an- 
cient beach  turned  up.  In  December, 
1674,  when  PeYe  Marquette  was  guided  to 
the  Chicago  River  by  Pottawattomie  In- 
dians, the  plain  was  no  more  than  six  feet 
above  lake-level — a  dreary,  frozen  marsh, 
bounded  by  a  wooded  ridge  ten  miles  back, 
the  old  shore-line,  and  relieved  only  by  two 
low  elevations  of  glacial  drift  —  Stony 
Island  (gravel)  and  Blue  Island  (clay). 
The  saintly  Jesuit,  on  his  way  to  found  a 
mission  among  the  Illinois  Indians,  was 
conducted  along  the  route  that  had  long 
been  used  by  the  many  Algonquin  tribes 
of  the  upper  lakes  and  the  middle  Mis- 
sissippi. When  the  ice  broke  up  and 
flooded  the  plain,  the  canoes  were  paddled 
out  to  the  ridge,  carried  across  a  couple 
of  miles  and  set  afloat  on  the  westward 
flowing  current  of  the  Desplaines.  La  Salle 
saw  the  strategic  importance  of  the  route 
and  fortified  Starved  Rock  on  the  Illinois. 
In  1803  the  United  States  government 
built  Fort  Dearborn  on  the  Chicago  River 
to  control  the  Indians  around  the  head 
of  the  lake.  Hither,  in  the  same  year, 
came  John  Kinzie,  fur-trader  and  silver- 
smith, with  his  family,  to  barter  with  the 
many  tribes  that  used  the  Chicago  trail 
or  gathered  here  for  council. 

As  the  farthest  point  inland  to  be  reached 
over  the  Great  Lakes,  with  the  shortest 
portage  to  the  Mississippi  system,  nature 


CHICAGO 


380 


CHICAGO 


had  endowed  the  spot,  but  had  set  it  in  a 
slough  960  miles  across  a  hostile  wilderness 
from  the  seaboard.  The  horrid  massacre 
of  Fort  Dearborn  August  15,  1812,  was 
not  followed  by  peace  with  the  red  man 
for  20  years.  After  the  Black  Hawk  War 
(1831),  the  Indians  of  northern  Illinois 
were  removed  to  Iowa,  and  the  vast  region 
of  fertile  prairie  behind  Chicago  was  open 
to  settlement.  The  town  was  organized 
In  1833  with  28  voters.  In  1837  it  was  in- 
corporated with  a  population  of  4,497, 
which  was  but  a  fraction  of  the  number 
that  in  five  years  had  swarmed  through  the 
gateway.  In  1848  it  had  grown  to  20,000. 
It  became  plain  to  the  least  imaginative 
that,  if  Chicago  was  to  get  any  great  ad- 
vantage from  its  position,  means  must  be 
provided  for  bringing  in  the  products  of 
the  farms  and  for  distributing  supplies. 
It  was  easier  and  cheaper  for  settlers  on  the 
streams  to  load  grain  and  cattle  on  flat- 
boats  and  send  them  to  St.  Louis,  than  to 
haul  loads  across  Chicago's  ten  miles  of 
slough.  The  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal 
connecting  the  Chicago  and  Illinois  Rivers 
along  the  old  canoe- trail,  opened  in  1848, 
extended  Chicago's  trade  a  hundred  miles 
westward  and  taxed  its  shipping  facilities. 
In  the  early  50*3  William  B.  Ogden  over- 
came incredible  financial  difficulties,  and 
pushed  ten  miles  of  railway  (the  North- 
western) out  to  the  boat-landing  on 
the  Desplaines.  The  first  train  out 
found  a  cargo  of  grain  piled  on  the 
bank.  From  that  small  beginning  of 
a  half  century  ago  Chicago  has  become 
the  greatest  railroad  center  in  the  world, 
the  terminal  of  36  lines,  aggregating  a 
mileage  of  91,672  miles,  or  over  40 
per  cent,  of  the  total  mileage  of  the 
United  States,  with  gross  revenues  of 
$2,900,000,000. 

With  a  death-rate  in  the  50*3  that 
must  wipe  out  the  entire  population  in 
40  years.  Chicago  undertook  the  colos- 
sal task  of  pulling  itself  up  to  a  2o-foot  level. 
For  the  first  time  in  history  four-story  brick 
and  stone  buildings  were  hoisted  on  jack- 
screws  12  to  14  feet  in  the  air  without 
interrupting  business.  The  sand-bar  that 
turned  the  river  a  half  mile  south  to  seek 
an  outlet,  was  used  to  raise  the  grade  of 
the  streets;  the  river  was  cut  straight  out 
to  the  lake;  the  channel  and  harbor  were 
deepened;  and  pumping  works  on  the 
South  Branch  reversed  the  current,  drew 
water  from  the  lake  and  washed  Chicago's 
sewage  into  the  canal.  To-day  the  city 
stands  25  feet  above  lake  level.  In  1901 
the  Drainage  Canal  was  opened.  One 
of  the  world's  greatest  sanitary  works, 
it  is  25  miles  long,  15  miles  of  it  cut 
through  solid  rock.  The  system  not 
only  disposes  of  the  sewage  and  guards 
the  water  supply  from  pollution,  but 
is  to  provide  a  ship-canal  to  connect 


the  Great  Lakes  with  the  Mississippi — a 
glorified  canoe-trail  that  follows  the  red 
man's  route.  Five  tunnels  that  extend 
under  the  lake  from  two  to  four  miles  out 
give  the  city  a  per  capita  water-supply  of 
200  gallons  a  day.  The  death-rate  has 
been  lowered  to  13.5  per  thousand,  the 
lowest  of  any  great  city  in  the  world. 

The  lesson  of  wide  streets  and  substan- 
tial buildings  Chicago  had  to  learn  through 
the  most  disastrous  fire  recorded  in  his- 
tory. In  October  of  1871  the  city  had  a 
population  of  over  300,000,  mostly  housed 
in  crowded  wooden  buildings  that  had  been 
dried  to  tinder  by  a  long  drough't.  Start- 
ing on  the  west  side  of  the  river,  a  strong 
southwest  wind  hurled  brands  on  bridges 
and  shipping  and  so  across  the  stream. 
The  business  section  was  wiped  out  east 
to  the  lake  and  south  to  Harrison  Street. 
Crossing  the  main  stream,  the  fire  swept 
the  northern  division,  the  finest  residence 
section,  to  the  city-limits.  Three  and  a 
third  square  miles  were  burned  over, 
17,450  buildings  were  destroyed,  100,000 
people  made  homeless;  and  there  was  a 
money  loss  of  $200,000,000.  Within  a  year 
the  city  had  sprung  from  its  ashes  and 
added  50,000  to  its  population.  Its  courage, 
energy  and  resource  amazed  an  admiring 
world.  In  the  middle  8o's,  under  pressure 
of  demand  for  more  room  in  the  business 


CHICAGO   PUBLIC   LIBRARY   BUILDING 

section,  the  first  of  the  steel-frame,  fire- 
proof sky-scrapers,  known  as  the  Chicago 
construction,  was  erected.  The  Masonic 
Temple,  the  Woman's  Temple  and  the 
Auditorium  are  among  the  earliest  of  these 
tower-like  structures  now  covering  the  greater 
part  of  the  central  business  district.  In  con- 
trast with  these  are  the  low,  classic  outlines  of 
the  Public  Library,  the  Art  Institute  and 
several  bank  buildings.  The  improve- 
ment in  domestic  and  church  architecture 
dates  from  the  World's  Fair  (1893)  and 
the  erection  of  the  many,  red-gabled,  gray- 
stone  buildings  of  the  university  quad- 
rangle on  the  Midway.  In  this  connection 
too  much  can  scarcely  be  said  for  the  in- 
fluence and  benefit  of  the  parks,  boule- 
vards and  uniformly  broad  avenues.  Lin- 
coln Park  on  the  north  shore,  Humboldt, 
Garfield  and  Douglas  Parks  on  the  west 
side  and  Washington  and  Jackson  in  the 


CHICAGO 


38l 


CHICAGO 


south  division  are  connected  with  each  other 
and  with  many  smaller  parks  and  open 
squares  by  boulevards.  Michigan  Avenue, 
Jackson  Boulevard  and  the  Lake  Shore  Drive 
link  the  limits  with  the  business  section.  Ex- 
tension of  Grant  Park  a  mile  into  the  lake, 
and  a  shore  line  parkway,  will  give  Chicago 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  waterfronts  in  the 
world. 

WHAT  MADE   THIS  GIANT  CITY 

Business  is  on  the  same  gigantic  and  aspir- 
ing scale  as  the  sky-scrapers,  "City  Beautiful" 
plans  and  the  growth  in  population,  which  is 
now  approximately  2,500,000.  The  earliest 
lines  of  trade  to  be  developed,  when  the  western 
limit  of  commerce  was  the  Mississippi,  were 
grain  and  lumber.  With  the  spanning  of  the 
river  by  rail  and  the  development  of  the  wheat 
states  of  the  northwest,  the  Chicago  Board  of 
Trade  ruled  the  grain  market.  The  conquer- 
ing of  the  Great  American  Desert  confirmed  her 
sovereignty.  Annually  the  city  receives  over 
35,726,000  bushels  of  wheat.  Receipts  of 
wheat,  flour,  corn,  oats,  rye  and  barley  aggre- 
gate 332,008,041  bushels.  The  city  has  68 
elevator  warehouses,  with  a  grain-storage 
capacity  of  46,640,000  bushels.  The  prairie 
country's  greatest  need  was  for  building  ma- 
terial. This  Chicago  supplied  from  the  forests 
of  Michigan  and  Wisconsin.  With  the  partial 
exhaustion  of  these  forests  Chicago  reached 
more  remote  supplies.  The  lumber  handled 
in  the  Chicago  market  yearly  exceeds 
2,642,650,000  feet.  The  packing  industry 
which  began  in  the  40*3,  to  supply  lake-vessels 
and  lumber-camps  with  salted  and  smoked 
meats,  received  its  first  impetus  from  the  Civil 
War,  and  its  second  and  greater  one  from  the 
invention  of  refrigerator  cars  by  which  fresh 
carcasses  may  be  shipped  to  any  part  of  the 
world.  Yearly  the  slaughtering  and  meat 
packing  houses  of  Chicago  turn  out  products 
amounting  to  over  $375,000,000  and  employ 
upwards  of  27,000  men.  The  iron  and  steel 
industry,  which  has  grown  up  since  the  dis- 
covery of  iron  ore  in  the  Lake  Superior  region, 
amounts  to  $135,000,000  (including  products 
of  foundry  and  machine  shops);  printing  and 
publishing  $74,000,000;  and  the  manufacture 
of  clothing,  which  began  in  the  outfitting  of 
49ers  in  the  rush  for  the  California  gold-fields, 
turns  $85,000,000  into  Chicago's  pockets  every 
year. 

OTHER    FEATURES    OF     HER    COMMERCIAL    LIFE 

The  manufacture  of  electrical  machinery 
alone  now  aggregates  $20,000,000  a  year.  At 
the  packing  houses,  the  International  Har- 
vester works  and  the  plant  of  the  Western 
Electric  Company  visitors  are  welcome  and 
the  processes  are  explained.  At  the  electric 
works  the  making  of  telephones  and  dynamos 
is  especially  interesting  and  of  educational 
value.  The  average  pay-roll  of  Chicago 
manufactories  amounts  annually  to  $175,000,- 
ooo,  and  in  the  value  of  manufactured  prod- 
ucts Chicago  ranks  second  in  the  list  of 
American  cities. 


In  the  wholesale  trad*  dry  goods  toad  with 
$200,000,000,  produce  $160,000,000,  groceries 
$100,000,000,  boots  and  shoes  $60,000,000 
and  the  mail  order  business,  which  enters  all 
lines,  $90,000,000.  Manufactured  articles  ar* 
carried  chiefly  by  rail;  raw  material,  such  as 
coal,  iron  ore,  grain  and  lumber,  etc.,  aa  largely 
as  possible  by  water  in  the  six  months'  open 
season.  Each  year  more  than  6,000  vessels, 
with  a  tonnage  of  9,470,572,  dear  in  Chicago's 
two  harbors. 

PUBLIC   OWNERSHIP   AND   PUBLIC   SBRTICE 

The  city  owns  and  operates  its  waterworks 
and  municipal  electric  lighting-plants,  and 
has  a  partnership  interest  in,  and  the  right 
to  purchase,  its  street-railway  surface-lines. 
The  surface-mileage  has  trebled  in  ten  years 
and  is  now  1,364  miles.  The  elevated  mileage 
has  doubled  to  144  miles.  The  form  of  gov- 
ernment is  typical.  The  departments  of 
police,  fire,  health,  water,  etc.,  are  under 
separate  heads,  and  the  schools,  library  and 
park  systems  are  managed  by  boards.  The 
old  corrupt  system  of  police-court  justice  has 
been  abolished  and  municipal  courts  estab- 
lished. For  the  child  delinquents  and  de- 
fendants there  is  a  juvenile  court  in  its  own 
building,  one  of  the  first  in  the  world.  To 
support  the  city  government  with  its  191.39 
square  miles  of  territory  and  its  21,000  officials 
and  employees,  Chicago  has  an  annual  revenue 
of  $52,177,591,  on  an  actual  valuation  of  real 
and  personal  property  of  $2,783,248,476. 

More  than  half  of  Chicago's  population  is 
of  foreign  birth  or  parentage.  With  over  40 
nationalities  listed  by  the  last  census,  the 
Germans  lead  with  416,000,  Irish  215,000, 
Poles  109,000,  Swedes  100,000,  Bohemians 
76,000,  Norwegians  41,000,  Italians  26,000. 

EDUCATION    AND   THE    ARTS 

In  many  of  the  407  school-buildings  few  of 
the  pupils  ever  hear  a  word  of  English  at 
home.  There  are  6,740  teachers  and  307,281 
pupils  in  the  day-schools.  In  the  night- 
schools  are  25,000  more,  chiefly  foreigners. 
There  are  21  high-schools,  four  of  which  are 
manual  training,  and  a  normal  college.  A 
down-town  commercial  college  is  to  be  estab- 
lished. The  public  library  has  800,000  vol- 
umes for  free  circulation  and  reference,  with 
many  branch  distributing  stations.  Of  the 
endowed  libraries,  the  Newberry  covers  his- 
tory and  music;  the  John  Crerar  library, 
science  and  mechanics;  the  Chicago  His- 
torical Society  is  the  custodian  of  local 
history,  relics  and  documents.  The  Art 
Institute,  which  has  some  notable  collec- 
tions, is  free  to  the  public  three  days  in 
the  week,  and  maintains  an  art-school. 

A    GREAT   MUSICAL   CINTBK 

In  the  Thomas  Orchestra  Hall,  Chicago 
stands  alone,  among  American  cities,  in 
the  possession  of  an  endowed  home  for 
orchestral  music;  and  in  the  Field  Colum- 
bian Museum  of  Natural  History  and 
Anthropology,  endowed  with  $8,000,000 
by  the  late  Marshall  Field,  Chicago,  has 


CHICAGO 


382 


CHICKADEE 


a  great  scientific  institution  that  must  long 
eclipse  anything  of  the  kind  in  the  world. 
Besides  the  University  of  Chicago,  which 
ranks  with  the  best  in  the  country,  Chicago 
has  the  Northwestern  University  at  Evan- 
ston;  Wheaton  and  Lake  Forest  Colleges; 
the  Chicago,  the  Western  and  the  McCor- 
mick  Theological  Seminary;  the  Armour 
Institute  of  Technology;  Lewis  Institute; 
Rush  Medical  College;  the  College  of  Dental 
Surgery;  the  School  of  Domestic  Science; 
the  Kindergarten  College;  and  many  other 
special  schools  for  higher  education.  A 
marked  feature  of  the  city's  educational 
and  moral  life  is  the  many  social  settle- 
ments maintained  by  the  universities  and 
churches.  Hull  House,  established  about 
20  years  ago  by  Miss  Jane  Addams,  was 
the  pioneer  settlement  and  is  to-day  the 
model  upon  which  successful  work  of  this 
kind  is  done  everywhere  in  the  United 
States. 

There  has  been  no  history  of  Chicago  of 
portable  size  published.  [Kirkland's  Story 
of  Chicago  is  a  portable  history.]  Visitors  to 
the  city  should  get  a  copy  of  the  last  annual 
edition  of  the  Daily  News  Almanac  to  learn 
what  to  see  and  how  to  get  there. 

Few  people  are  aware  of  the  fact  that 
Chicago  has  a  subway  of  45  miles — twice 
as  long  as  that  of  New  York  City — in  opera- 
tion. It  was  begun  in  1899  by  the  Illinois 
Tunnel  Company,  under  an  ordinance 
which  required  the  overhead  telegraph 
and  telephone  wires  of  the  down-town  or 
"loop"  district  to  be  carried  underground. 
The  company  was  reimbursed  for  its  ex- 
penditure of  $30,000,000  by  permission  to 
use  the  tunnel  for  freight-traffic.  The 
roof  of  the  subway  lies  24  feet  below  the 
surface,  beneath  the  water  and  gas  and 
sewer  mains,  and  the  work  of  excavation 
was  carried  on  with  no  interruption  of 
traffic.  In  the  space  of  a  mfle  square  under 
the  business  district,  there  are  now  26 
miles  of  tunnels  which  intersect  at  every 
second  block.  Connection  was  made  with 
the  six  big  freight-depots  of  25  trunk 
lines  and  with  the  terminal  station  at 
Taylor  Street  and  the  river.  The  tunnels 
are  of  two  sizes — trunk,  14  feet  high,  branch, 
seven  feet  six  inches.  All  are  lined  with 
2 1 -inch  cement  walls  poured  on  a  frame- 
work of  structural  iron.  The  wires  were 
carried  along  the  walls,  a  narrow-gauge 
track  was  laid  and  trolley  wires  dropped 
from  the  roof.  The  cars  are  open  steel- 
boxes,  12  feet  long,  of  one  and  a  half 
tons'  capacity.  In  the  freight-yards  these 
cars  are  lifted  through  shafts,  loaded, 
lowered  and  sent  direct  into  the  ware- 
houses of  merchants.  If  the  goods  are  not 
required  inmediately,  they  may  be  stored 
in  one  of  seven  big  warehouses  at  the  ter- 
minal station.  There  the  cars  are  hoisted 
to  the  top  by  enormous  elevators,  and  un- 
loaded. 


The  trains  make  from  12  to  15  miles  an 
hour  and  deliver  up  to  100,000  tons  a  day. 
Of  coal  alone  4,000,000  tons  are  delivered 
through  the  subway  to  the  "loop"  dis- 
trict in  a  year.  The  system  relieves  the 
congested  down-town  streets  of  thousands 
of  horses  and  wagons.  Chicago  is  the  only 
city  in  the  world  with  a  subway  system  of 
freight-distribution.  Plans  are  being  worked 
out  for  a  great  subway  system  which  is  to  be 
built  either  by  the  city  or  by  private  capital 
under  municipal  control.  The  general  plan 
recommended  by  the  subway  commission  ap- 
pointed by  the  mayor  is  for  a  high  level  sub- 
way, as  close  as  possible  to  the  .  surface  of  the 
streets  and  to  be  operated  by  electricity.  The 
estimated  cost  of  the  subways  themselves  is 
$96,257,000  and  the  cost  of  equipment  $34,- 
844,000. 

Chickadee,  a  modest,  little,  soft-plum- 
aged  gray  bird,  is  a  member  of  the  titmouse 
family.  The  black-capped  chickadee  is  a 
permanent  resident  of  the  northern  states. 
Its  breeding-range  is  north  of  the  Carolinas 

to  Labrador. 
It  is  some- 
what smaller 
than  the  En- 
glish  spar- 
row, the  up- 
per  gray 
s  1  ightly 
tinged  with 
brown,  crown 
and  throat 


BLACK-CAPPED    CHICKADEE 

rating  the  two  blacks;  underneath  a 
dingy  white.  It  is  a  brave  little  bird, 
quite  unafraid  of  snow  and  storm,  more 
common  in  lower  New  England  in 
winter  than  in  summer,  through  wintry 
weather  blithely  singing  its  chicka-dee-dee- 
dee-dee  or  uttering  its  high,  sweet  whistle; 
and  a  friendly,  tame  bird,  readily  respond- 
ing to  invitation  to  dine  near  our  windows 
and  doors.  It  is  a  valuable  friend  to  man 
in  many  ways;  as  an  insect-destroyer  it  is 
most  diligent,  a  persistent  enemy  of  the 
cankerworm  moth,  destroying  both  the 
female  and  eggs  and  thus  keeping  down 
the  numbers  of  "measuring"  or  "inch" 
worms.  It  eats  insects  in  summer,  their 
eggs  in  winter.  Hodge  says  that  probably 
no  bird  possesses  a  higher  economic  value 
than  the  chickadee.  The  birds  build  their 
nests  in  holes  —  a  deserted  woodpecker's 
nest,  or  a  knothole  or  a  cavity  made  by 
themselves  in  some  decayed  tree.  The 
nests  are  of  moss,  feathers,  wool,  plant- 
fibre,  fur  or  sometimes  wholly  of  short 
hairs.  There  are  from  five  to  eight  eggs, 
white  with  sparse  markings  of  purple  or 
browr.. 

The  Carolina  chickadee  is  a  southern 
species,  the  chief  difference  from  the  above 
being  that  the  southern  bird  is  smaller,  its 


CHICKAHOMINY 


383 


CHIGNECTO  BA7 


breeding-range  from  southern  Illinois  south- 
ward. See  Dugmore:  Bird  Homes;  Chap- 
man: Bird  Life;  Blanchan:  Bird  Neighbors; 
Hodge :  Nature  Study  and  Life. 

Chickahominy  (chik' a-hbm'i-nf) ,  a  river 
in  southeast  Virginia,  which  flows  into  the 
James.  Part  of  the  region  watered  by  the 
river  was  the  scene  of  several  battles  in 
1862  and  1864.  Here  the  river  flows  through 
a  wooded  swamp,  a  few  hundred  yards 
wide.  A  continuous  rainfall  floods  the 
swamp  and  overflows  the  neighboring  bot- 
tom-lands. These  are  crossed  by  deep 
ditches,  and  even  when  not  overflowed  are 
so  soft  as  to  be  impassable  for  cavalry  and 
artillery.  As  a  military  obstacle,  the  narrow 
Chickahominy,  with  its  bordering  swamps, 
was  found  to  be  more  formidable  than  a 
broad  river.  Here  in  1862  were  fought  the 
battles  of  Williamsburg,  Hanover  Court- 
House,  Seven  Pines,  Fair  Oaks,  Mechanics- 
ville,  Cold  Harbor,  Savage's  Station,  Fra- 
zier's  Farm  and  Malvern  Hill,  and  in  1864 
the  second  battle  of  Cold  Harbor  was  fought. 

Chickamauga  (chik' d-maj go) ,  Battle  of, 
fought  upon  Chickamauga  Creek,  a  branch 
of  Tennessee  River,  between  the  Union 
Army  of  the  Cumberland  under  General 
Rosecrans  and  the  Confederates  under 
General  Bragg,  Sept.  19  and  20,  1863.  The 
main  battle  was  opened  on  the  morning  of 
the  1 9th,  the  Confederates  endeavoring  to 
get  possession  of  the  road  to  Chattanooga. 
Neither  side  gained  any  advantage  on  the 
first  day,  though  the  fighting  was  severe. 
During  the  night  Longstreet  joined  Bragg. 
On  the  2oth  the  Confederates  renewed  the 
attack  with  great  fury.  At  length,  in  an 
effort  to  strengthen  the  left,  which  was  hard 
pressed,  and  partly  through  a  mistaken 
order,  the  Union  center  was  fatally  weak- 
ened. Longstreet  with  his  veterans  charged 
through  the  line  and  drove  the  right  wing 
in  confusion  from  the  field.  But  Thomas, 
who  was  on  the  left,  remained  firm  and 
repulsed  charge  after  charge  made  against 
him  by  the  whole  Confederate  army.  Dur- 
ing the  night  he  withdrew  to  Rossville  Gap. 
This  was  a  Confederate  victory,  though  of 
no  great  advantage  to  them,  as  it  left  Chat- 
tanooga, the  objective  point,  in  the  hands 
of  the  Federals.  The  Union  loss  was  about 
16,000;  Confederate  loss  about  18,000. 

Chickasaw  Bluffs  (chik'd-sa),  Battle 
of,  was  fought  near  Vicksburg,  Miss.,  Dec. 
29,  1862.  General  Sherman,  who  was  be- 
sieging Vicksburg,  endeavored  to  attack 
the  city  in  the  rear.  He  sent  a  strong  force 
up  Yazoo  River,  which  was  to  land  and 
march  down  from  the  north.  In  the  line 
of  the  march  was  the  Chickasaw  bayou, 
bordered  by  a  broad,  miry  swamp,  almost 
impassable,  and  guarded  by  batteries  and 
rifle-pits  on  the  opposite  bluffs.  Though 
the  head  of  the  charging  column  reached 
the  works,  the  heavy  fire  forced  it  back 
and  the  enterprise  was  abandoned.  The 


Union  loss  was  about  1,900,  while  the  Con- 
federate loss  was  very  small. 

Chickasaws,  a  tribe  of  Indians,  found 
by_  the  whites  about  160  miles  east  of  the 
Mississippi.  De  Soto  visited  them,  but 
when  he  sought  to  force  them  to  carry  his 
baggage,  they  attacked  him,  causing  great 
loss.  In  the  [French-and-Indian  wars,  the 
Chickasaws  were  between  the  English  and 
the  French  settlements,  and  thus  came  into 
the  struggle  between  the  two  nations. 
They  uniformly  sided  with  the  English, 
stirring  up  the  Natchez  against  the  French, 
and,  when  that  tribe  was  almost  destroyed, 
joining  them  in  their  desperate  raids.  In 
1793  they  joined  the  whites  in  the  war 
against  the  Creeks.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  igth  century  some  of  the  tribes  left 
for  Arkansas  in  search  of  better  hunting- 
grounds.  In  1822  those  left  in  Mississippi., 
numbering  3,625,  settled  in  eight  towns, 
owning  slaves  and  selling  cattle  and  hogs 
to  the  whites.  In  1834  they  sold  their 
lands  to  the  government  and  removed 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  buying  lands  of  the 
Choctaws,  who  spoke  the  same  language. 
In  the  Civil  War  they  joined  the  south 
and  lost  many  of  their  braves,  besides,  of 
course,  losing  their  slaves.  They  no  longer 
have  a  king,  but  have  a  governor,  together 
with  a  senate  and  house  of  representatives. 
They  own  their  land  in  common,  but  each 
man's  stock  is  his  own.  They  receive  an 
annuity  of  $3,000,  and  have  in  the  hands 
of  the  government  $1,400,000  in  bonds,  of 
which  they  receive  the  interest. 

Chickasha,  a  city,  county-seat  of  Grady 
County,  Oklahoma.  It  is  the  trading-cen- 
ter of  a  fine  agricultural  region  and  an  im- 
portant shipping-point  for  cotton.  Chick- 
asha has  a  flour-mill,  a  broom-factory  and 
cotton-gins,  and  the  Rock  Island  car-shops 
and  round-house  are  located  here.  It  has 
four  banks,  good  public  schools,  a  convent, 
library  and  several  churches;  also  the  serv- 
ice of  two  railroads.  Population,  10,320. 

Chic'opee,  Mass.,  a  thriving  manufactur- 
ing town  on  the  Connecticut  River,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Chicopee,  four  miles  north 
of  Springfield,  Hampden  County,  Mass.  It 
possesses  excellent  water-power  for  its  in- 
dustrial establishments,  which  include  the 
manufacture  of  cotton,  knitted  goods, 
knitting  machines,  bicycles,  rifles,  shot- 
guns, pistols,  mechanic's  tools  and  agricul- 
tural implements.  It  has  a  number  of 
good  schools,  churches  and  a  convent, 
with  several  substantial  banks.  Chicopee 
Falls  are  in  the  neighborhood.  Popula- 
tion, 30,000. 

Chignecto  Bay  (shig-nek-to),  an  inlet 
at  the  north  end  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy. 
It  separates  Nova  Scotia  from  New  Bruns- 
wick. It  is  30  miles  long  by  eight  miles 
in  breadth.  There  is  an  isthmus  only  14 
miles  wide  between  it  and  Northumber- 
land Strait  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 


CHI-HOANG-TI 


384 


CHILD-STUDY 


Chi-hoang-ti,  one  of  the  greatest  em- 
perors of  China,  who  ruled  from  246  to 
210  B.  C.  It  was  he  who,  by  his  military 
successes,  formed  the  eight  kingdoms  then 
making  up  China  into  one  great  empire. 
He  further  extended  the  empire  so  that 
under  him  it  came  to  be  about  as  large  as 
it  is  now.  He  was  also  the  builder  of  the 
great  Chinese  wall. 

Chihuahua  (che-wa'wd),  the  largest  state 
of  Mexico,  adjoining  New  Mexico  and  Texas, 
covers  87,802  square  miles  and  is  about  as 
large  as  Idaho.  In  the  east  is  a  large  desert 
of  sand;  the  south  and  west  are  mountain- 
ous; and  there  are  many  rivers.  Its  silver 
mines  were  for  centuries  the  richest  in 
Mexico.  Its  capital,  Chihuahua,  rises  like 
an  oasis  in  the  desert  among  roses  and 
orange-groves.  Founded  in  1691  it  housed 
a  hundred  years  ago  80,000  people.  Popu- 
lation of  the  state,  405,265. 

Child,  Lydia  Maria,  American  author 
and,  with  Wm.  Lloyd  Garrison,  a  zealous 
advocate  of  slavery  abolition,  was  born  at 
Medford,  Mass.,  Feb.  n,  1802,  and  died 
at  Wayland,  Mass.,  Oct.  20,  1880.  Early 
in  the  thirties,  some  few  years  after  her 
marriage,  she  and  her  husband  (David  Lee 
Child)  took  an  active  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject of  American  slavery,  against  which 
she  made  many  stirring  appeals,  both  in 
her  novels  and  in  a  periodical  which  she 
afterward  edited,  the  National  Anti-Slavery 
Standard.  Her  writings  greatly  contributed 
to  the  formation  of  public  opinion  adverse 
to  the  holding  of  slaves;  while  she  aided  the 
cause  she  had  at  heart  by  supporting  schools 
for  the  negroes,  helping  freedmen  and  giv- 
ing of  her  bounty  to  the  Union  soldiers 
in  the  Civil  War.  Her  writings  include 
The  Rebels;  a  novel,  Hobomok;  Fact  and 
Fiction;  The  American  Frugal  Howsewife; 
Looking  Toward  Sunset  and  The '  Progress 
of  Religious  Ideas. 

Child-Study.      Early     philosophers     and 

Ssychologists,  notably  Plato  and  Aristotle, 
ave  occasionally  commented  on  phases 
of  child-life,  but  the  systematic  study  of 
the  mental  and  physical  nature  of  children 
has  been  reserved,  for  modern  and,  in- 
deed, quite  recent  times.  The  subject 
was  first  approached  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  educator.  Among  many  others 
Comenius,  Rousseau  and  Pestalozzi  were 
strenuous  in  insisting  on  the  vital  im- 
portance of  a  study  of  children  to  the  one 
who  expects  to  teach  them.  All  these 
writers  emphasized  the  need  of  beginning 
education  with  an  appeal  to  the  senses. 
Only  in  this  way,  they  declare,  can  the 
reason  and  the  judgment  ultimately  be 
reached.  Rousseau,  the  enthusiastic  ad- 
vocate of  nature,  was  especially  interested 
in  the  child,  at  any  rate  in  the  theoretical 
child,  as  one  expressing  the  purely  natural 
in  its  naive  spontaneity.  He  would  have 
the  education  of  the  child  consist  largely 


in  permitting  it  to  develop  in  a  natural 
and  untrammeled  way.  This  idea,  an- 
tagonistic to  the  earlier  religious  one  of 
the  total  depravity  of  the  child,  was,  in 
spite  of  some  limitations,  the  inspiration 
of  the  greater  part  of  modern  educational 
reform. 

Herbart,  whose  educational  theory  turns 
about  the  notion  of  apperception  (q.  v.), 
requires  of  a  teacher  a  very  careful  study 
of  the  contents  of  the  child's  mind  and 
also  of  those  diseases,  temperamental 
variations  and  emotions  that  are  likely  to 
interfere  with  successful  learning.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  he  does  not  advocate  child- 
study  as  a  means  of  discovering  those  in- 
stincts, the  proper  development  of  which  con- 
stitutes the  aim  of  education.  This  point 
of  view,  suggested  by  Rousseau,  it  was 
left  to  Froebel  and  more  recent  students 
of  children  to  develop.  On  the  other 
hand,  Herbart  did  point  out  the  great  im- 
portance of  studying  the  minds  of  children 
and  of  men  by  observation  and  experiment 
instead  of  by  introspection  and  specula- 
tion. This  improvement  in  method  has 
been  responsible  for  a  large  part  of  the 
results  of  recent  child-study. 

Froebel  derived  is  view  of  the  aim  and 
material  of  education  from  his  sympathetic 
philosophy  of  the  nature  of  the  child. 
From  the  point  of  view  of  the  develop- 
ment of  child-study,  his  most  interesting 
conception  is  that  the  child  in  his  evolu- 
tion passes  through  or  recapitulates  the 
same  series  of  steps  that  has  been  traversed 
by  the  race  in  its  evolution.  This  idea 
was  not  original  with  him  but  was  derived 
on  the  one  hand  from  philosophers  like 
Lessing,  who  were  emphasizing,  as  against 
Rousseau,  the  value  of  historic  culture 
to  the  individual,  and  on  the  other  from 
biologists  like  Von  Baer,  who  had  discov- 
ered that  the  embryo  of  any  higher  tvpe 
of  animal  passes  through  stages  in  which 
it  resembles  the  embryos  of  lower  types 
down  to  the  very  simplest.  This  notion 
of  recapitulation  has  been  applied  to 
education  in  two  forms.  The  first  is  that 
of  the  culture-epoch  theory,  developed 
by  Ziller,  one  of  the  followers  of  Herbart. 
According  to  this  view  the  course  of 
study  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  child 
will  first  take  up  the  study  of  primitive 
life  and  culutre,  and  then  deal  successively 
with  more  and  more  advanced  types  of 
civilization.  Courses  of  study  arranged 
on  this  plan  were  expected  to  appeal  most 
successfully  to  the  interests  and  powers 
of  the  child.  This  contention  has  not 
been  entirely  justified,  but  the  culture- 
epoch  theory  remains  to-day  a  most  valua- 
ble clue  to  the  interests  of  children.  The 
second  application  of  the  theory  of  recapitu- 
lation to  education  is  found  in  the  notion 
that  the  various  instincts  appear  in  the 
child  in  much  the  same  order  that  they 


CHILD-STUDY 


385 


CHILD-STUDY 


appeared  in  the  race.  At  first  very  im- 
perfectly developed,  they  require  education 
for  their  perfecting,  but  the  satisfactory 
maturation  of  the  child  requires  that  each 
should  be  allowed  to  run  its  course,  so  that 
the  properly  developed  child  has  run  ^  the 
gamut  of  ancestral  interests.  This  idea 
may  be  said  to  represent  fairly  well  the 
belief  of  the  very  influential  group  of  child- 
psychologists  who  follow  President  G. 
Stanley  Hall  of  Clark  University.  Both 
applications  of  the  idea  of  recapitulation 
to  education  are  liable  to  the  criticism 
that,  while  they  suggest  what  is  interest- 
ing and  can  be  taught  to  the  child,  they 
do  not  enable  us  to  know  what  should  not 
be  taught.  Many  stages  of  culture  need 
not  be  represented  in  the  child's  educa- 
tion. So,  too,  many  instincts,  as  those 
of  fighting,  may  need  repression  rather 
than  development. 

The  method  of  careful  scientific  obser- 
vation of  the  child  recommended  by  Her- 
bart  finds  its  earliest  and  best  exponent 
in  the  German  physician  and  psychologist; 
Preyer.  In  his  book,  The  Soul  of  the  Child, 
we  find  a  most  careful  study  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  powers  of  sense,  or  the  feelings 
of  physical  and  mental  control,  of  language 
and  the  logical  processes  and  self-con- 
sciousness. Space  does  not  permit  the 
statement  of  detailed  conclusions,  but  the 
most  suggestive  and  interesting  outcome 
of  Preyer  s  investigation  is  the  clearness 
with  which  he  puts  the  fact  that  the  child 
at  birth  and  for  many  months  thereafter 
is  not  only  without  self-consciousness, 
reason  and  will,  but  that  even  its  sense- 
perceptions  are  vague,  confused  and  un- 
differentiated.  Feeling  is  at  first  the 
mere  rude  sense  of  discomfort  or  com- 
fort. The  eyes  are  uncoordinated,  the 
gaze  is  not  fixed,  and  objects  are  not  clearly 
discerned,  not  to  speak  of  distances  and 
colors.  The  same  general  condition  holds 
of  hearing  and  touch  and  even  taste  and 
smell. 

The  clarifying  discoveries  of  Preyer 
have  stimulated  much  valuable  research 
into  the  methods  by  which  self-control, 
judgment  and  conscience  are  evolved  from 
the  primitive  chaos  and  night  of  the  in- 
fant's consciousness.  The  most  important 
development  in  this  field  takes  the  form 
of  a  psychological  reinterpretation  of  the 
old  principle  that  learning  should  be  by 
doing.  As  stated  by  the  American  psy- 
chologists, Professors  Dewey  and  Angell, 
who  merely  represent  here  the  point  of 
view  of  the  psychology  of  to-day,  con- 
sciousness arises  when  the  child  is  stimu- 
lated more  or  less  uncomfortably  by  some 
object,  say  a  rattle.  It  reacts  in  a  variety 
of  movements,  partly  reflex,  partly  random 
in  character.  Among  these  movements 
one  is  usually  more  satisfactory  in  its  re- 
•ults  than  the  rest.  Assumie  t  to  be  that 


of  grasping  the  rattle.  This  comes  iu  the 
course  of  time  to  be  the  one  movement 
that  follows  from  the  given  stimulus,  and 
the  other  unsuccessful  movements  are 
gradually  eliminated.  While  this  process 
is  going  on,  the  mind  is  gradually  growing 
familiar  with  the  stimulating  object  and 
is  distinguishing  those  characteristics  by 
which  it  can.  be  identified.  Thus  percep- 
tion is  developing.  The  child  bee  mes 
conscious  of  what  the  object  is  and  what 
it  means.  It  then  is  capable  of  acting 
toward  this  object  with  intelligent  fore- 
sight into  consequences,  that  is,  it  can  will. 
In  a  similar  way  all  the  mental  powers 
develop.  We  learn  to  perceive,  to  remem- 
ber, to  imagine  and  to  reason  because  we 
react  toward  stimulating  objects,  and  in 
order  that  we  may  react  more  successfully. 
Consciousness  finds  its  stimulus  in  an  un- 
satisfactory situation  and  its  function  in 
assisting  to  a  satisfactory  treatment  of 
this.  To  get  a  pupil  to  learn,  the  teacher 
must  get  him  to  be  discontented  with  his 
capacity  to  do.  This  will  stir  up  a  process 
of  experimentation,  in  the  course  of  which 
the  powers  of  thought  and  feeling  will  ex- 
pand. 

The  typical  experimental  activity  through 
which  a  young  child  learns  most  has  beeu 
recognized  to  be  that  of  play.  According  to 
Professor  Groos,  play  is  simply  the  expres- 
sion of  the  instincts  of  the  child  and  so  of 
its  interests  and  capacities.  This  activity  is 
accordingly  justified  in  the  place  assigned 
to  it  in  education  by  Froebel.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  led  into  work  by  methods  that  are 
indicated  in  the  article  on  INTEREST.  One 
important  activity  by  which  this  transition 
between  the  imperfect,  instinctive  plays  of 
the  child  and  mature  efficiency  is  effected  is 
found  in  imitation.  This  process  has  been 
exhaustively  treated  by  the  American  psy- 
chologist, Professor  Baldwin,  who  finds  in  it 
the  means  by  which  the  child  is  led  to 
become  conscious  of  himself  and  of  others, 
and  so  to  develop  his  social  and  ethical 
nature.  In  the  endeavor  to  imitate  the 
child  becomes  adjusted  to  society. 

The  great  emphasis  thrown  by  child-psy- 
chologists upon  the  feebleness  of  intelligence 
and  the  imperfection  of  instincts  in  the  in- 
fant naturally  rouses  our  curiosity  as  to  why 
the  young  of  brutes  should  be  so  much  more 
capable  of  helping  themselves.  Mr.  Fiske, 
the  American  historian  and  philosopher,  has 
found  in  the  helplessness  of  infancy  the 
secret  of  man's  capacity  to  learn.  A  brute 
is  fairly  well-fixed  in  its  mode  of  life  by  its 
instincts.  It  does  well  in  commonplace  sit- 
uations, but  in  unusual  emergencies  it  is 
helpless.  Its  life  is,  however,  as  a  rule,  sim- 
ple and  commonplace  It  does  not  need  to 
do  new  things.  Man,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
in  his  complex  life  continually  compelled  to 
learn,  to  readjust  himself.  Hence  he  is 
born  helpless,  with  imperfect  instincts 


CHILD-LABOR  LAWS 


386 


CHILE 


and  a  corresponding  enormous  capacity  to 
learn. 

In  recent  years  the  child-psychologists 
have  devoted  much  attention  to  the  special 
features  of  the  age  of  adolescence.  This 
subject  is  treated  in  another  article.  An- 
other important  field  i«  the  study  of  the 
physical  development  and  health  of  the 
child.  Much  information  of.  the  greatest 
value  to  teachers  has  come  from  these  in- 
vestigations. 

See  APPERCEPTION,  INTEREST,  ADOLES- 
CENCE, METHOD  OF  TEACHING,  MODERN  ED- 
UCATION, PSYCHOLOGY  FOR  TEACHERS,  SELF- 
ACTIVITY. 

Consult  Preyer:  The  Senses  and  the  Will 
and  The  Development  of  the  Intellect,  Apple- 
ton  &  Co.;  Kirkpatrick:  Fundamentals  of 
Child  Study,  the  Macmillan  Co. 

E.  N.  HENDERSON. 

Child=Labor  Laws.  So  long  as  a  young 
apprentice  lived  in  the  family  of  his  master, 
the  evils  of  child-labor  do  not  appear  to  have 
been  great.  But  when,  at  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  and  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  children  came  to  be 
employed  in  large  factories,  at  a  very  early 
age,  for  very  long  hours  and  under  a  brutal 
discipline  and  most  unhealthy  conditions  of 
work,  laws  became  needful  to  restrict  the 
abuse  of  child-labor.  Both  the  need  and  the 
laws  came  earlier  in  England  than  in  the 
United  States.  Probably  no  man  did  so 
much  on  behalf  of  the  factory-acts  as  did 
Lord  Shaftesbury.  In  1802  the  hours  of 
apprentices  were  limited  to  twelve,  no  part 
of  which  must  fall  between  9  P.  M.  and  6  A. 
M.  In  1819  was  passed  an  act  that  no  chil- 
dren under  nine  years  should  be  employed 
in  the  cotton-mills,  nor  should  their  hours 
be  more  than  twelve  per  day.  In  1831  night- 
work  in  cotton-factories  was  prohibited  for 
persons  between  the  ages  of  nine  and  twenty- 
one  years.  In  1833  night- work  for  young 
persons  was  prohibited  in  most  other  mills. 
In  1847  came  the  ten-hours  bill,  which 
limited  the  work  of  women  and  children  to 
ten  hours  per  day.  In  1899  the  Elementary 
Education  Act  raised  the  age  at  which  a 
child  might  leave  school  from  eleven  to 
twelve  years.  An  act  of  1901  summed  up 
the  results  of  the  factory-acts  and  allowed 
no  children  under  the  age  of  twelve  to  be 
employed  in  factories. 

Until  recently  in  the  United  States,  each 
state  made  its  own  labor  laws,  and  as  a  result 
a  few  backward  states  had  no  child-labor  or 
even  compulsory  education  law. 

The  most  important  legislation  in  the 
history  of  child-labor  was  the  act  passed 
by  Congress  in  1916,  excluding  from  inter- 
state commerce,  articles  from  factories  where 
any  child  under  fourteen  years  of  age  is 
employed  or  where  any  child  under  fifteen 
has  worked  more  than  eight  hours  a  day  or 
been  employed  at  night.  The  chief  difficulty 
in  protecting  children  had  previously  been 


that  humane  manufacturers  who  did  not  wish 
to  employ  children  were  compelled  to  compete 
with  manufacturers  in  other  states  who  did 
employ  them  and  so  made  goods  at  less 
cost. 

Childs,  George  William,  an  American 
publisher,  well-known  for  his  generous  gifts 
to  charitable  and  public  causes.  He  was 
born  at  Baltimore,  Md.f  in  1829.  He  came 
to  Philadelphia  at  an  early  age,  and  about 
the  year  1849  became  a  member  of  a  pub- 
lishing firm  afterward  known  as  Childs  & 
Peterson.  In  1864  he  became  owner  of  the 
Public  Ledger,  which  he  made  a  great  suc- 
cess. His  philanthropy  took  many  and 
varied  forms,  at  one  time  establishing  a 
home  for  aged  printers;  at  another  commem- 
orating authors,  like  Geo.  Herbert  and  Wm. 
Cowper  in  Westminster  Abbey  and  erecting 
to  Shakespeare's  honor  a  memorial  fountain 
at  Stratford-on-Avon.  He  died  at  Philadel- 
phia, Feb.  3,  1894. 

Chile  (chil'e),  a  republic  of  South  Amer- 
ica, has  been  called  the  shoestring  republic 
from  its  peculiar  shape.  It  is  a  narrow  strip 
of  territory  thirty  times  as  long  as  it  is 
wide.  It  is  nearly  3,000  miles  long  with 
an  average  width  of  less  than  90  miles. 
For  comparison  conceive  a  strip  of  terri- 
tory as  wide  as  from  Chicago  to  Mil- 
waukee and  as  long  as  from  New  York  to 
San  Francisco.  It  stretches  from  Peru  on 
the  north  to  the  extreme  southern  limit  of 
the  continent,  with  Bolivia  and  the  Argen- 
tine Republic  on  the  east  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean  on  the  west. 

Surface  and  Climate,  Chile  has  an  area  of 
292,580  square  miles,  about  five  times  the 
area  of  New  England,  with  a  population  in 
1910  of  3,329,036,  about  two-thirds  the  pres- 
ent population  of  New  York  City.  Chile  is 
a  mountainous  country,  carrying  two  par- 
allel ranges  through  most  of  its  length.  A 
narrow  strip  along  the  coast  slopes  up  to  the 
western  Cordilleras.  Between  this  range 
and  the  great  Andean  range,  which  forms 
the  eastern  wall  of  Chile,  lies  the  great  cen- 
tral valley,  with  a  length  of  581  miles  and 
an  average  width  of  31  miles.  This  valley 
has  a  rich,  productive  soil  and  contains  the 
most  important  cities  and  towns.  More  than 
one  fourth  of  the  territory  of  Chile  lies  above 
the  snow-line.  In  the  western  Cordilleras 
range  are  found  the  snow-capped  peaks  of 
Tacora  19,800  feet;  Huallatire  19,720  feet; 
Parinacota  20,950  feet;  In  the  main  Andean 
range  are  Copiapo,  a  volcano,  20,022  feet; 
Nevada  Los  Leones,  19,850  feet;  Cerro  Jota- 
beche,  19,259  feet;  Cerro  Volcan,  18,341 
feet;  and  on  the  boundary  between  Chile 
and  Argentina,  Tres  Cruces  22,213  feet; 
Cerro  Incahuasi  21,576  feet;  Los  Patos  20,- 
595  feet;  and  many  others  from  18,000  to 
20,000  feet  high.  A  number  of  islands  belong 
to  Chile,  the  most  important  being  Chiloe, 
Juan  Fernandez  and  a  part  of  Tierra  del 
Fuego. 


CHILE 


387 


CHILE 


Climate.  The  seacoast  on  the  west  and 
the  mountain  range  on  the  east  afford  con- 
ditions which  render  the  climate  of  Chile 
healthful.  The  temperature  varies  from  67° 
in  the  north  to  43°  in  the  south.  It  averages 
about  6°  lower  than  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
South  America,  owing  to  the  Antarctic  cur- 
rent, which  flows  along  the  western  coast, 
and  to  the  Andes  which  shut  off  the  warm 
winds  from  the  eastern  plains.  The  northern 
section  is  tropical,  and,  being  subject  to  the 
dry  southeast  trade-winds,  is  practically 
rainless.  The  central  division  has  a  temper- 
ate climate  and  a  rainfall  during  the  winter, 
with  dry  summers.  In  the  southern  section 
the  rainfall  is  heavy,  averaging  115  inches 
annually. 

The  rivers  of  Chile,  of  which  'here  are  a 
large  number,  have  their  rise  in  the  Andes 
and  empty  into  the  Pacific,  and  for  the  most 
part  are  short  shallow  streams. 

Cities.  Santiago,  the  capital  of  Chile,  is 
the  third  largest  city  in  South  America,  pop- 
ulation, 332,724.  Valparaiso,  the  chief  port 
on  the  western  coast  of  South  America,  is  62 
miles  west  of  Santiago,  population  162,447. 
Iquique,  celebrated  as  a  nitrate  port,  has  a 
population  of  42,488.  Other  cities  are  Con- 
cepcion,  population  55,330;  Talco,  popula- 
tion 38,040;  Chilian,  population  33,506;  La 
Serena,  population  15,996;  Curico,  popula- 
tion 17,573;  Antofogasta,  population  32,496; 
Talcahuano,  port  of  the  city  of  Concepcion, 
population  15,561. 

Resources.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that 
the  barren,  rainless  section  in  the  north  of 
Chile  is  the  chief  source  of  the  nation's 
wealth.  The  export  of  nitrate  from  this 
region  amounts  to  over  $43,000,000  annually, 
being  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  total  ex- 
ports of  the  country.  The  nitrate  produce 
of  1910  was  5,078,133  tons.  Other  mineral 
products,  copper,  silver,  gold,  iodine,  with 
leather,  wool,  hides,  etc.,  bring  the  total 
exports  up  to  $125,000,000.  Agricultural 
products,  while  large  in  the  aggregate,  are  not 
sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  country,  so 
that  imports  of  food  amount  to  six  millions 
annually. 

Railways.  There  were  3,573  miles  of  rail- 
way open  for  traffic  in  1911.  The  Central 
system,  a  trunk  line  owned  by  the  govern- 
ment, traverses  the  central  valley  with 
branches  to  coasta_l  and  interior  points.  A 
branch  connects  with  the  Transandine  Rail- 
way, completed  in  1910,  which  furnishes  all- 
rail  connection  with  the  Atlantic  coast  at 
Buenos  Ayres,  a  distance  of  880  miles  from 
Valparaiso. 

Government.  Chile  is  a  republic,  consist- 
ing of  twenty-three  provinces  and  one  terri- 
tory. The  president  is  elected  for  a  term 
of  five  years  and  is  not  eligible  for  a  second 
term.  He  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  state 
composed  of  eleven  members,  six  of  whom 
are  elected  by  Congress  and  five  are  appoint- 
sd  by  the  president.  There  also  is  a  cabinet 


of  six  ministers  who  are  appointed  by  the 
president,  with  the  approval  of  the  senate. 
There  is  a  national  congress  consisting  of  a 
senate  and  a  chamber  of  deputies.  The 
chief  executive  of  each  province  is  an  intend- 
ant  appointed  by  the  president. 

Education.  A  system  of  public  schools  is 
maintained  by  the  state.  In  1910  there 
were  2,716  public  primary  schools  with  258,- 
875  pupils,  beside  506  private  primary 
schools  with  an  attendance  of  66,577.  There 
are  two  universities,  one  belonging  to  the 
state,  with  an  attendance  of  about  3,000. 
There  are  lyceums  and  colleges  in  the  capi- 
tals and  provinces,  including  four  for  girls 
in  Santiago  and  1 1  in  other  towns,  with  2,500 
students.  There  are  three  normal  schools  for 
men  and  three  for  women,  with  aa  aggregate 
attendance  of  2,222.  There  also  are  schools 
of  mining,  private  secondary  schools,  agri- 
cultural and  other  special  schools. 

History.  The  northern  part  of  Chile  be- 
longed to  the  Incas  of  Peru;  the  southern 
part  to  the  Araucanian  Indians,  the  only 
tribe  unconquered  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
who,  until  lately,  kept  themselves  independ- 
ent of  Chile.  The  first  European  to  land  in 
the  country  was  the  Portuguese  discoverer, 
Magellan.  He  reached  Chile  in  1520,  just 
after  his  famous  voyage  through  the  strait 
that  bears  his  name.  Pizarro's  lieutenant, 
Almagro,  headed  an  expedition  southward 
from  Peru  in  1535,  and  another  expedition, 
under  Valdivia,  founded  Santiago  in  1542. 
Chile  declared  herself  a  republic  in  1810  and 
revolted  from  Spain,  under  the  leadership  of 
Don  Bernardo  O'Higgins,  her  first  dictator. 
The  constitution  was  adopted  in  1833. 

Chile's  war  against  Peru  and  Bolivia  arose 
over  boundary-disputes  with  Bolivia.  No 
sooner  was  war  declared  against  Bolivia,  in 
February,  1879,  than  Peru  avowed  a  secret 
treaty,  offensive  and  defensive,  made  six 
years  before,  between  herself  and  Bolivia; 
and  as  a  result,  she  bore  the  brunt  of  the  war. 
Chile  overwhelmingly  defeated  the  allies.  In 
the  battle  of  Iquique,  May  21,  one  of  Peru's 
four  ironclads  was  sunk  on  the  rocks;  and  at 
the  battle  of  Cape  Augamos  the  capture  of 
the  ram  Huascar  left  Chile  master  of  the 
sea.  The  invasion  of  Peru  followed,  10,000 
Chileans  routing  20,000  allied  troops  at 
Dolores,  November  2.  The  doubtful  battle 
of  Tarapaca,  a  week  later,  was  followed  by  a 
retreat  of  the  Peruvians.  Early  in  1880, 
14,000  Chileans  won  a  third  battle,  north  of 
Tacna,  after  a  hard  march  across  the  desert 
and  still  harder  fighting.  At  last,  after  two 
well-fought  battles,  at  Chorrillos  and  Mira- 
flores,  the  Chilean  army  of  invasion  entered 
Lima,  Jan.  18,  1881.  The  little  republic  has 
since  passed  through  a  revolution,  brought 
about  by  the  unlawful  use  of  power  by  the 
president  or,  rather,  dictator,  Balmaceda. 
The  law-abiding  party  or  congressipnalists 
were  successful,  Balmaceda  committing  sui- 
cide after  all  hope  was  lost.  In  1891  an  at* 


CHILLICOTHE 


38* 


CHINA  SEA 


tack  upon  American  sailors  in  the  streets  of 
Valparaiso  came  near  to  bringing  on  a  war 
with  the  United  States. 

Chil'lico'the,  O.,  an  attractive  city  and 
railroad  center,  the  capital  of  Ross  County, 
Ohio,  situated  on  the  Scioto  River,  50  miles 
south  of  Columbus  aad  100  miles  east  of 
Cincinnati.  The  B.  &  O.  S.  W.,  Norfolk 
&  Western,  C.,  H.  &  D.  and  Scioto  Valley 
railroads  traverse  the  town.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  last  century,  it  for  a  decade  was  the 
capital  of  Ohio.  It  possesses  some  fine  public 
buildings,  including  schools,  courthouse  and 
public  library.  Its  manufactories  include 
paper  mills,  flour  mills  and  the  manufacture 
of  carriages,  shoes  and  farm  implements.  Pop- 
ulation, 15,500. 

Chil'koot  Pass.  This  pass  is  in  eastern 
Alaska,  on  the  trail  leading  from  Lynn  Inlet 
and  the  ports  of  Dyer  ana  Skagway,  to  the 
gold  fields  of  the  Klondike  and  other  inte- 
rior points.  It  starts  in  Alaska,  but  the 
highest  point  is  just  over  the  Canadian  bor- 
der; and  here  the  British  have  their  custom- 
house. There  is  a  cable  which  pulls  up  the 
loads  of  the  intending  miners  at  this  point. 
The  varied  types  of  humanity  and  the  pres- 
ence of  a  custom-house  in  this  wild  spot  amid 
the  snows  give  this  port  a  picturesque  char- 
acter of  which  many  have  written. 

C himborazo  (ckim'bd-rd'zo) ,  a  peak  of  the 
Andes,  in  shape  like  a  cone,  lying  in  the 
republic  of  Ecuador,  20,517  feet  above  the 
sea.  It  was  for  a  long  time  thought  to  be 
the  highest  mountain-peak  in  the  world,  and 
its  snowclad  top  was  named  the  Silver  Bell. 
The  mountain  was  first  scaled  by  Whymper 
in  1880. 

Chimera  (kt-m&ra) .  A  chimera  is  a  mon- 
strous or  vain  fancy.  The  chimera  of  myth- 
ology was  a  monster,  its  front  like  to  a  lion, 
behind  a  serpent,  and  in  the  midst  of  it  a 

goat.  This  fire-breathing  monster  was  slain 
y  Bellerophon.  It  is  thought  to  have  stood 
for  a  volcano,  on  whose  crags  were  lions  and 
on  its  rocky  sides  goats;  while  at  its  foot 
would  dwell  the  serpents  of  the  marshes. 
Bellerophon,  then,  would  have  subdued  it 
by  making  his  home  upon  its  forbidding 
slopes.  Hesiod  gave  the  chimera  the  heads 
of  a  serpent,  a  lion  and  a  goat.  There  is  a 
family  of  shark-like  fishes  now  known  to 
scientists  as  Chimcera. 

Chimney-Swift,  mistakenly  called  chim- 
ney-swallow, is  not  even  distantly  related  to 
the  swallow,  its  stiff,  mechanical  flight  being 
wholly  different  from  that  bird's  graceful 
motion.  If  not  characterized  by  grace,  the 
flight  is  very  swift  and  is  long  sustained,  and 
the  bird  is  well-named  the  swift.  It  is  said 
it  can  travel  i  ,000  miles  in  twenty-four  hours, 
stopping  only  to  roost  in  occasional  tree  or 
hollow  chimney.  The  bird  does  not  perch, 
but  clings  to  a  rough  surface  by  means  of 
sharp  claws  and  sharper  tail.  Its  nest,  built 
in  an  unused  chimney,  seems  more  like  a 
shelf  than  a  nest.  It  is  almost  flat,  and  is 


woven  entirely  of  sticks  fastened  to  the  wall 
by  a  sort  of  glue  that  flows  from  the  mouth 
during  the  breeding  season.  This  glue  be- 
comes hard  and  very  strong,  and  the  nests 
are  fastened  most  securely,  though,  as  is 
well  known,  a  sudden  fire  in  the  chimney 
brings  disaster.  The  four  to  six  eggs  are 
white.  With  beak  and  feet  the  bird,  while 
in  flight,  breaks  off  sticks  for  the  nest,  and 
while  in  flight  feeds,  going  through  the  air 
with  mouth  wide  agape — as  do  its  kin,  the 
nighthawk  and  whippoorwill,  and  as  does 
the  swallow.  Swifts  rid  the  air  of  gnats  and 
mosquitoes;  they  travel  in  the  late  after- 
noon and  early  morning.  In  color  they  are 
a  sooty  gray.  The  birds  breed  from  Florida 
to  Labrador  and  west  to  the  Great  Plains, 
are  common  summer  residents  and  migrate 
in  April,  September  and  October.  See  Dug- 
more  :  Bird  Homes;  Blanchan :  Birds  Every 
Child  Should  Know. 

Chimpanzee  (chim-pan' ze) ,  the  best  known 
of  the  man-like  apes,  because  often  seen  in 
captivity,  while  its  nearest  relative,  the  go- 
rilla, is  practi- 
cally unknown 
outside  its  nat- 
.  ural  haunts.  It 
!  is  also  related 
I  to  the  orang- 
}  outang.  It  lives 

I  in  the  dense  for- 
f  ests  of  Africa, 
on  the  coast  of 
Guinea  and  in 
the  heart  of  the 
continent  as  far 
north  as  the 
Sudan.  It  is  of 
black  color  .with 
a  broad,  leath- 

CHIMPANZEE  ery,  r  e  d  d  i  s  h- 

brown  face,  and  attains  a  height  of  four  or 
even  five  feet.  It  has  no  tail,  and  its  arms, 
although  long,  are  not  so  long  in  proportion 
to  its  body  as  those  of  the  orang-outang.  Its 
life  is  largely  spent  in  the  trees;  when  on  the 
ground  it  often  stands  upright,  and  in  walk- 
ing places  the  knuckles  of  its  hands  on  the 
ground,  but  the  legs  are  bent  and  there  is  a 
forward  stoop,  so  that  the  chimpanzee  does 
not  show  its  full  height  whei»  walking.  The 
chimpanzees,  like  other  apes  and  monkeys, 
are  great  imitators,  and  show  considerable 
intelligence  and  judgment.  In  their  forest 
home  they  feed  on  Dairies  and  other  fruits; 
cultivated  bananas  are  also  stolen,  -nd  on 
this  account  they  are  hunted  by  the  natives. 
See  APES. 

China  Sea,  The,  is  chiefly  known  to  Amer- 
ican boys  as  the  scene  of  terrible  adventures 
with  Chinese  and  Malay  pirates  and  of  the 
destructive  work  of  typhoons.  It  is  destined, 
however,  to  be  one  of  the  most  important 
seas  in  the  world.  It  is  enclosed  by  the  Malay 
Peninsula  (British),  French  China  and  China 
proper  to  the  west;  to  the  north  by  the 


CHINA-WARE 


389 


CHINA 


Straits  of  Formosa;  to  the  east  by  Formosa 
(Japan) ,  the  Philippine  Islands  and  Borneo 
(British);  to  the  south  by  the  Java  Sea. 
Hence  it  is  girt  by  British,  French,  Chinese, 
Japanese  and  American  dominions,  countries 
that  will  no  doubt  develop  into  centers  of 
civilization  and  wealth  in  days  soon  to  come. 
East  China  Sea  lies  to  the  north  of  Formosa, 
being  partly  shut  off  from  the  Pacific  by  the 
Liu-Kiu  Islands,  a  possession  of  Japan. 

China-Ware,  a  species  of  fine  porcelain, 
originally  manufactured  in  China  (whence 
its  name) .  It  is  characterized  by  the  fineness 
of  its  texture,  transparency  and  beautiful 
color.  It  is  made  from  two  kinds  of  earth, 
known  as  petunse  and  kaolin,  which  are 
worked  into  a  white  paste,  the  kaolin  ena- 
bling it  to  withstand  great  heat  in  the  furnace ; 
after  this  the  article,  cup,  vase  or  whatever 
it  may  be,  passes  into  the  hands  of  the 
painters  for  decoration  and  delicate  coloring, 
when  it  is  then  glazed  or  varnished,  and  once 
more  submitted  to  the  furnace  to  have  the 
colors  burned  in  and  given  their  rich  luster. 
China-ware  has  been  manufactured  more  or 
less  successfully  in  Europe.  The  fi  est  imita- 
tions are  those  known  as  Sevres,  Dresden  and 
Wedgwood  or  queensware.  The  French 
have  turned  out  some  beautiful  china,  which 
they  call  faience  fine,  or  Henri  II  ware;  but 
the  most  artistic,  probably,  is  Sevres,  manu- 
factured in  that  town,  in  France,  together 
with  the  Dresden  ware  manufactured  in  Sax- 
ony. The  most  notable  English  ware  turned 
out  has  been  that  of  Josiah  Wedgwood, 
whose  classical  vases,  ornamented  by  the 
sculptor  Flaxman,  attained  great  repute  and 
command  high  prices.  The  Japanese  have 
also  reached  great  perfection  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  porcelain;  the  Hizen  or  "old  Japan' ' 
ware  being  noted  for  its  elegance  and  beauty 
of  color. 

Chinch-Bug,  an  insect  very  destructive, 
especially  to  corn  and  wheat.  It  is  estimated 
that  the  loss  from  this  pest — mainly  in  the 
Mississippi  valley — has  amounted  to  $60,- 
000,000  in  a  single  year.  It  is  a  true  bug — 
having  a  sharp  beak,  instead  of  jaws,  with 
which  it  punctures  the  grain  and  sucks  the 
juices.  The  plants  are  not  eaten  but  sapped 
of  their  life.  The  chinch-bug  is  a  small  bug 
about  one  sixth  of  an  inch  long,  blackish  in 
color,  with  snowy  white  wing-covers  marked 
with  a  dark  spot  and  line. 

China.  Its  boundaries  now  embrace 
China  Proper,  Manchuria,  Hi  (including 
Sungaria  and  East  Turkestan)  and  Tibet, 
and  also  a  wide  territory  in  eastern  Asia. 
According  to  recent  Chinese  estimates  the 
following  is  the  area  and  population  of 
the  republic:  China  Proper,  1,532,420  Eng- 
lish square  miles;  population,  433,553,030. 
In  1904,  however,  Mr.  Rockhill,  American 
minister  to  China,  after  careful  inquiry  con- 
cluded that  all  official  estimates  since  1750 
have  far  exceeded  the  truth  and  that  proba- 
bly the  inhabitants  of  China  Proper  number 


less  than  270,000,000.  The  dependencies 
are  Manchuria,  area  363,610  English  squar* 
miles  and  the  population  16,000,000;  Tibet, 
area  463,200  English  square  miles  and 
6,500,000  population;  and  Chinese  Turk- 
estan containing  550,340  English  square 
miles  and  1,200,000  population.  Mongolia, 
part  of  which  is  now  independent,  has  an 
area  of  367,600  miles,  population.  2,600,000. 
The  natives  call  their  country  the  Flowery 
Kingdom  or  the  Middle  Kingdom,  while 
the  name  Cathay  came  from  the  Persians. 
The  name  China  comes  from  India. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  China  Proper 
slopes  from  the  mountainous  regions  of 
Tibet  and  Nepal  toward  the  eastern  and 
southern  shores  of  the  Pacific.  The  Nang 
Ling  or  Southern  Range,  a  spur  of  the 
Himalayas,  is  the  most  extensive  moun- 
tain range,  separating  southeastern  China 
from  the  rest  of  the  country.  North  of  this 
long  range,  as  far  as  the  Great  Wall,  lies  the 
Great  Plain,  covering  210,000  square  miles, 
on  which  live  175,000,000  people.  The  soil 
of  most  of  it,  called  loess  beds,  is  a  brownish 
earth,  crumbling  easily  between  the  fingers. 
It  covers  the  subsoil  to  a  great  depth,  and 
is  apt  to  split  into  clefts.  These  clefts  afford 
homes  for  multitudee  of  the  people,  who 
live  in  caves  dug  at  the  bottom  of  the 
cliffs.  Sometimes  whole  villages  are  so 
formed,  in  terraces  of  earth  which  rise  one 
above  the  other.  These  loess  beds  are  very 
rich,  and  have  given  to  the  province  of 
Shan-hsi  the  name  of  the  Granary  of  the 
Nation.  The  two  largest  rivers  are  the  Ho 
or  Yellow  River  and  the  Yang-tze-Chiang, 
each  over  3,000  miles  long.  Ho  has  changed 
its  course  many  times,  and  its  numberless 
floods  have  given  it  the  name  of  China's 
sorrow.  It  last  burst  its  banks  in  1887, 
destroying  millions  of  lives.  The  Grand 
Canal,  built  by  King  Kublai,  joins  the 
northern  and  southern  parts  of  the  empire 
and  is  over  600  miles  long.  The  Great 
Wall  (see  ad  joining  article)  is  1,500  miles  long. 

Cities.  The  nominal  capital  is  Pekin,  in 
the  province  of  Chili,  population  estimated 
at  700,000,  part  of  which  reside  in  the  Chi- 
nese city  and  part  without  in  the  Tartar  city. 
The  other  chief  cities,  with  their  estimated 
populations,  are  Canton  (1,250,000),  Tient- 
sin (750,000),  Shanghai  (651,000),  Hankau 
(870,000),  Ningpo  (400,000)  Fuchau  (624,- 
ooo),  Nankin  (270,000)  and  Chung- King 
(620,000).  Hong-Kong  (population,  366,- 
145)  is  a  crown-colony  or  Great  Britain, 
ceded  to  that  power  in  1841. 

Resources  and  Exports.  China's  coal-fields 
are  extensive,  coal  being  found  in  all  of  the  18 
provinces,  but  chiefly  so  far  in  Shansi, 
Feng-tse,  Kai-Ping,  Pashan,  Annan  and 
Kansu.  Tin,  copper,  lead,  silver  and  gold 
are  found,  but  very  little  has  been  done 
in  the  way  of  mining.  China's  imports  in 
1910  were  in  value  about  $310,000,000, 
while  her  exports  were  $155,000,000.  Silk, 


CHINA 


390 


CHINA 


raw  and  manufactured,  raw  cotton  and  tea, 
were  among  the  chief  exports.  In  1910  the 
value  of  Chinese  exports  to  the  United 
States  amounted  to  $31,297,928,  while  the 
imports  from  the  United  States  amounted 
to  nearly  $17,000,000. 

Agriculture.  China  is  a  farming  country. 
Each  year  the  emperor  began  the  season 
by  himself  turning  over  a  few  furrows  in 
the  Sacred  Field,  while  the  empress  in 
the  same  way  started  the  work  among  the 
silkworms,  the  care  of  which  is  left  to  the 
women.  Wheat,  corn  and  other  grains, 
peaches,  pineapples  and  other  fruits,  sugar 
in  Formosa,  rice,  and  opium  are  grown; 
but  tea  and  silk  are  the  great  export  crops. 
Pork  is  largely  eaten,  though  ducks  and 
geese,  fish,  caught  by  tame  cormorants 
(which  see),  and  dogs  are  also  used  as 
food.  The  famous  bird's-nest  soup  is  made 
by  slicing  the  nest  into  soup,  thus  adding 
an  invigorating  quality.  The  great  bever- 
age is  tea,  which  is  drunk  weak  and  clear, 
and  is  offered  to  guests  at  all  hours  of  the 
day.  It  is  this  tea-drinking  habit  which 
has  made  the  Chinese  a  temperate  people, 
a  drunken  man  being  a  rare  sight.  The 
Chinese  clothing  is  made  from  their  stores 
of  silk,  cotton  and  linen.  China  is  the  home 
of  silk;  the  mulberry  grows  everywhere,  and 
the  silkworm  has  been  cared  for  since  the 
aad  century  B.  C.  The  manufactured 
silk  ranks  as  high  as  any  made  in  Europe, 
while  the  embroidery  is  superior  to  that  of 
the  west.  Cotton  is  also  now  raised  every- 
where. 

Customs  and  People.  For  building,  the  Chi- 
nese use  timber,  brick  and  stone;  but  cheap 
houses  are  made  of  a  kind  of  concrete  called 
sifted  earth.  The  best  architecture  of  the 
country  is  seen  in  the  marble  bridges  and 
altars  of  Pekin.  In  the  country,  houses  are 
rarely  over  one  story  high.  In  the  cities, 
the  highest  buildings  are  the  pawnbroker's 
shops,  and  the  most  finely  finished  are  the 
guildhalls  of  the  trades.  The  pavilions  and 
pagodas  are  picturesque.  The  streets  of  the 
cities  are  usually  not  wider  than  lanes;  they 
are  paved  with  slabs  and  are  badly  drained. 
Matting  on  the  floor,  tables  and  straight- 
backed  chairs,  sometimes  a  bamboo  couch 
and  stools,  make  up  the  furniture  of  the 
houses.  The  dress  of  both  sexes  is  much 
the  same.  The  most  striking  thing  in  the 
appearance  of  the  men  is  the  queue,  a  plat 
of  hair  which  hangs  pendant  from  the 
crown,  all  the  rest  of  the  head  being  shaved; 
while  among  the  women  the  most  notable 
thing  is  their  small  feet.  This  is  a  late  and 
foolish  fashion,  prevalent  only  from  the 
6th  century  A.  D.,  and  is  not  customary 
among  the  very  poor  or  among  servants. 
It  is  effected  by  bandaging  the  feet  in 
early  years  so  as  to  prevent  further  growth. 
The  Chinese  girl  at  ten  years  is  shut  up  in 
the  women's  apartments,  and  is  taught 
the  care  of  cocoons,  silk  weaving  and  all 


woman's  work.  At  15  she  wears  the  hair- 
pin to  show  that  she  is  now  a  woman. 
Marriage  is  controlled  by  the  parents,  and 
a  class  of  match- makers  or  go-betweens 
has  arisen,  who  hunt  up  desirable  matches 
for  parents.  The  killing  of  girl-babies  was 
formerly  practiced;  but  only  among  the 
lower  classes,  and  then  the  reason  was 
poverty.  The  complexion  of  the  Chinese 
is  yellowish,  the  hair  coarse  black,  the  eyes 
seemingly  oblique,  cheek  bones  high  and 
face  roundish.  They  usually  are  stout  and 
muscular,  temperate,  industrious,  cheerful 
and  easily  contented.  The  dead  are  buried 
in  graves  built  in  the  form  of  mounds  or 
cones.  There  is  no  weekly  day  of  worship 
and  rest,  like  our  Sunday,  but  festivals  are 
many.  New  Year's  Day  is  the  one  holiday 
for  all.  On  this  festival  the  noise  of  fire- 
crackers is  to  be  heard  everywhere;  the 
people  dress  in  their  best;  the  temples  are 
visited;  and  the  gambling  tables  are  sur- 
rounded by  crowds.  Other  festivals  are 
those  of  Lanterns,  Tombs,  Dragon-Boats 
and  All  Souls. 

History.  The  Chinese  are  a  very  ancient 
race,  their  annals  going  back  to  2637  B.  C., 
though  there  probably  were  Chinese  living 
in  the  country  long  before  that.  China  as 
an  empire  dated  from  221  B.  C.,  and  lasted 
for  over  2,100  years.  The  late  dynasty, 
the  Manchu-Tartar,  began  to  reign  in  1643. 
The  Chinese  were  not  the  first  people  in 
China.  They  made  their  way  from  the 
north  and  west,  pushing  before  them  the 
older  inhabitants.  However  far  back  you 
go,  you  always  find  two  persons  of  promin- 
ence in  China — the  ruler  and  the  sage. 
The  sage,  or  Man  of  Intelligence,  advised 
and  helped  the  ruler,  and  taught  the  people 
lessons  of  truth  and  duty.  From  this  grew 
up  the  custom,  in  full  force  since  the  7th 
century  A.  D.,  that  all  officers  of  the  govern- 
ment must  be  educated.  This  is  now  done 
by  competitive  examinations.  The  three 
religions  of  China  are  Confucianism,  repre- 
senting the  brains  and  morality  of  the  nation; 
Taoism,  its  superstitions;  and  Buddhism, 
its  worship  and  idolatry,  though  it  acknowl- 
edges no  God.  China,  before  the  republic, 
was  governed  by  the  emperor  through  the 
grand  cabinet,  which  met  daily  for  business 
between  4  and  6  A.M.  Seven  boards — civil 
office,  revenues,  ceremonies,  war,  punish- 
ment, works  and  foreign  affairs — prepared 
the  matters  which  were  to  be  dealt  with  by 
the  grand  cabinet.  The  provinces  were  gov- 
erned usually  by  a  viceroy  acting  for  the 
emperor.  The  rank  of  the  different  provin- 
cial officers  was  indicated  by  a  knob  or 
button  on  the  top  of  their  caps.  The 
revenue  of  the  empire  was  under  $100,000,- 
ooo.  The  imperial  army  was  about  200,000 
strong,  with  headquarters  at  Pekin,  and 
scattered  in  garrisons  throughout  the  prov- 
inces as  far  as  Turkestan.  There  were  also 
some  700,000  militia  troops,  called  the 


CHINA 


39X 


CHINESE  WALL 


national  army.  The  navy  after  the  war 
with  Japan  did  not  number  more  than  a 
few  small  cruisers  and  several  old  torpedo- 
boats.  China  has  never  cared  to  have 
anything  to  do  with  western  nations,  but 
has  been  forced  to  do  so.  In  1516  the 
Portuguese,  followed  by  the  Spaniards,  the 
Dutch  and  the  English,  appeared  at  Canton. 
In  1767  sprang  up  the  opium-traffic.  It 
was  the  traffic  in  this  drug  that  brought 
on  the  war  with  England  in  1840  and  the 
war  with  England  and  France  in  1855-57. 
By  these  wars  China  was  forced  to  cede 
the  island  of  Hong-Kong  to  Great  Britain, 
to  open  many  of  its  ports  to  trade  and  to 
let  in  missionaries  and  admit  opium.  It 
has  recently  been  semi-officially  announced 
that  the  importation  of  opium  will  after 
the  lapse  of  a  few  years  be  prohibited. 

On  Feb.  24,  1844,  Caleb  Gushing  arrived 
in  China  and  negotiated  the  first  treaty 
between  that  country  and  the  United 
States.  The  late  emperor  came  to  the 
throne  as  a  child  of  four  years  old.  He 
became  king  in  his  own  name  in  1887; 
though  in  1898  an  imperial  edict  announced 
that  the  empress-dowager  would  direct  the 
affairs  of  the  empire.  Of  late  years  the 
Chinese  have  shown  a  tendency  to  seek  a 
livelihood  abroad,  especially  in  California, 
British  Columbia,  the  Straits  Settlements, 
the  East  Indies  and  Australia.  Chinese 
workmen  or  coolies  began  to  come  to  the 
United  States  about  the  time  of  the  dis- 
covery of  gold.  In  1882,  33,614  came. 
The  low  wages  at  which  the  coolie  was 
willing  to  work  threatened  to  destroy  the 
high  wages  of  American  laborers;  and  this 
led  to  action  by  Congress  prohibiting  their 
immigration  to  the  United  States,  although 
permitting  Chinese  merchants  and  students 
to  travel  or  live  in  the  country.  British 
Columbia  and  some  of  the  Australian  colonies 
have  also  passed  similar  exclusion-laws.  In 
1894  China  became  involved  in  war  with 
Japan,  the  result  of  rival  interests  in  Korea. 
She,  however,  proved  no  match  for  Japan 
on  land  or  sea.  Her  armies  were  routed  and 
her  fleet  destroyed,  and  in  1895  sne  secured 
peace  by  the  payment  of  a  heavy  war- 
indemnity  and  the  cession  to  Japan  of  the 
island  of  Formosa.  Of  34  ports  open  to 
foreign  trade,  only  7  have  less  than  20,- 
ooo  population. 

The  very  symbol  of  the  "unchanging 
East"  in  her  intense  conservatism  and  ap- 
parent indifference  to  the  movements  of  the 
world  beyond  her  boundaries,  her  own  easy 
and  swift  defeat  by  Japan  and  the  subse- 
'quent  victory  of  Japan  over  Russia  produced 
a  profound  change  in  China  and  the  mental 
attitude  of  the  Chinese  people.  It  con- 
vinced the  leaders  of  national  thought  of  the 
utter  incompetence  and  corruption  of  their 
Manchu  rulers  and  of  the  superiority  of 
Western  education,  military  and  industrial 
methods  and  ideals.  The  more  intelligent 


among  the  Chinese  began,  through  these 
leaders,  to  demand  better  government,  the 
right  to  take  part  in  it,  the  increase  and 
modernization  of  the  army,  the  substitu- 
tion of  European  for  Confucian  subjects  in 
the  Civil  Service  examinations  and  the 
establishment  of  schools  similar  to  those 
of  America  and  Europe. 

Alarmed  by  these  rumblings  of  the  gather- 
ing storm,  the  government  began  the  usual 
process  of  making  pretended  concessions. 
Late  in  August,  1908,  an  imperial  decree 
announced  that  nine  years  from  date — that 
time  being  required  to  fit  the  people  for  the 
proposed  measure  of  self-government — a 
parliament  and  constitution  would  be 
granted.  This  failing  to  quiet  popular  dis- 
content, another  edict,  three  years  later, 
provided  for  a  cabinet  and  council  to  assist 
the  emperor,  but  a  president  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  throne  was  given  the  right  of  veto 
over  other  members.  Exasperated  by  the 
delay  in  establishing  real  constitutional 
government,  the  people  rose  in  various  parts 
of  the  empire  until  the  uprising  assumed  the 
form  of  a  general  rebellion  and  within  a  few 
months  had  become  a  revolution.  Beginning 
in  September,  1911,  it  was  practically  ended 
by  December,  and  on  December  29  Dr. 
Sun-Yat-Sen,  who  was  educated  in  America 
and  who  had  been  particularly  active  in  the 
campaign,  was  elected  president  of  the 
"Provisional  Government  of  the  United 
Provinces  of  China."  The  child  emperor, 
Pu-Yi,  through  the  regent,  abdicated,  and 
on  February  1 2  issued  a  proclamation  which 
closed  the  267  years  reign  of  the  Manchus 
and  established  the  Chinese  republic.  The 
premier  of  the  empire,  Yuan-Shih-Kai 
(Yoo-dnf  she  ki'),  was  chosen  president. 
Dissensions,  particularly  over  the  finances, 
arose  between  the  new  president  and  the 
council  and  Yuan-Shih-Kai  made  himself 
emperor.  He  died  shortly  after  and  Si- 
Yuan-Hung,  the  former  vice-president,  be- 
came president.  The  first  nation  to  take 
official  notice  of  the  establishment  of  the 
republic  was  the  United  States,  which  by 
concurrent  resolution  of  Congress  extended 
congratulations  to  the  people  of  China. 
William  J.  Calhoun,  our  minister  to  China 
during  her  revolution,  says:  "The  Chinese 
republic  is,  of  course,  not  up  to  our  standards, 
but  that  cannot  be  expected.  The  great 
mass  are  ignorant,  living  in  mud-walled 
houses  without  windows  or  doors,  but  they 
are  a  peace-loving,  industrious  people  and 
the  whole  impulse  of  China  is  toward 
modern  education.  In  this  the  missionaries 
are  doing  a  wonderful  work." 

Chinese  Wall,  The.  The  construc- 
tion of  this  great  feature  of  the  Middle 
Kingdom  was  finished  in  214  B.C.,  as  "a 
grand  barrier  along  the  north  of  the  Chinese 
empire.  It  is  1,500  miles  long,  and  is 
constructed  of  two  strong  retaining  walls 
of  brick,  rising  from  granite  foundations, 


CHINOOKS 


392 


CHLOROPHYCE.B 


the  space  between  being  filled  with 
stones  and  earth.  It  is  about  25  feet 
broad  at  the  bottom  and  15  feet  at  the  top, 
and  from  15  to  30  feet  in  height.  The 
top  was  at  first  covered  with  bricks,  but 
is  now  overgrown  with  grass.  The  wall 
took  ten  years  to  build,  and  it  is  said 
that  several  millions  of  workmen  were 
employed  on  its  construction. 

Chinooks  (chir nooks/),  a  tribe  of  Indians 
who  formerly  lived  on  both  banks  of  the 
Columbia  River,  broken  into  many 
bands.  Their  language  differed  somewhat 
among  different  bands,  and  was  hard  to 
pronounce.  This  led  the  traders  to  use 
what  was  called  Chinook  jargon,  contain- 
ing some  Chinook  words,  togther  with 
French,  English  and  words  from  other 
Indian  languages.  There  are  only  a  hand- 
ful of  Chinooks  left,  who  are  on  the  Che- 
halis  reservation  in  Washington. 

Chipmunk,  a  very  wide-awake,  sun- 
loving  small  squirrel  that  lives  on  the 
ground.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  striped 
squirrel,  the  black  and  light-colored  stripes 
on  its  gray-brown  fur  being  very  promi- 
nent; a  narrow  black  stripe  on  the  middle 
of  the  back,  on  each  side  two  black  stripes 
separated  by  a  stripe  of  light  buff.  It 
has  roomy  cheek-pouches  in  which  it  carries 
surprising  quantities  of  nuts  and  grain 
to  its  nest.  When  hard  beset,  it  will  climb 
a  tree  for  a  short  distance;  but  as  it  here 
is  an  easy  prey  for  its  enemies,  it  shows 
decided  preference  for  a  less  exposed  re- 


CHIPMUNK 

treat.  Its  worst  enemies  are  the  birds  of 
prey  and  the  mink,  fox  and  weasel,  the 
last  following  it  into  farthest  recesses  of  its 
burrow.  In  time  of  peace  chipmunks 
chirrup  together  most  sociably,  and  out 
in  the  light  and  air  of  which  they  are  so 
fond  hold  very  animated  conversations, 
their  chorus  sometimes  almost  a  song. 
The  burrow  is  kept  most  artfully  concealed; 
no  track  leading  to  it.  First  a  perpendicu- 
lar tunnel  is  sunk  down  several  feet,  next 
a  horizontal  passage  made  for  a  few  yards, 
then  a  slight  ascent  brings  to  the  chamber 
which  is  carpeted  with  grass.  From  the 
chamber  the  ground  surface  may  be  reached 
by  a  second  route,  this  opening  a  considera- 
ble distance  from  the  first.  In  the  cosy 
nest  well  below  the  frost-line  quantities 
of  nuts  and  grain  are  stored  for  winter  use, 
supplies  being  carried  in  the  cheek-pouches. 
In  the  west  they  work  considerable  damage 


and  are  regarded  as  nuisances.  In  addi- 
tion to  nuts  and  grain,  they  eat  considerable 
fruit,  and  are  very  fond  of  berries.  They 
are  distributed  generally  in  this  country, 
several  species  being  found  here.  The 
chipmunk  somewhat  resembles  the  little 
creature  popularly  called  striped  gopher, 
but  should  not  be  confused  with  it.  See 
Hornaday:  American  Natural  History; 
Stone  and  Cram:  American  Animals. 

Chip'pewa  Falls,  Wis.,  a  city,  the  seat- 
of  Chippewa  County,  on  the  Chippewa 
River  and  served  by  four  railroads, 
132  miles  south-southeast  of  Duluth, 
Minn.,  and  about  too  miles  east  of  St. 
Paul.  The  State  Home  for  the  Feeble 
Minded  and  the  County  Insane  Asylum 
are  located  here,  while  in  the  vicinity  is 
the  battle-ground  (Tone  Rock)  of  a  Sioux - 
Ojibwa  conflict.  Besides  its  large  lum- 
ber interests,  the  city  manufactures  wooden 
ware,  shoes,  gloves,  woolen  goods,  foundry 

Eroducts,  beer  and  flour.  It  has  some 
ne  public  buildings,  including  churches, 
schools,  court-house  and  public  library, 
McDonell  Memorial  High  School  and  the 
Hanna  M.  Rutledge  Home  for  the  Aged. 
Population,  8,893. 

Chip'pewa  Indians.     See  OJIBWAYS. 

Chiv'alry.  See  KNIGHTHOOD  and  FEU- 
DAL SYSTEM. 

Chlorine,  one  of  the  elements,  a  gas  of 
pale  yellow  color  about  two  and  one  half 
times  as  heavy  as  air.  It  has  a  powerful 
odor  and  is  very  irritating  when  present 
even  in  very  small  quantities  in  the  air 
that  is  breathed.  It  is  an  effective  bleaching 
and  antiseptic  agent  which  is  usually  ob- 
tained from  chloride  of  lime,  also  called 
bleaching  powder,  by  exposing  it  to  the 
air  or  especially  by  mixing  it  with  an  acid. 
Chlorine  is  one  of  the  constituents  of  com- 
mon salt  or  sodium  chloride.  United 
with  hydrogen  it  forms  hydrochloric  or 
muriatic  acid,  and  it  occurs  in  many  other 
substances,  such  as  chloroform,  chloral, 
potassium  chlorate,  etc. 

Chlorophyceae  (klo'rd-fis'^-e),  plants 
known  as  the  green  algae,  which  are  abund- 
ant everywhere  in  fresh  waters  and  in 
damp  places,  and  are  of  special  interest  in 
connection  with  the  evolution  of  the  higher 
plants.  Some  of  the  forms  are  one-celled, 
occurring  in  masses  which  cover  damp 
tree-trunks,  stones,  etc.,  and  look  like  a 
green  stain;  others  have  filamentous  bodies, 
composed  of  a  row  of  cells  more  or  less 
elongated;  while  in  other  cases  filaments 
become  branched.  It  may  be  said  in 
general  that  the  filamentous  body  is  the 
usual  type  among  green  algae.  These  fila- 
mentous bodies  may  be  seen  forming  felt- 
like  masses  in  damp  places  or  floating  as 
green  thready  scum  upon  the  water.  Va- 
rious reproductive  methods  are  developed 
among  the  green  algae.  The  majority  of 
them  have  the  characteristic  asexual  spores. 


CHLOROPHYLL 


393 


CHOATB 


which  are  variously  ciliated,  and  have  the 
power  of  swimming,  being  known  variously 
as  the  zoospores,  swarm-spores,  swimming 
spores,  etc.  Most  of  the  forms  also  have 
sexual  reproduction,  producing  a  fertilized 
egg.  Some  of  the  forms  are  free-swimming; 
while  most  of  them  have  means  of  anchor- 
ing themselves  to  firm  supports.  The 
main  groups  are  as  follows:  Protococcus 
forms,  which  are  one-celled  and  reproduce 
mostly  by  cell-division;  Conferva  forms, 
which  are  filamentous  and  produce  swarm- 
spores  as  well  as  sexual  spores ;  Siphon 
forms,  as  in  the  common  green  felt;  and 
Conjugate  forms,  of  which  Spirogyra,  the 
pond-scum  is  the  best  known.  The  last 
are  called  Conjugate  forms  because  in  the 
sexual  process  two  filaments  put  out  tubes 
toward  one  another,  which  meet  and  form 
a  passageway,  and  through  these  impro- 
vised tubes  the  sex-cells  pass.  The  name 
refers  to  this  yoking  together.  It  is  from 
the  green  algae  that  the  higher  plants  are 
supposed  to  have  come.  JOHN  M.  COULTER. 
Chlorophyll  (kld'rd-fil),  the  green  col- 
oring matter  of  plants.  It  is  found  associa- 
ted with  proto- 
plasm, usually  in 
special  bodies 
called  chloro- 
plasts  or  chlo- 
rophyll bodies, 
which  are  found 
only  in  cells  near 
the  surface  of 
parts  exposed  to 
light,  e.  g.,  in 
leaves  and  twigs. 
These  are  usu- 


FIG.  I 


ally  rounded  granules  much  too  small  to  be 


Chloroplasts:  (a)  Position  in  cells,   (b)  Isolated 


seen  with  the  naked  eye  (see  Fig.  I).  In 
some  algae  they  are  much  larger,  and  have 
curious  shapes.  Little  is  known  with  cer- 
tainty of  the  chemical  nature  of  chloro- 
phyll, because  it  easily  decomposes.  Be- 
sides the  pure  green  coloring  matter  (to 
which  the  name  chlorophyll  may  be  re- 
stricted), yellow  pigments  (carotin  or 
xanthophyll)  are  associated  with  it  in  the 
mosses,  ferns  and  seed-plants.  In  some 
alga?  browns  or  blues  or  reds  may  be  pres- 
ent also.  The  green  pigment  particularly 
(and  in  part  the  others)  enables  the  plant 
to  absorb  certain  portions  of  the  light.  The 
energy  thus  gained  is  partly  used  in  the 
making  of  new  foods  (see  PHOTOSYN- 
THESIS). In  the  absence  of  chlorophyll,  this 
work  cannot  be  accomplished.  Chlorophyll 
is  probably  being  continuously  produced 
and  destroyed  in  green  plants.  It  is  not 
usually  formed  in  darkness,  and  if  light 
is  excluded  from  a  green  plant  the  de- 
struction of  the  chlorophyll  leaves  it  a 
pale  yellow.  Autumnal  colors  are  due 
in  part  to  the  decomposition  of  the  chloro- 
phyll. 

Chi  or  op  last  (klo'rd-pltist),  a  proto- 
plasmic body  in  plant  cells  that  is  stained 
by  chlorophyll,  and  thus  gives  the  char- 
acteristic green  color  to  plants.  For  the 
work  of  chioroplasts  see  PHOTOSYNTHESIS. 

Choate  ( chot ) ,  Joseph  Hodges,  a  talented 
and  eloquent  lawyer,  forceful  public  speaker 
and  United  States 
ambassador  to 
England,  was  born 
at  Salem,  Mass., 
Jan.  24,  1832.  Af- 
ter graduating  at 
Harvard ,  he  adopt- 
ed law  as  a  pro- 
fession, and,  join- 
ing W.  M.  Evarts 
in  legal  practice  at 
New  York,  he  rose 
quickly  to  emi- 
nence, owing  to  his 
high  forensic  abili- 
ties and  soundness 
as  a  lawyer  and 
counselor.  His  chief  exploits  at  the  bar  were 
his  defense  of  General  Fitz-John  Porter,  when 
court-martialed  on  a  charge  of  disobeying 
orders,  and  his  v'gorous  campaign  against 
the  corrupt  Tweed  ring  in  the  city  govern- 
ment of  New  York.  In  1894  he  was  chair- 
man of  the  convention  held  to  revise  the 
constitution  of  the  state  of  New  York.  He 
also  took  part  in  the  argument  before  the  su- 
preme court  of  the  United  States  as  to  the 
validity  of  the  provision  as  to  income  tax  in 
the  tariff  law  of  1894,  the  court  upholding 
his  contention  that  the  income  tax  could  not 
be  collected,  but  leaving  the  remainder  of  the 
tariff  law  in  force.  Mr.  Choate  was  a  nephew 
of  the  great  Rufus  Choate.  He  was  noted  as 
a  public  and  after-dinner  speaker.  In  Jan., 


JOSEPH  H.  CHOATE 


CHOATE 


394  CHRISTIAN  ENDEAVOR  MOVEMENT 


V 


1899  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to  the  court 
of  Great  Britain.  He  died  at  his  home  in  New 
York  City  May  14,  1917. 

Choate,  Rufus,  an  American  lawyer,  was 
born  at  Essex,  Mass.,  Oct.  i,  1799.  He 
graduated  at  Dart- 
mouth College,  and 
commenced  t  o 
practice  law  in 
1823.  He  served 
as  reprsentative 
and  senator  in  Con- 
gress, but  his 
greatest  success 
was  at  the  law. 
He  became  the 
foremost  lawyer 
of  New  England, 
and  undoubtedly 
was  the  first 
pleader  of  his 

RUFUS  CHOATE          day.    His  speeches 
and  address  es 

show  great  oratorical  power.  He  died 
July  13,  1859. 

Chocolate.  See  COCOA. 
Choctaws  (chok'taz),  a  widely-spread 
tribe  of  Indians,  living  on  the  shores  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  from  the  Mississippi  to  the 
Atlantic.  They  lived  more  by  rude  farm- 
ing than  by  hunting.  They  are  a  raw- 
boned,  alert  but  treacherous  people.  The 
French  gave  them  the  name  of  Flatheads, 
from  their  practice  of  flattening  the  heads 
of  their  children  with  bags  of  sand.  De  Soto 
fought  a  bloody  battle  with  them  in  1540. 
In  the  wars  between  the  French  and  Eng- 
lish settlers  they  sided  with  the  French; 
though  one  of  their  great  chiefs,  Red  Shoes, 
became  the  friend  of  the  English.  Some 
500  families  moved  west  of  the  Mississippi 
in  1803,  and  the  remainder  were  offered 
citizenship  by  the  Georgians;  but  they  pre- 
ferred to  trade  their  lands  for  others  west 
of  the  Arkansas  in  Indian  Territory.  They 
were  governed  by  a  written  constitution, 
elected  a  chief  every  four  years  and  had  a 
national  council  of  40  members  and  trial 
by  jury.  Under  this  government  they 
advanced  fast,  and  in  1861  numbered,  with 
the  Chkkasaws,  who  lived  with  them, 
25,000,  and  owned  5,000  slaves.  In  the 
Civil  War  they  took  sides  with  the  south 
and  suffered  great  losses.  Schools  and 
missions  have  been  established  among 
them  for  along  time.  In  1900  there  were 
10,321  Choctaws  in  the  territory. 

Chopin  ( shd-p&n') ,  Frederic  Francois, 
a  Polish  pianist  and  composer,  was  born 
March  i,  1809.  His  waltzes,  mazurkas 
and  other  compositions  are  peculiar  in 
melody,  rhythm  and  harmony,  and  have 
a  great  charm.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
pianists,  and  his  playing  like  his  music, 
nad  a  captivating  grace.  He  spent  most 
of  his  life  in  Paris,  where  he  died  Oct.  17, 
1849 


Christian  I X  (born  in  1 8 1 8) ,  was  crowned 
King  of  Denmark  in  1863.  At  his  accession 
he  was  misunder- 
stood and  coldly 
received  by  the 
people,  but  by  his 
simple  manners 
and  democratic 
bearing  he  won 
their  respect  and 
esteem.  In  1864 
Schleswig-Holstein 
and  Lauenburg, 
about  one  third 
of  Denmark,  were 
taken  from  him  by 
Germany.  This 
loss  of  territory 

was  offset  in  part  CHRISTIAN    ix 

by  a  gain  in  pres- 
tige through  his  family  alliances.  One  of 
liis  daughters  became  czarina  of  Russia, 
another  queen  of  England,  one  son  king 
of  Greece  and  another  king  of  Norway. 
He  died  Jan.  29,  1906,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  eldest  son  who  ascended  the  throne 
Jan.  30,  1906,  with  the  title  of  Frederick 
VIII.  He  died  of  apoplexy  in  the  streets  of 
Hamburg,  May  14,  1912.  Crown  Prince 
Christian  who  took  the  title  of  Christian  X, 
succeeded  him. 

Christian  Endeavor  Movement,  The. 
This  movement  originated  with  the  forma- 
tion of  a  small  society  of  50  members 
in  the  Williston  Church  of  Portland,  Maine, 
under  the  direction  and  with  the  inspiration 
of  the  pastor,  Dr.  Francis  E.  Clark,  on  the 
evening  of  February  2,  1881.  In  February, 
1906,  after  15  years  of  life,  the  movement 
showed  66,000  societies,  with  4,000,000 
members,  found  not  only  in  the  United 
States,  but  in  Canada  and  Great  Britain, 
in  many  countries  of  Europe,  in  India, 
China  and  Japan,  in  Australia  and  in  Africa. 
The  different  societies  are  independent, 
united  only  by  a  community  of  principle 
and  plan.  There  is,  however,  a  corpora- 
tion, bearing  the  title  of  United  Society 
of  Christian  Endeavor,  of  which  Dr.  Clark 
is  chairman.  This  society  collects  and 
distributes  the  funds  that  may  be  sent  to 
it,  and  seeks  to  promote  in  every  way  the 
movement.  Most  of  the  societies  have 
a  constitution  that  declares  the  purpose 
to  be  "to  promote  an  earnest  Christian 
life  among  its  members,  to  promote  their 
mutual  acquaintance  and  to  make  them 
more  useful  servants  of  God."  There  are 
active  members  and  associate  members. 
The  former  bind  themselves  to  attend 
every  meeting  of  the  society  to  which  they 
belong,  unless  prevented  by  absolute  neces- 
sity, and  to  take  some  part,  however  slight, 
in  every  meeting.  They  are  to  read  the 
Bible  daily  and  to  assist  the  pastor  in  the 
work  of  the  church  as  he  shall  direct.  The 
society  is  interdenominational.  A  special 


CHRISTIAN  ERA 


395 


CHRIST'S  HOSPITAL 


See    EDDY,     MARY 
of     Norway,    was 


feature  of  the  society  has  always  been  the 
appointment  of  many  committees  to  at- 
tend to  and  systematize  various  aspects 
of  church  work.  Conventions  are  held 
every  year  in  different  parts  of  the  United 
States.  Similar  conventions  are  held  in 
foreign  countries.  The  World's  Christian 
Endeavor  Union  has  been  formed,  and  the 
Society  in  America  publishes  a  journal, 
The  Christian  Endeavor  World. 

Christian  Era,  the  great  era,  now  almost 
universally  accepted,  especially  in  Christian 
countries,'f  or  the  computation  of  time.  It  is 
commonly  held  to  correspond  to  the  date 
of  the  birth  of  Christ;  but  this  is  scarcely 
accurate,  since  that  epochal  event  took 
place  four  years  before  the  era  now  accepted 
as  the  commencement  of  the  new  epoch 
in  reckoning  time.  The  centuries  before 
the  advent  of  Christ  are  marked  B.  C. 
(before  Christ) ;  those  that  follow  are 
marked  A.  D.  (anno  Domini).  The  era  is 
computed  from  Jan.  i  in  the  4th  year  of 
the  1 94th  Olympiad;  the  753d  from  the 
foundation  of  Rome;  and  the  4, 71 4th  of 
the  Julian  period.  The  new  epoch  was 
introduced  in  Italy  in  the  i6th  century, 
and  came  into  use  in  England  some  cen- 
turies later. 

Christian     Science. 
BAKER. 

Christiania,    capital 

named  after  Christian  IV,  who  began  to 
build  the  city  in  1624.  The  national  par- 
liament, the  storthing,  with  its  two  houses, 
the  Lagting  and  the  Odelting,  meets  here. 
It  has  a  large  university,  a  fine  observatory, 
two  palaces  of  the  king  of  Norway  and  a 
national  picture-gallery.  An  interesting  es- 
tablishment in  vogue  here  is  the  Steam 
Kitchen,  which  provides  good  and  cheap 
dinners  for  working  people.  The  great 
industry  is  its  shipping  trade,  both  foreign 
and  coasting.  Its  chief  exports  are  of 
timber  and  fish.  Population,  241,834. 

Christina  ( kris-te'na ) ,  queen  of  Sweden, 
the  only  child  of  the  great  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus,  was  born  Dec.  17,  1626.  She  suc- 
ceeded her  father  when  only  six  years  old. 
Beautiful  and  brilliant,  she  was  given  the 
schooling  then  only  given  to  men.  She 
took  the  ruling  power  into  her  own  hands 
in  1644,  and  six  years  later,  in  accordance 
with  her  mannish  desires,  was  crowned 
king  instead  of  queen.  She  ruled  ably  for 
the  next  four  years,  but  her  wayward 
restlessness  could  not  brook  longer  the 
restraints  on  her  personal  action  which  her 
position  of  queen  made  her  keep,  and  she 
resigned  the  throne  in  favor  of  her  cousin 
Charles,  reserving,  however,  authority  over 
her  own  household.  At  this  time,  when 
but  28  years  old,  she  traveled  over 
Europe  somewhat  like  a  female  knight- 
errant,  now  becoming  very  religious  at 
Brussels,  now  entering  Rome  on  horseback 
dressed  as  an  amazon,  and  later  shocking 


Paris  by  having  her  grand  equerry  put 
to  death  in  her  own  household  for  treason. 
Tired  of  this  wandering  life,  she  thought 
the  death  of  Charles  a  good  chance  x  ,  be- 
come queen  again.  But  in  this  she  failed. 
She  died  at  Rome,  April  19,  1689. 

Christmas  (kris'mas),  the  day  on  which 
the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ  is  observed.  The 
first  certain  traces  of  the  festival  are  found 
about  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Commodus 
(180-192  A.  D.).  In  the  reign  of  Diocletian 
a  churchful  of  Christians,  gathered  to  cele- 
brate Christmas,  were  burned  by  order  of 
the  emperor.  The  birth  was  celebrated 
in  May,  April  and  January  by  the  early 
Christians.  It  is  almost  certain  that  the 
25th  of  December  is  not  Christ's  birthday, 
as  it  is  the  rainy  season  in  Judaea,  and 
shepherds  could  hardly  be  watching  their 
flocks  by  night  in  the  plains  at  that  time. 
The  present  date  came  to  be  used  probably 
because  all  heathen  nations  celebrated  that 
season  with  great  festivities,  as  the  old 
Norse  Yule-feast.  The  beautiful  Christmas 
carols  at  first  were  manger-songs,  telling  the 
story  of  Christ's  birth.  The  Christmas- 
tree  with  its  hanging  toys  was  a  custom 
borrowed  from  the  Romans,  and  is  told 
about  by  the  poet  Vergil.  The  visit  of 
Santa  Claus  bearing  gifts  belongs  properly 
to  December  6,  the  festival  of  St.  Nicholas. 

Christmas  Carol,  A,  the  first  and  best 
of  strictly  Christmas  stories,  is  one  of  the 
masterpieces  of  Charles  Dickens.  Written 
for  the  Christmas  of  1843,  it  was  marked 
by  the  best  gifts  of  the  novelist,  humor, 
fancy,  simplicity  and  tenderness.  The  old 
miser,  Scrooge,  is  visited  and  reformed  by 
the  ghosts  of  Christmas  past,  present  and 
future. 

Chris'topher,  Saint,  according  to  the 
old  story,  lived  in  Syria,  and  was  put  to 
death  as  a  martyr  by  the  Emperor  Decius. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  1 2  feet  in  height 
and  of  great  strength.  In  the  pride  of 
his  strength,  he  would  serve  only  the 
mightiest  upon  earth.  Once  he  served  a 
powerful  king  for  a  while;  but  seeing  his 
master's  fear  of  the  devil,  he  at  once  be- 
came the  devil's  servant.  But  one  day  he 
saw  the  devil  trembling  before  an  image 
of  Christ,  and  decided  to  serve  Christ  only. 
As  punishment  for  not  having  served  Him 
before,  he  undertook  to  carry  travelers 
across  a  broad  stream.  One  day,  so  the 
the  story  goes,  Christ  came  to  him  in  the 
form  of  a  little  child,  to  be  carried  over, 
but  at  every  step  the  burden  grew  heavier 
and  heavier.  "Wonder  not,  Christopher," 
said  the  child,  "for  with  Me  thou  hast 
borne  the  sins  of  all  the  world." 

Christ's  Hospital,  a  noted  school  in 
London,  England,  with  an  ancient  foun- 
dation. It  was  founded  by  Edward  VI 
in  1553,  as  a  hospital  for  orphans.  It  is 
usually  called  the  Blue-coat  School,  from 
the  odd  dress  worn  by  the  boys.  About 


CHRONOGRAPH 


396 


CHURCH-COUNCILS 


30  years  ago  the  cap  and  petticoat  were 
discarded,  but  otherwise  the  garb  or  uni- 
form is  the  same  to-day  as  that  worn 
in  the  i6th  century:  a  blue  coat  with  a 
red  girdle  round  the  waist,  knee-breeches, 
yellow  petticoat  and  stockings,  a  clergy- 
man's bands  at  the  neck  and  a  small  blue 
worsted  cap.  Coleridge,  Lamb,  Sir  Henry 
Maine  and  other  prominent  men  were 
educated  here. 

Chron'ograph,  an  instrument,  of  delicate 
mechanism,  for  measuring  and  recording 
minute  portions  of  time.  It  is  used  by 
astronomers  for  registering  the  instant  oc- 
currence of  an  astronomical  event,  directly 
it  happens  and  is  visible.  It  is  also  used 
at  horse-races,  to  record  the  starting  of 
a  race  and  the  instant  each  horse  in  the 
contest  passes  the  winning-post.  The 
chronograph  usually  registers  to  one  tenth 
of  a  second;  the  delicate  records  are  made 
by  electro-magnetism,  and  can  be  brought 
into  action  or  stopped  at  any  instant  through 
the  manipulation  of  an  electric  key  by  the 
finger.  Of  this  type  is  the  chronograph 
known  as  Schultze's,  which  is  so  precise 
and  delicate  that  it  can  register  time  to 
the  5oo,oooth  part  of  a  second.  Of  the 
ordinary  type  of  chronometer  is  Benson's 
which,  in  principle,  is  a  lever-watch,  with  a 
double  seconds-hand,  the  one  superimposed 
on  the  other.  The  one  in  use  by  astrono- 
mers is  Strange 's,  which  is  connected  with 
the  pendulum  of  an  astronomical  clock, 
and  makes  a  dot  or  other  mark  on  a  sheet 
of  paper  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  each 
swing  of  the  pendulum. 

Chronometer.     See  CLOCK. 

Chry san' themum  (meaning  golden 
flower) ,  is  a  flower  growing  in  the  temperate 
parts  of  Asia,  Europe  and  North  America. 
There  are  many  varieties,  such  as  the  ox-eye 
daisy,  corn  marigold,  golden  feather  and 
marguerites.  The  most  popular  variety  in 
our  gardens  and  flower-markets  was  highly 
esteemed  in  China  long  before  it  was  known 
in  Europe,  and  gives  its  name  to  the  Chinese 
order  of  honor,  the  Order  of  the  Golden 
Flower.  It  was  brought  to  Europe  in  1764, 
and  now  there  are  many  hundred  varieties. 
The  colors  are  very  various  and  beautiful. 
It  is  popular  also  becavise  it  flowers  during 
the  late  autumn  months.  The  cultivation 
of  the  chrysanthemum  and  the  developing 
of  new  varieties  have  been  very  much 
extended  in  the  last  few  years.  Chrysan- 
themum shows  are  usually  held  in  all  our 
large  cities. 

Chryseis,  the  daughter  of  Chryses,  a 
priest  of  Apollo,  had,  according  to  the  story 
of  the  Trojan  War,  been  one  of  the  captives 
of  Achilles.  In  the  partition  of  the  booty 
she  fell  to  Agamemnon,  who  refused  her 
father's  offer  of  ransom.  Apollo  avenged 
the  insult  by  visiting  the  Greek  army  with 
a  plague,  until  Agamemnon,  its  leader,  was 
compelled  to  restore  Chryseis  to  her  father. 


Chrysostom  (krts'8s-tom),  John,  Saint 
(meaning  "golden  mouthed"),  was  born  at 
Antioch  about  347  A.  D.  His  mother  was 
a  pious  woman  and  devoted  herself  to  her 
son,  who  grew  into  an  earnest,  gentle  and 
serious  young  man.  He  studied,  became 
a  monk  and  spent  much  time  in  preaching, 
in  which  he  was  very  successful.  His 
eloquence  caught  the  attention  alike  of 
Jews  and  heathen,  and  gained  him  the  repu- 
tation of  the  greatest  orator  of  the  ancient 
church.  Appointed  to  an  important  office 
in  Constantinople,  he  pared  down  the  cost 
of  living  and  gave  what  was  saved  to 
charities,  so  that  he  was  called  John  the 
Almoner.  For  trying  to  reform  the  lives 
of  some  of  the  monks  about  him,  he  was 
banished  to  the  Taurus  Mountains.  Even 
here  he  could  not  keep  silent,  but  began  to 
preach  to  the  Persians  and  Goths  in  the 
neighborhood  and  to  write  Letters  and 
Homilies,  or  explanations  of  parts  of  the 
Bible,  which  to-day  are  in  the  front  rank 
of  the  literature  of  the  church.  But  an- 
other order  came  to  banish  the  golden- 
tongued  preacher  to  the  most  distant  corner 
of  the  Eastern  empire.  So  the  old  man 
was  made  to  travel  on  foot  and  with  his 
bare  head  exposed  to  the  burning  sun. 
This  was  more  than  he  could  bear,  and  he 
died  on  the  way,  Sept.  4,  407  A.  D. 

Chuquisaca  (choo'ke-sa'ka)  or  Sucre,  the 
capital  of  Bolivia,  is  built  on  a  tableland 
almost  9,000  feet  above  the  sea,  shut  in 
by  mountains.  It  has  a  large  cathedral 
and  a  college.  Its  citizens  are  mostly  a 
mixture  of  Spaniards  with  Indians.  Popu- 
lation, 23,416.  Chuquisaca  is  also  a  depart- 
ment of  the  republic;  area  26,400  square 
miles;  population  about  237,143,  consisting 
of  Indians,  Mestizos  and  whites. 

Church,  Frederick  Edwin,  a  celebrated 
American  landscape-painter,  was  born  at 
Hartford,  Conn.,  May  4,  1826.  He  first 
painted  scenes  from  the  Catskill  Mountains. 
He  then  traveled  in  South  America,  and 
painted  his  Heart  of  the  Andes,  Morning 
on  the  Cordilleras,  etc.  He  also  made  a 
sketching  trip  to  Greece  and  Palestine.  His 
Tropical  Scenery  and  View  of  Niagara 
Falls  from  the  Canadian  Shore  are  among 
his  best  works.  He  died  in  1900. 

Church-Councils.  Church-councils  are 
of  two  kinds,  general  or  oecumenical  coun- 
cils, at  which  the  whole  church  is  repre- 
sented, and  others,  in  which  some  division 
of  the  church,  as  a  sect  or  a  local  division, 
is  represented.  The  council  may  meet  to 
discuss  matters  of  doctrine  or  matters  of 
discipline.  Some  councils  consist  of  clerical 
members  only;  others  admit  lay  members, 
that  is,  those  who  have  not  been  ordained. 
The  latter  are  more  common  in  Protestant 
churches.  The  lesser  councils  are  too 
numerous  to  mention,  occurring  in  con- 
nection with  every  sect.  The  oecumenical 
councils  were  held  before  the  division  of 


CHURCHILL 


397 


CICADA 


the  church  (about  800  A.  D.)  into  the 
Eastern  and  the  Western  church.  The 
first  was  held  at  Nicasa,  in  Asia  Minor, 
325  A.  D.,  under  the  Emperor  Constantine. 
It  was  in  that  council  that  Athanasius 
won  the  victory  for  the  doctrine  of  the 
trinity,  against  the  Unitarians  under  Arius. 
The  next  councils  were  those  of  Constan- 
tinople (381),  Ephesus  (431),  Chalcedon 
(451),  Constantinople  (553),  Constantinople 
(680),  Nicaea  (787).  The  Greek  or  Eastern 
church  recognizes  only  these  as  general, 
because  it  did  not  attend  the  rest;  but  the 
Roman  church  considers  the  following  to 
be  general,  holding  that  the  other  churches 
are  not  real  churches,  that  there  is  but 
one  church,  the  Roman  Catholic:  Con- 
stantinople (869),  Lateran  (1123),  Lateran 
(1139),  Lateran  (1179),  Lateran  (1215), 
Lyons  (1245),  Lyons  (1274),  Vienne  (1311), 
Constance  (1414),  Basel  (1431),  Florence 
(1438),  Lateran  (1512),  Trent  (1545)*  and 
Vatican  (1869).  The  authority  of  the 
councils  has  given  way  to  that  of  the  pope, 
especially  since  the  council  of  Trent.  At 
the  last  council,  the  Vatican,  membership 
was  limited  to  cardinals,  bishops,  mitred 
abbots  and  generals  of  religious  orders. 

Churchill,  Randolph  Henry  Spencer, 
Lord,  an  English  statesman,  member  of 
Parliament  and  second  son  of  the  sixth 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  was  born  in  1849, 
and  died  in  1895.  ^n  X874>  on  a  visit  to 
this  country,  he  married  Jennie,  daughter 
of  the  late  Leonard  Jerome  of  New 
York.  In  the  same  year  he  entered  the 
British  Parliament,  and  later  on  became  a 
versatile  and  often  audacious  speaker,  the 
life  and  soul  of  what  was  then  known  as  the 
Fourth  Party  in  the  chamber.  He  sub- 
sequently became  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Conservative  party,  and  was  recognized 
as  a  new  and  powerful,  if  at  times  some- 
what erratic,  political  force.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  Bradlaugh  debates, 
and  when  Mr.  Gladstone  fell  and  Lord 
Salisbury  came  into  power,  Lord  Randolph 
Churchill  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  and  leader  in  the  commons. 
In  Dec.,  1886,  differences  with  his  colleagues 
led  to  his  resignation.  He  again  (in  1892) 
became  a  member  of  Parliament.  He  died 
at  London,  January  24,  1895. 

Churchill  River,  1,000  miles  long,  flow- 
ing into  west  shore  of  Hudson  Bay  near 
Fort  Churchill  in  the  District  of  Keewatin 
(Canada).  Direction  northeasterly. 

Churchill,  Winston,  American  novelist 
and  contributor  to  magazines,  was  born  at 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Nov.  10,  1871,  and  graduated 
in  1894  from  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy.  For  a  time  he  was  editor  of  the 
Army  and  Navy  Journal,  of  New  York, 
and  managing  editor  of  The  Cosmopolitan. 
He  has  published  a  number  of  short  naval 
stories  and  character  sketches  of  naval 
officers;  an  account  of  the  naval  battle 


of  Santiago;  and  three  notable  novels, 
dealing  powerfully  with  important  eras  in 
American  history.  These  stories  are  en- 
titled The  Celebrity  (1898),  Richard  Carvel 
(1899)  and  The  Crisis  (1901),  the  latter 
a  story  of  the  Civil  War.  The  Crossing 
(1904),  a  love  story  entitled  Coniston  (1906) 
and  Mr.  Cr  ewe's  Career  (1908)  are 
his  later  fiction. 

Churchill,  Winston  Leonard  Spencer, 
son  of  the  late  Lord  Randolph  Churchill, 
English  Parliamentary  Under-Secretary  for 
the  colonies,  under  Campbell  -  Bannerman, 
and  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  under 
Asquith,  was  born  November  30,  1874,  and 
educated  at  Harrow  and  the  military  school 
at  Sandhurst.  In  1895  ne  entered  the 
army,  and  saw  considerable  fighting,  and 
was  in  many  active  expeditions  in  different 
parts  of  the  world.  He  first  served  with 
the  Spanish  forces  in  Cuba;  then  in  India; 
and  later  in  the  Nile  expeditionary  force 
in  Egypt,  and  for  his  services  at  Khartum 
received  a  medal  and  clasp.  Toward  the 
close  of  1899  he  proceeded  to  South  Africa, 
and  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Boers, 
while  acting  as  war-correspondent.  He 
afterward  escaped  from  custody  at  Pretoria, 
and  proceeding  to  Cape  Colony  he  joined 
the  South  African  Light  Horse  as  lieutenant. 
With  this  body  of  troops  he  saw  much 
service  in  the  colony,  was  in  many  hot 
engagements  and  was  present  at  the  taking 
and  occupying  of  Pretoria  by  Lord  Roberts 
in  June,  1900.  He  remained  first  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty  until  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
European  War  but  was  replaced  in  that 
office  in  1915  by  Arthur  J.  Balfour  on  the 
formation  of  a  coalition  ministry  under 
Asquith  (q.  ».).  His  publications  embrace 
The  Story  of  the  Malakand  Field- Force;  Sav- 
rola  (a  novel) ;  The  River  War,  an  historical 
account  of  the  reconquest  of  the  Sudan; 
London  to  Ladysmith  via  Pretoria;  and  the 
narrative  of  Ian  Hamilton's  March.  He 
has  also  written  a  Life  of  Lord  Randolph 
Churchill,  his  father,  which  is  regarded  as 
a  fine  piece  of  biographical  literature.  See 
Scott's  Winston  Spencer  Churchill  (London, 
1905)- 

Churubusco  (choo'rb^-boos'ko),  a  village 
six  miles  south  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  where 
was  fought  a  battle  between  the  Americans, 
under  General  Scott,  and  the  Mexicans 
under  General  Santa  Anna,  Aug.  20,  1847. 
The  road  to  Mexico  is  a  high,  paved  cause- 
way crossing  the  River  Churubusco  by  a 
stone-bridge.  At  this  point  on  the  high 
river-banks  Santa  Anna  made  a  stand, 
to  arrest  Scott's  advance  to  the  capital. 
Scott  had  won  the  battle  of  the  Contreras 
the  same  day,  and  he  carried  the  Churubusco 
position  af*er  smart  fighting,  with  a  loss 
m  both  actions  of  1,065;  Mexican  loss, 
including  prisoners,  7,000,  besides  artillery. 

Cicada  (st-ka'dd),  an  insect  improperly 
known  as  the  1 7-year  locust.  The  name 


CICERO 


CID 


locust  should  be  restricted  to  certain 
grasshoppers,  which  are  the  true  locusts. 
The  cicadas  appear  in  great  numbers  at 
long  intervals.  Those  of  the  north  require 
17  years  for  their  development,  those  of 
the  south  13  years.  The  eggs  are  laid  in 
slits  in  twigs  of  trees,  and  are  hatched  after 
a  period  of  six  weeks.  Instead  of  a  cater- 
pillar or  grub,  a  nymph  is  produced.  The 
latter  has  legs,  but  no  wings.  They  drop 
to  the  ground  and  burrow  and  live  by 
sucking  the  juices  from  the  roots  of  trees. 
After  17  years  they  reach  maturity  and 
come  to  the  surface.  The  skin  splits  open 
along  the  back  and  the  perfect  insect 
comes  out.  They  attract  attention  far 
and  near  by  their  loud,  shrill  singing. 
Their  life  in  this  stage  lasts  but  a  few 
weeks.  In  some  localities  several  broods 
overlap,  which  explains  the  fact  that  the 
insect  appears  in  those  localities  more 
than  once  in  the  period  of  17  years.  The 
dog-day  harvest-flies  are  also  cicadas.  These 
develop  in  two  years,  but,  as  there  are 
two  broods,  they  appear  annually. 

Cicero,  Marcus  Tullius,  orator,  states- 
man and  writer,  was  born  at  the  old  Italian 
town  of  Arpi- 
num,  106  B.  C. 
In  boyhood  he 
went  to  Rome, 
and  was  put 
through  a  thor- 
ough and  wide 
course  of  study 
to  fit  him  to  be 
an  orator. 
Among  the 
Romans  the 
calling  of  an 
orator  was 
what  we  would 
call  that  of  a 
lawyer  and  a 
politician,  the 
orator  pleading 

law  cases  be-  MARCUS  TULLIUS  CICERO 
fore  the  bar  and  speaking  on  political 
questions  in  the  senate,  thus  requiring  a 
wide  and  varied  knowledge.  In  76  B.  C. 
he  held  an  appointment  in  Sicily,  where 
he  became  popular  with  all  classes  and 
obtained  the  information  which  enabled 
him,  in  70  B.  C.,  to  impeach  successfully 
the  wicked  governor  of  Sicily,  Verres.  This 
scoundrel  felt  himself  crushed  by  Cicero's 
opening  speech  and  fled  the  country.  The 
orator  had  already  become  well  known  by 
earlier  speeches,  and  now  became  a  power 
in  the  state,  and  rose  rapidly  still  higher. 
In  63  B.  C.,  at  the  age  of  44,  he 
was  a  consul,  the  highest  office  within 
reach  of  a  Roman.  In  the  same  year,  by 
his  boldness  and  promptness,  he  checkmated 
the  dangerous  conspiracy  of  Catiline,  deliv- 
ering in  the  senate  those  famous  Orations 
against  Catiline,  which  brought  the  senators 


almost  to  a  man  to  his  support,  Cicero 
was  now  at  the  height  of  his  power,  but 
his  hot  eloquence  had  carried  the  senate 
too  far.  Some  of  Catiline's  band  had  been 
put  to  death  by  a  simple  order  of  the 
senate.  This  was  a  stretch  of  power  for 
which  Cicero  was  held  responsible,  and  the 
Father  of  His  Country,  as  he  had  been 
called  but  a  short  time  before,  was  banished 
and  his  two  houses  were  plundered.  Though 
the  changeable  people  welcomed  him  back 
with  shouts  in  the  following  year,  he  never 
regained  power.  No  longer  confident  in 
himself,  he  halted  between  allegiance  to 
Caesar  and  allegiance  to  Pompey,  and  was 
held  to  be  a  time-server.  It  was  a  time 
when  the  old  republic  was  crumbling  to 
pieces,  and  only  a  strong  man  could  build 
upon  its  ruins  what  would  be  stable  and 
lasting.  Cicero  was  gentle,  amiable,  clever 
and  learned,  but  strong  he  certainly  was 
not. 

The  later  years  of  his  life  were  spent 
chiefly  in  pleading  at  the  bar  and  in  writing 
essays.  After  Pompey 's  overthrow  at  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia,  he  became  Caesar's 
friend;  but  he  never  liked  Caesar's  other 
friend,  Mark  Antony;  and  in  the  year 
following  Caesar's  death  the  aged  orator . 
appeared  once  more  in  the  senate,  making 
his  famous  speeches  against  Antony,  which 
he  called  Philippics,  after  the  title  of 
Demosthenes'  orations  against  Philip  of 
Macedon.  These  cost  him  his  life.  An- 
tony's proscription-list  of  his  enemies,  who 
were  thereby  outlawed,  was  published,  and 
Cicero's  name  was  on  it.  Old  and  feeble,  he 
fled,  pursued  by  Antony's  soldiers,  and 
was  overtaken  as  he  was  being  carried  in 
his  litter  down  to  the  shore  to  embark. 
With  courageous  coolness  he  put  his  head  out 
of  the  litter  and  told  the  murderers  to 
strike.  This  was  in  December,  43  B.  C. 

Cicero  as  an  orator  stands  in  the  first 
rank.  Of  his  speeches  that  have  come 
down  to  us,  the  finest  perhaps  are  those 
against  Verres  and  against  Catiline.  His 
essays  on  Old  Age,  On  Friendship  and 
Whole  Duty  of  Man  (de  Officiis)  are  most 
pleasant  reading.  His  letters  are  classics  of 
epistolary  literature.  It  was  a  remark  of 
Erasmus:  "I  feel  a  better  man  for  read- 
ing Cicero." 

Cid  (std) ,  The,  the  name  given  to  Rodrigo 
Diaz,  a  famous  warrior  of  Spain,  who  was 
born  about  1040.  He  was  commander  of 
the  army  of  Sancho  II,  king  of  Castile, 
in  the  wars  in  which  that  king  tore  Leon 
and  Galicia  from  his  brothers.  Sancho 
was  killed  treacherously  during  a  siege, 
and  Alfonso,  the  banished  king  of  Leon, 
became  king.  The  Cid  was  soon  after- 
ward banished  himself,  and  with  a  motley 
following  he  offered  his  services  to  the  king 
of  Saragossa  and  fought  ably  against  his 
enemies.  After  besieging  Valencia  on  his 
own  account  for  years,  he  conquered  the 


CIDER 


399 


CINCINNATI 


city,  and  reigned  over  the  district  until 
his  death,  five  years  later,  in  1099.  He 
appears  to  have  been  a  bold  and  able 
soldier  and  a  born  leader  of  men.  These 
adventures  and  many  other  things  which 
he  never  did  are  told  in  the  Ctd  Poem, 
written  in  the  i2th  century,  probably 
the  oldest  literature  in  the  Spanish  language. 
The  story  of  the  Cid  was  told  by  the  story- 
tellers who  wandered  over  the  country, 
welcomed  at  every  castle,  where  they  en- 
livened the  long  evenings  by  telling  stories 
of  the  national  heroes,  after  making  up 
adventures  which  they  tacked  on  to  the 
lives  of  such  men  as  Charlemagne  and  the 
Cid.  It  was  from  these  stories  that  the 
poem,  with  other  chronicles  and  ballads 
about  him,  was  made.  On  this  story  Cor- 
neille  based  his  Le  Cid  and  Southey  his 
Chronicle  of  the  Cid. 

Cider  is  the  fermented  juice  of  apples. 
Usually,  apples  that  are  sour  in  taste  are 
used,  and  late  apples  make  better  cider 
than  early  ones.  The  apples  after  gather- 
ing are  left  to  mellow  for  some  days.  The 
juice  is  crushed  out  by  passing  the  apples 
between  fluted  rollers  or  in  mills  of  various 
kinds.  The  pulp  is  placed  in  bags  or  in 
wicker-work  frames  with  holes,  and  the 
juice  is  drained  into  tubs.  This  juice  is 
kept  for  the  finest  quality  of  cider.  The 
rest  is  squeezed  out  in  a  press.  This  pres- 
sure, especially  where  unduly  great,  adds 
juice  from  the  pipe  and  skins  and  gives 
it  a  coarser  flavor,  though  in  larger  quantity. 
Eight  to  ten  days'  fermentation  takes 
place  in  casks  with  large  bungholes,  the 
vinegary  yeast  frothing  to  the  top,  which 
is  constantly  removed.  The  cider  is  next 
freed  of  the  sediment  by  being  placed  in 
fresh  casks,  and  this  is  repeated  in  the 
spring.  Champagne  cider  is  made  by  bot- 
tling the  juice  before  it  is  fully  fermented. 
Cider  contains  from  four  to  ten  per  cent,  of 
alcohol. 

Cienfuegos  (se'en-fivd'gos),  a  city  of 
Cuba,  is  in  Santa  Clara  province  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  island.  Its  harbor 
was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1492,  and 
is  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  West 
Indies.  The  port's  commercial  advance  in 
recent  years  has  been  so  rapid  that  Cien- 
fuegos has  become  the  second  seaport  in 
Cuba.  To-day  it  is  the  center  of  the  sugar- 
trade  on  the  Caribbean  coast.  The  city 
has  well-shaded,  attractive  streets,  its  resi- 
dences are  substantially  built,  and  it  is 
lighted  by  gas  and  electricity.  The  climate 
in  summer  is  oppressive,  but  the  winter 
climate  agreeable.  Railroads  connect  Cien- 
fuegos with  Havana  and  Sagua  la  Grande 
on  the  northern  coast  and  with  Santa 
Clara,  the  western  terminus  of  the  Santiago 
railway.  Steamers  give  communication 
with  New  York.  The  population  is  70,416. 
During  the  Spanish-American  war  the  port 
Was  long  blockaded  by  the  American  fleet. 


Cimabue  (che'md-bdo'd) ,  Giovanni,  an 
Italian  painter,  was  born  at  Florence  in 
1240.  The  art  of  painting  had  in  his  day 
fallen  into  decay,  and  Cimabue 's  attempt 
to  follow  nature,  painting  from  a  living 
model,  was  called  "a  new  thing  in  these 
times."  His  two  madonnas  are  still  pre- 
served in  Florence,  but  he  is  best  known 
as  the  teacher  of  Giotto  and  as  the  founder 
of  the  Florentine  school  of  painters  which 
included  Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael. 
He  died  about  1302. 

Cimbri  (sim'bri),  a  people  who,  together 
with  the  Teutons,  came  out  of  the  north 
of  Germany,  and  moving  southward  fought 
against  the  Romans  in  113  B.  C.  At  first 
victorious,  they  were  prevented  from  ravag- 
ing Italy  by  Marius,  who  routed  them  in 
a  battle  near  Verona  in  101  B.  C.  In  this 
battle  they  showed  the  greatest  courage, 
even  the  women  killing  themselves  and 
their  children  when  they  saw  that  all  was 
lost.  Years  later,  Caesar  and  Tacitus  speak 
of  the  Cimbri,  who  appear  to  have  lived, 
a  few  in  number,  in  the  far  north  of  Ger- 
many. They  probably  belonged  to  the 
German  race. 

Cimon  ( sVmun ) ,  an  Athenian  commander, 
was  the  son  of  Miltiades,  the  conqueror  at 
Marathon.  At  the  time  of  the  Persian  War 
he  was  made  one  of  the  two  commanders  of 
the  Athenian  section  of  the  Greek  navy, 
commanded  by  the  Spartan,  Pausanias. 
His  greatest  encounter  was  in  466  B.  C., 
with  a  Persian  fleet  of  350  ships  at  the 
River  Eurymedon,  when  he  destroyed  or 
captured  300  vessels  and  also  defeated  the 
Persian  land-force  on  the  same  day.  He 
became  very  popular  in  Athens,  but  later 
was  opposed  by  Pericles  and  the  democracy 
and  banished,  though  he  was  recalled  in 
five  years.  He  died  during  one  of  his 
sieges,  in  449  B.  C. 

Cincinnati  (sin' sin-no.' tt) ,  the  second  larg- 
est city  of  Ohio  and  tenth  in  rank  in  the 
United  States,  is  situated  on  the  Ohio  River 
in  the  southwest  part  of  the  state.  It  is 
built  upon  two  terraces,  the  first  60  feet 
and  the  second  112  feet  above  the  river,  sur- 
rounded by  a  circle  of  hills,  about  450 
feet  high,  forming  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
amphitheaters  on  the  continent.  The  city 
embraces  nearly  72  square  miles,  extending 
along  the  Ohio  River  fcr  about  15 
miles.  The  city  and  its  suburbs  cover 
the  surrounding  hills,  which  are  reached 
by  a  series  cf  street-railways  with  inclined 
planes,  one  having  a  height  of  275  feet. 
Cincinnati  is  noted  for  the  beauty  of  its 
suburbs,  which  stretch  for  miles  in  all 
directions,  with  costly  residences  and  large 
and  ornamental  grounds.  The  suspension 
bridge  between  Cincinnati  and  Covington 
is  2,252  feet  in  length,  and  was  built  at  a 
cost  of  $2,000,000.  There  are  18  parks  and 
a  zoological  garden;  Eden  park,  covering 
215  acres,  and  Mt.  Airy  Forest,  with  795 


CINCINNATI,  SOCIETY  OF  THE 


400 


CIRCULATION  OF  BLOOD 


acres,  being  the  largest.  Of  the  21  ceme- 
teries, the  largest  is  Spring  Grove,  con- 
taining 600  acres,  and  said  by  travelers 
to  be  the  most  picturesque  cemetery  in 
the  world.  The  Tyler-Davidson  fountain, 
a  bronze  fountain  cast  in  Munich  at  a  cost 
of  $200,000,  was  the  gift  of  a  private 
citizen,  and  is  one  of  the  ornaments  of  the 
city.  Among  buildings  of  note  are  the 
hospital,  erected  at  a  cost  of  $4,000,000; 
the  cathedral,  with  a  stone-spire  224  feet 
high;  the  Masonic  temple,  the  Art  museum 
in  Eden  park,  the  Havlin  and  Sinton  hotels, 
Ingall's  building,  the  great  Exposition  build- 
ing and  Music  hall  with  its  noted  grand 
organ. 

Cincinnati  is  an  important  commercial 
and  manufacturing  city,  and,  since  1870, 
a  port  of  entry.  It  for  many  years  was 
the  leading  city  of  the  west,  called  the 
Queen  City.  Its  trade  in  pork  was  the 
largest  in  the  country  until  1863.  Its 
manufactures  are  numerous  and  exten- 
sive, especially  in  iron,  leather,  shoes,  paper, 
soap  and  carriages.  Cincinnati  has  always 
been  noted  for  its  interest  in  literary  and 
educational  matters,  and  it  also  has  a  wide 
reputation  as  an  art  and  musical  center. 
The  Cincinnati  University,  with  263  in- 
structors and  2,298  students,  Lane  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  medical  and  law  schools, 
the  art-school  and  museum,  a  free  school 
of  design,  a  free  public  library,  mercantile 
library  and  historical  library,  Emma  Louise 
Schmidlapp  Memorial  Library,  and  the 
Lloyd  Library,  devoted  to  botany  and 
pharmacy,  are  among  its  many  institutions. 
Its  great  school  of  wood-carving  and  the 
Rookwood  pottery  are  each  celebrated. 
The  ware  from  this  pottery  ranks  with  the 
art-product  of  the  most  famous  potteries 
of  the  Old  World,  and  may  be  found  in 
the  best  private  collections  on  both  sides 
of  the  Atlantic. 

Cincinnati  was  permanently  settled  in 
1788,  and  named  in  honor  of  the  Society 
of  the  Cincinnati.  The  rivr  trade,  which 
began  with  the  arrival  of  the  first  steam- 
boat in  1811,  gave  it  its  ^arly  importance. 
It  became  a  city  in  1819.  In  1845  tne 
first  railroad  entered  the  city.  The  popu- 
lation is  largely  foreign,  one  entire  part 
of  the  city,  called  "  Over  the  Rhine,"  be- 
ing German.  Population,  405,898. 

Cincinnati,  Society  of  the,  a  society  of 
officers  of  the  Revolutionary  army,  organized 
at  the  close  of  the  war  to  keep  up  friend- 
ships and  especially  to  raise  a  fund  for 
widows  and  orphans  of  their  comrades 
who  had  lost  their  lives  in  the  war.  It  was 
named  from  the  old  Roman  hero,  Cincin- 
natus,  as  many  of  the  members  had  similarly 
left  their  farms  at  the  call  to  arms.  As 
membership  was  made  to  descend  from 
father  to  son,  an  outcry  was  made  against 
the  society  by  Franklin  and  others,  who 
saw  in  it  the  germ  of  a  future  aristocracy. 


This  caused  some  of  the  branches  to  dis- 
band. But  there  still  are  several  state 
societies  in  active  existence. 

Cincinnatus  (sin'stn-nd'tus),  Lucius 
Quintius,  was  made  consul  of  Rome  in  460 
B.  C.  When  the  messengers  came  to  tell 
him  of  his  election,  they  found  him  plough- 
ing on  his  small  farm.  Two  years  later 
he  was  made  dictator.  The  barbarous  vEqui 
had  surrounded  the  consul  Lucius  Minucius 
and  defeated  him.  Cincinnatus  marched 
to  his  aid  and  rescued  him.  Sixteen  days 
later  he  laid  down  the  unlimited  power 
of  the  dictatorship  and  went  back  con- 
tentedly to  his  small  farm  on  the  Tiber. 
At  the  age  of  80  he  was  again  made 
dictator.  He  was  a  favorite  hero  among 
the  later  Romans,  who  looked  on  him  as 
a  model  of  goodness  and  simple  manners. 

Cinematograph  (sin1 'e-mdt' 'o-grdf) .  This 
is  an  instrument  which  casts  upon  a  screen 
a  number  of  successive  views  which  have 
been  taken  from  a  moving  object,  in  so 
swift  an  order  that  the  eye  does  not  ob- 
serve that  the  picture  has  been  changed. 
The  spectator  appears  to  behold  one  and 
the  same  view,  in  which  the  objects  are 
in  actual  motion.  On  an  average  about 
100,000  pictures  are  needed  for  an  exhibi- 
tion which  is  to  last  one  hour.  The  in- 
strument was  invented  in  1894  by  Edison. 

Cinnamon.     See  SPICES. 

Circas'sians,  the  name  sometimes  given 
to  all  the  formerly  independent  peoples 
of  the  Caucasus,  more  strictly  to  the  tribes 
living  in  the  northwest  wing.  The  Cir- 
cassians are  a  handsome  race,  their  girls 
being  the  most  beautiful  in  the  Turkish 
harems.  They  also  are  strong,  brave  and 
temperate.  For  years  they  struggled 
fiercely  agianst  Russia,  to  keep  their  in- 
dependence, and  in  1858-65,  rather  than 
submit,  nearly  the  whole  nation  of  15 
tribes,  about  half  a  million  in  number, 
left  their  country  for  the  Turkish  part  of 
Asia  Minor  or  the  mountains  of  Bulgaria. 
See  CAUCASUS. 

Cir'ce,  a  sorceress  about  whom  Homer 
tells  us  in  his  Odyssey.  Round  her  palace 
in  ^Eaea  were  many  men  and  women  whom 
she  had  changed  into  the  shapes  of  lions 
and  wolves  by  her  drugs  and  charms. 
Twenty-two  of  Ulysses'  companions  she 
changed  into  swine,  but  Ulysses  himself 
was  given  an  herb,  which  protected  him. 
So  he  went  boldly  to  her  palace,  was  un- 
hurt by  her  drugs  and  persuaded  her  to 
disenchant  his  companions.  She  also  taught 
him  how  to  escape  many  dangers  on  his 
homeward  voyage.  Another  story  about 
Circe  is  that  she  poured  the  juice  of  poi- 
sonous herbs  into  that  part  of  the  sea  where 
Scylla,  of  whom  she  was  jealous,  was 
accustomed  to  bathe,  and  so  changed  her 
into  a  horrid  monster. 

Circulation  of  Blood,  the  course  of  the 
blood  in  its  round  from  the  heart  back 


CIRCUS 


401 


CITIZENSHIP 


again.  A  simple  case  of  circulation  is 
illustrated  in  the  crayfish,  where  the  heart 
consists  of  a  single  chamber  with  muscular 
walls.  When  it  contracts,  the  blood  is 
sent,  in  arteries,  forward,  backward  and 
downward;  on  its  return  path  it  passes 
through  the  gills.  In  the  clam  there  is 
a  two-chambered  heart.  In  fishes  there 
are  two  chambers;  in  frogs  and  toads  three; 
in  the  highest  reptiles  and  all  birds  and 
mammals  four  chambers  in  the  heart. 
The  ancients  believed  that  the  arteries 
contained  air,  and  only  the  veins  blood. 
Galen  (131-200),  in  the  2d  century,  demon- 
strated that  both  arteries  and  veins  con- 
tain blood,  but  a  direct  connection  between 
the  two  was  not  thought  of.  In  the  i6th 
century  such  a  connection  was  believed  in 
by  Vesalius  and  others.  In  1628  William 
Harvey  published  a  book  in  which  he 
maintained  that  the  quantity  of  blood 
leaving  the  heart  and  the  rate  at  which 
it  leaves  made  a  return  to  the  heart  neces- 
sary. This  marks  an  epoch  in  physiology. 
He  did  not,  however,  see  the  minute  vessels 
connecting  arteries  and  veins.  It  remained 
for  Malpighi,  in  1661,  and  Leeuwenhoek, 
in  1669,  to  demonstrate,  with  the  micro- 
scope, the  existence  of  minute  tubes  con- 
necting arteries  and  veins,  and  thus  to 
show  that  the  circulation  takes  place  in 
a  series  of  closed  tubes.  For  further  facts 
regarding  circulation  see  HEART. 

Cir'cus,  in  Roman  usage,  was  a  large, 
oblong  building,  used  for  chariot  and  horse- 
races, athletic  exercises  and  wild-beast 
fights.  According  to  tradition,  circuses 
originated  with  Romulus,  and  subsequently 
these  games  became  popular,  and  several 
buildings  were  put  up  for  their  use,  the 
largest  being  called  the  Circus  Maximus. 
This  was  enlarged  several  times,  and  is 
reported  to  have  held  from  150.000  to 
385,000  persons.  In  the  time  of  Julius 
Caesar  it  was  1,875  ^ee^  m  length  and  625 
feet  wide.  It  was  oblong  in  form,  rounded 
at  one  end  and  square  at  the  other,  with 
tiers  of  stone  seats  on  the  sides  and  curved 
end,  while  at  the  square  end  were  stalls 
for  the  horses  and  chariots.  The  Romans 
were  very  fond  of  the  chariot-race.  Usually, 
four  chariots  raced  seven  times  round 
the  circuit.  Boxing,  wrestling  and  even 
battles  were  engaged  in.  Canals  were  also 
dug  and  sea-fights  shown.  Animals  were 
brought  from  as  far  as  Asia  and  Africa. 
Free  shows  were  given  by  politicians  to 
curry  favor  with  the  people.  Pompey 
gave  a  five  days'  circus,  during  which  500 
lions  and  20  elephants  were  killed.  Often 
the  Romans  would  demand  bread  and 
circus-games  from  candidates  for  office. 

Citizenship.  The  term  citizen  implies 
membership  in  a  political  community,  and 
involves  on  the  one  side  his  allegiance  to 
and  support  of  that  community,  and  on 
the  other  the  protection  of  the  citizen  by 


the  community.  It  does  not  imply  the 
right  to  vote  or  to  hold  office.  These 
privileges  may  be  and  often  are  withheld 
from  citizens,  while  granted  to  those  who 
are  not  citizens.  This  modern  use  of  the 
term  citizen  must  be  contrasted  with  the 
original  use,  which  prevailed  among  the 
Greeks,  and  which  is  thus  defined  by 
Aristotle:  A  citizen  is  one  who  has  the 
right  to  take  part  in  both  the  deliberative 
and  judicial  proceedings  of  the  community 
of  which  he  is  a  member.  Our  idea  of 
citizen  is  related  to  that  of  subject,  as 
that  term  was  used  in  England  when  this 
country  separated  itself  from  England; 
for  a  subject  meant  one  who  owes  allegiance 
to  the  king  and  demands  protection  from 
him.  The  country  with  us  takes  the  place 
of  the  king,  —  that  is  the  difference.  By 
the  original  constitution  of  the  United 
States  it  was  left  uncertain  whether  citi- 
zenship related  in  the  first  place  to  the 
state  and  only  secondarily  to  the  nation, 
or  vice  versa.  The  fourteenth  amendment, 
passed  by  Congress  in  1866,  approved  by 
the  requisite  number  of  states  and  pro- 
claimed law  in  1868,  decrees  that  all  per- 
sons born  or  naturalized  in  the  United 
States  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof, 
are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of 
the  state  wherein  they  reside.  This  made 
national  citizenship  fundamental,  and  de- 
clared that  state  citizenship  follows  from 
it.  Those  living  in  territories  and  the 
District  of  Columbia  are  not  citizens  of  any 
state,  though  they  may  be  citizens  of  the 
United  States. 

Citizenship  does  not  rest  on  descent, 
fundamentally,  but  on  the  fact  of  birth 
on  the  soil  of  the  United  States.  A  person 
born  of  alien  parents  on  the  soil  of  the 
United  States,  unless  he  reserves  allegiance 
to  the  country  of  his  parents,  is  a  citizen. 
Exceptions  are  Indians  not  taxed  and 
persons  born  in  the  Philippine  Islands 
until  they  shall  be  declared  a  territory 
(Supreme  Court  decision,  May  1901)  Citi- 
zenship is  extended  to  those  born  abroad 
of  a  father  who  is  a  citizen,  and  to  an  alien 
woman  married  to  a  citizen  (Acts  of  Con- 
gress, April,  1802,  and  Feb.,  1855).  The 
third  extension  of  citizenship  is  to  natu- 
ralized persons.  To  be  naturalized  the  alien 
must  have  declared  his  intention  to  be- 
come a  bona  fide  citizen  at  least  two  years 
before  admission,  must  have  resided 
in  this  country  five  years,  and  must  swear 
that  he  does  not  believe  in  polygamy  or 
disbelieve  in  organized  government.  He 
must  speak  English.  An  alien  landing 
before  he  is  18  may  be  naturalized  at  23 
without  a  previous  declaration  of  inten- 
tion. The  fourth  extension  is  to  one  whose 
father  is  an  alien,  and  who  himself  was 
born  abroad,  but  who  is  under  21  and 
resides  in  this  country  when  his  father 
is  naturalized. 


CITRON 


402 


CIVIL  SERVICE 


Citizenship  does  not  give  the  right  of 
suffrage,  and  suffrage  may  be  conferred 
without  citizenship.  Female  citizens  in  most 
and  illiterate  or  propertyless  citizens  are 
in  some  states  deprived  of  a  vote;  while 
on  the  other  hand  many  states  extend 
the  right  to  vote  to  those  who  have  not 
yet  become  citizens,  but  have  declared  their 
intention  to  do  so.  The  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  amendments  do  not  require  that 
citizens  be  permitted  to  vote.  The  fourteenth 
amendment  declares  that  what  privileges 
and  immunities  citizens  possess  by  the 
laws  of  the  state  and  the  nation  shall 
not  be  abridged.  But  voting  is  not  such 
a.  privilege.  The  fifteenth  amendment  sim- 
ply declares  that,  whatever  limitation  the 
state  may  impose  in  the  matter  of  voting, 
it  shall  not  be  based  on  "race,  color  or 
previous  condition  of  servitude." 

In  ancient  states  the  right  to  trade  and 
to  the  protection  of  the  laws  rested  upon 
citizenship.  But  this  rule  does  not  pre- 
vail in  modern  civilized  states.  Citizen- 
ship also  means  membership  in  a  city,  and 
then  largely  refers  to  the  rights  that  follow 
from  the  fact  of  being  taxed.  The  member 
of  any  republic,  as  that  of  France,  is  called 
a  citizen.  A  British  subject  also  styles 
himself  a  British  citizen,  because  of  the 
democratic  basis  of  his  government. 

Cit'ron,  the  fruit  of  a  species  of  Citrus 
(C.  medico),  a  genus  of  the  rue  family,  to 
which  belong  also  the  orange  and  lemon. 
The  citron  is  a  large  lemon-like  fruit  with 


CITRON 


a  thic1c  rind,  which  is  used  in  the  making 
of  preserves.  Citron  cultivation  in  the 
United  States  is  chiefly  developed  in  Florida 
and  California. 


Citrullus  (st-trul'tis).  A  genus  of  plants 
of  the  gourd  family,  which  includes  the 
watermelon  (C.  vulgaris ) .  The  three  species 
are  widely  distributed  in  Africa,  the  melon 
belonging  to  tropical  and  southern  Africa. 
One  of  the  species  (C.  colocynthis)  from  the 
Mediterranean  regior  yields  colocynth,  a 
drug  obtained  as  an  extract  from  the  fruit. 

Civil  Service  is  the  executive  branch  or 
department  of  government,  composed  of 
those  who  serve  the  state  or  crown  in  a  civil 
capacity,  as  opposed  to  those  employed 
in  the  military  and  naval  services.  In 
England  it  is  one  of  the  oldest  institutions 
of  the  country,  dating  from  the  earliest 
monarchical  times,  though  it  is  only  within 
the  past  century  that  the  English  civil 
service  has  assumed  its  present  vast  pro- 
portions. In  this  country,  as  in  all  enlight- 
ened states,  the  civil  service  branch  of  gov- 
ernment is  usually  separated  into  three  dis- 
tinct departments,  viz. :  the  legislative, 
judicial  and  executive  branches.  In  the 
United  States  the  divisions  of  the  execu- 
tive civil  service  are — the  departmental  ser- 
vice, the  customs  service,  the  postal  service, 
the  government-printing  service  and  the 
internal-revenue  service.  The  number  of 
positions  in  the  United  States  executive  civil 
service  is  now  close  ur>on  330,000,  of  which 
more  than  half  are  classi^ed  competitive 
positions,  and  all  employed  are  under  civil- 
service  rules,  prescribed  by  act  of  Congress 
in  1883.  That  act  authorised  the  president 
to  appoint  three  civ  1  service  commissioners 
to  regulate  and  improve  the  service,  to 
make  regulations  to  govern  the  examina- 
tions and  to  investigate  and  report  upon  all 
matters  touching  the  enforcement  and 
effect  of  the  rules  and  regulations.  The 
purpose  of  the  law  and  its  governing  rules 
is  to  establish,  in  the  parts  of  the  service 
within  their  provisions,  a  merit-system 
whereby  selections  for  appointments  shall 
be  made  upon  the  basis  of  demonstrated 
relative  fitness  without  regard  to  political 
or  other  considerations.  To  carry  out  this 
purpose  a  plan  of  competitive  examinations 
is  prescribed,  and,  when  vacancies  occur,  the 
appointee  is  drawn  from  the  eligibles  of  the 
highest  grade  on  the  appropriate  register; 
and  every  appointment  is  made  at  first  for 
a  probationary  period  of  six  months.  It 
has  to  be  added  that  there  ars  what  are 
known  as  preference  claimants,  viz.:  per- 
sons who  have  served  in  the  military  or 
naval  service  of  the  United  States,  and  were 
discharged  by  reason  of  disabilities  result- 
ing from  wounds  or  sickness  incurred  in  the 
line  of  duty.  Such  are  released  from  all 
maximum-age  limitations;  are  eligible  for 
appointment  at  a  grade  of  65,  while  all 
others  are  obliged  to  obtain  a  grade  of  70; 
and  are  certified  to  appointing  officers  be- 
fore all  others. 

Examinations  are  also  held  for  positions 
in  the  Philippines,  Porto  Rico  and  Hawaii 


CIVIL  WAR 


403 


CLAN 


and  for  the  Isthmian  Canal  service.  The 
chances  of  appointment  in  the  U.  S.  Civil 
Service  are  understood  to  be  good  for 
teachers,  matrons,  seamstresses  and  phy- 
sicians in  the  Indian  Service,  for  male 
stenographers  and  typewriters,  draughts- 
men, patent  examiners,  civil,  mechanical 
and  electrical  engineers  and  for  technical 
and  scientific  experts.  Rules  and  regu- 
lations governing  the  admission  of  persons 
into  the  civil  service  in  large  cities  and 
states,  such  as  New  York,  are  also  prepared 
and  acted  upon  through  municipal  civil 
service  commissioners. 

In  Great  Britain  the  departments  of  the 
civil  service  are  the  treasury,  the  exchequer 
and  audit  department,  the  foreign  office 
(including  the  diplomatic  service),  •  the 
India,  Colonial  and  Home  offices,  together 
with  the  three  revenue-departments  of  the 
postoffice,  inland  revenue  ,  and  customs. 
There  are  others,  including  the  spending 
departments,  the  war-office,  admiralty, 
board  of  trade,  board  of  works,  education 
office,  privy  council  office,  the  stationery 
office,  agriculture  and  fisheries,  charity 
commission,  ecclesiastical  and  church 
estates,  government  laboratories,  observa- 
tories and  record  office,  the  mint,  patent- 
office,  meteorological  office,  national  debt 
office,  the  local  government  board,  etc. 
These  are  grouped  under  two  grades — I 
and  II — and  appointments,  for  the  most 
part,  are  made  on  the  competitive  plan. 
See  Fish :  The  Civil  Service^  and  the  Pat- 
ronage and  Goodnow's  Principles  of  the 
Administrative  Law  of  the  United  States 
(1905)- 

Civil  War,  The.    See  UNITED  STATES. 

Cladophyll  (klad'o-ftl)  (in plants) ,  shoots 
or  branches  which  have  replaced  leaves  in 
their  work  and  resemble  them  in  form. 
The  so-called  leaves  of  the  ordinary  smilax 
of  the  greenhouses  are  cladophylls,  the  true 
leaves  occurring  beneath  them  in  the  form 
of  small  scales.  The  same  word  is  some- 
times written  phylloclad. 

Claiborne  (kid-born),  William,  an  early 
Virginia  colonist  and  secretary  of  state  for 
the  colony,  was  born  in  Westmoreland, 
England,  about  the  year  1589,  and  died  in 
Virginia  about  1676.  He  came  to  Virginia 
in  1621,  where  he  bought  large  estates,  and 
ten  years  later  established  a  trading-post 
on  Kent  Island,  Md.,  in  Chesapeake  Bay, 
some  seven  miles  from  where  Annapolis 
now  stands.  This  island  and  post  were 
subsequently  claimed  by  Governor  Leonard 
Calvert  to  belong  to  Maryland,  and  in  con- 
sequence a  long  dispute  ensued  between 
Calvert  and  Claiborne  in  respect  to  it. 
During  the  period  of  the  English  common- 
wealth Claiborne  took  the  parliamentary 
side  against  the  Calverts  of  Maryland,  and 
subdued  Virginia  in  the  name  of  the  pro- 
tector. Cromwell,  however,  did  not  en- 
dorse hii  actions,  but  restored  the  Calverts 


to  power,  and  after  the  restoration  of  the 
Stuarts  Claiborne  fell  in  favor  and  retired 
to  a  neglected  life  upon  his  colonial  estates. 
There  was  another  of  his  name,  WM. 
CHARLES  COLE  CLAIBORNE  (1775-1817), 
who  was  governor  of  the  territory  of  Missis- 
sippi from  1804  to  1812  and  governor  of 
Louisiana  (1812-16). 

Clam,  the  name  applied  to  the  fresh- 
water mussel  and  similar  animals  living  in 
salt  water.  They  have  bivalve  shells,  held 
closed  by  muscles  and  open  by  a  springy 
ligament  on  the  back  of  the  shell;  there- 
fore, the  shell  of  a  dead  clam  always  stands 
open.  They  creep  through  the  mud  and 
sand  of  the  bottom  by  means  of  a  fleshy 
foot.  A  current  of  water  is  drawn  through 
a  tube  and  is  strained  through  the  plate-like 
gills;  it  then  passes  into  a  chamber  in  the 
body  and  out  by  another  tube.  The  food 
consists  of  minute  animals  and  organic 
matter  in  the  water.  This  is  separated  by 
straining  the  water  through  the  gills,  and 
is  carried  to  the  mouth  by  the  movement 
of  small  hair-like  projections  or  cilia.  The 
shell  is  secreted  by  glands  in  the  mouth, 
which  covers  the  body,  and  is  enlarged  by 
rings  as  the  animal  grows. 

Clan  (meaning  children),  a  name  given 
to  men  banded  together  because  of  having 
a  common  ancestor  or  because  of  any  other 
tie;  but  the  word  almost  always  means  the 
divisions  of  the  Scottish  Highlanders.  The 
clan  was  made  up  of  men  dwelling  together 
or  having  a  common  surname.  The  affix 
Mac  (meaning  son)  was  a  common  one 
among  Scottish  Gaels :  the  Macdonalds  were 
the  sons  of  Donald.  The  members  of  a 
clan  were  usually  not  all  blood-kin;  men 
of  various  births  were  in  the  habit  of 
enlisting  under  chiefs  as  men  now  enlist, 
in  a  regiment,  often  taking  the  chief's 
name,  but  often  not.  The  clan  was  really 
a  military  band  for  self-defense  and  for 
pillage.  The  Scottish  law  required  all  clans 
to  have,  if  possible,  a  man  of  rank  and 
property  at  their  head,  who  could  be  held 
responsible  for  their  good  conduct.  Clans 
which  could  find  no  security  were  called 
broken  clans;  their  members  were  out- 
laws, and  might  be  hunted  down  like  wild 
beasts.  The  McGregors  were  a  noted  broken 
clan ;  their  name  was  proscribed,  and  clans- 
men who  wished  to  live  peaceably  in  the 
lowlands,  changed  it  slightly,  calling  them- 
selves Gregor,  Gregory,  Grierson,  etc.  In 
general  the  great  landowners  were  also 
mighty  chiefs;  men  from  broken  clans  were 
often  received  by  the  chief  into  the  clan 
by  bonds  of  man-rent,  under  which  they 
engaged  to  follow  their  captain  in  all  his 
feuds  and  quarrels,  this  being  a  form  of 
the  feudal  system.  But  often  the  landlord 
was  not  the  chief,  and  against  his  will  the 
people  of  a  clan  usually  followed  their 
chieftain.  The  clan's  name  was  kept  up, 
as  a  reminder  of  past  times,  long  after  the 


CLARENDON 


404 


CLARK 


tribal  system  had  died  out.  The  Scottish 
rebellions  of  1715  and  1745  induced  the 
British  government  to  suppress  or  break 
up  the  connection  that  existed  between  the 
clansmen  and  their  tribal  or  family  chiefs. 

Clar'endon,  Edward  Hyde,  Earl  of, 
historian  and  statesman,  was  born  Feb. 
1 8,  1608,  at  Dinton,  England.  When 
young,  he  had  such  gay  companions  as  Ben 
Jonson  and  his  lifelong  friend,  Falkland, 
and,  as  he  himself  said:  "He  never  thought 
himself  so  good  a  man  as  when  he  was 
the  worst  in  the  company."  As  a  member 
of  the  short  and  long  parliaments  he  sided 
against  the  king,  Charles  I,  but  in  1641 
drew  back  and  thenceforth  supported 
Charles,  composing  his  answer  to  the  Grand 
Remonstrance  and  advising  him  in  the 
troublous  times  which  followed. 

Under  Charles  II  he  was  high  chancellor. 
His  efforts  were  directed  to  the  restoring 
of  the  kingdom  to  the  condition  of  things 
which  existed  20  years  earlier.  He  looked 
with  equal  sourness  on  Charles'  vices  and 
religious  toleration,  displeased  Cavalier  and 
Puritan  alike,  and  was  blamed  for  the  sale 
of  the  fortress  of  Dunkirk  to  France  and 
even  with  the  Great  Fire  and  the  Great 
Plague.  Impeached  for  high  treason,  in 
1667,  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life 
in  exile.  His  History  of  the  Rebellion  in 
England  is  an  apology  for  the  course  of 
himself  and  Charles  I,  rather  than  a  fair 
and  impartial  history.  He  died  in  France 
in  1674. 

Clarendon,  George  William  Frederick 
Villiers,  Earl  of,  an  English  diplomatist, 
was  born  in  London,  Jan.  12,  1800.  He 
was  a  man  of  genius  and  charming  man- 
ners, of  rare  tact  and  perfect  temper, 
qualities  which  insured  his  success  in  the 
diplomatic  service,  in  which  he  became  dis- 
tinguished. As  ambassador  to  Spain,  in 
1833,  he  used  the  large  influence  which  he 
soon  gained  in  helping  Espartero  to  establish 
the  government  of  Spain  on  a  constitutional 
basis.  In  1847  he  became  lord -lieutenant 
of  Ireland,  where  he  had  a  rebellion  and  a 
famine  to  contend  with.  In  1853  he  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  foreign  office, 
and  upon  him  fell  the  responsibility  of  the 
Crimean  War  and  at  its  close  the  negotia- 
tions in  regard  to  the  balance  of  power 
in  Europe.  He  died  on  June  27,  1870. 

Clarinet  (kldr-V -net)  or  Clarionet,  a 
wind-instrument,  usually  of  wood,  in  which 
the  sound  is  made  by  a  single  thin  reed. 
It  was  probably  invented  by  Joseph  Denner, 
of  Nuremberg,  in  1690;  but  it  has  since 
then  been  much  changed  and  improved,  so 
that  it  now  is  one  of  the  best  of  wind- 
instruments.  The  tube  is  round,  and  en- 
larged at  the  end  in  the  form  of  a  bell. 
It  has  holes  to  be  covered  by  the  fingers 
and  left  thumb,  and  keys,  usually  13,  to 
give  the  extra  tones.  The  mouthpiece  is 
flattened  on  one  side,  along  which  the  reed 


is  laid,  leaving  a  slight  opening  so  that 
when  blown  the  reed  vibrates  against  the 
mouthpiece  and  thus  causes  the  sound. 
The  clarinet  has  a  much  greater  compass 
than  the  flute.  It  is  used  in  orchestras  and 
is  the  leading  instrument  in  military  bands. 

Clark,  Alvan,  American  optician,  en- 
graver and  manufacturer  of  telescopes,  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  was  born  at  Ashfield, 
Mass.,  March  8,  1808,  and  died  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  Aug.  19,  1887.  Early  in 
life  he  was  a  portrait-painter;  but  in  1845 
he  turned  his  attention  to  the  making  of 
achromatic  lenses  and  manufacture  of  tele- 
scopes. Associated  wtih  his  sons,  he  con- 
structed object-glasses  for  universities,  for 
the  Naval  observatory  at  Washington  and 
for  the  Lick  observatory  in  California.  He 
also  had  orders  for  his  firm  from  Russia, 
from  the  Imperial  observatory  at  Pulkowa. 
After  his  death,  in  1887,  his  two  sons  pur- 
sued their  father's  vocation,  manufactur- 
ing optical  instruments,  making  improve- 
ments in  telescopes,  designing  models,  etc. 
One  instrument,  a  40-inch  telescope,  they 
constructed  at  a  cost  of  half  a  million  dollars 
for  the  Yerkes  observatory  at  Lake  Geneva, 
Wisconsin.  One  of  the  sons,  Alvan  Graham 
Clark  (1832-97),  was  also  an  astronomer 
of  note. 

Clark,  Francis  E.,  the  founder  and 
president  of  the  United  Society  of  Christian 
Endeavor,  was  born  in  1851  at  Aylmer, 
Canada.  He  studied  at  Dartmouth  College 
and  at  Andover,  Mass.,  and  was  pastor  in 
Maine  and  South  Boston.  He  is  the  author 
of  many  books,  and  editor  of  the  Christian 
World.  The  United  Society  of  Christian 
Endeavor  grew  out  of  a  small  Young  Peo- 
ple's Society  of  Christian  Endeavor  which 
he  founded  at  Williston  Church,  Portland, 
Maine,  February  2,  1881. 

Clark,  George  Rogers.  This  great 
pioneer  and  soldier  was  born  at  Monticello, 
Va.,  in  1752.  Previous  to  the  Revolutionary 
War  he  had  gained  experience  as  a  land- 
surveyor  and  also  as  an  Indian-fighter. 
At  the  opening  of  the  war  he  moved  to 
Kentucky,  and  was  returned  as  a  member 
of  the  first  legislature  of  Virginia,  Kentucky 
being  then  part  of  that  state.  In  1778  he 
organized  and  commanded  the  campaign 
to  conquer  what  was  known  as  the  Illinois 
country,  the  woods  and  prairies  arcvind 
the  great  Illinois  River.  He  drove  the 
French  as  well  as  English  settlers  from  the 
country  or  compelled  them  to  submit  to 
the  authority  of  the  Continental  Congress. 
He  captured  and,  later,  recaptured  the 
fort  of  Kaskaskia,  taking  man}'-  British 
troops  prisoners.  At  the  end  of  the  war 
he  still  was  in  possession  of  this  vast  terri- 
tory. And  this  fact  was  probably  the  chief 
argument  that  led  the  English  and  French 
to  extend  the  domain  of  the  newly-formed 
nation  up  to  and  beyond  the  Mississippi. 
But  for  Clark  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the 


CLARK 


405 


CLAUDIUS 


Northwest  Territory  would  have  been 
handed  over  to  England  or  Spain  in  the 
treaty  of  1783.  The  legislature  of  Virginia 
created  Clark  a  brigadier-general,  and  gave 
him  8,049  acres  of  land  in  what  is  now 
the  state  of  Indiana,  not  far  from  Louis- 
ville. Twice  he  was  presented  with  a  sword. 
But  after  the  war  his  energy  led  him  astray. 
He  led  an  unsuccessful  campaign  against 
the  Wabash  Indians,  and  tried  to  organize 
an  expedition  to  open  the  Mississippi  River 
to  navigation  against  the  authority  of  the 
Spanish,  with  whom  we  were  at  peace. 
He  spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  in  pov- 
erty on  the  land  that  Virginia  had  granted 
him.  He  died  in  1818.  Clark  Street, 
Chicago,  is  named  in  his  honor. 

Clark,  Sir  William 
Mortimer,  was  born 
and  educated  in  Ab- 
erdeen, Scotland,  and 
studied  law  at  Edin- 
burgh University,  be- 
coming a  writer  to 
the  Signet.  He  re- 
moved to  Canada  at 
the  age  of  23.  Ap- 
pointed lieutenant- 
governor  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Ontario,  he 
now  holds  this  posi- 

SIR  MORTIMER  CLARK    tion. 

Clark,  William  Robinson,  M.A.,  D.D., 
LL.D.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  of  Canada,  has  been 
professor  of  philosophy  in  Trinity  College, 
Toronto,  since  1882.  He  was  born  in 
Inverurie,  Scotland,  March  26,  1829,  the 
son  of  a  clergyman.  He  was  educated 
at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  and  Hertford 
College,  Oxford,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
priesthood  of  the  church  of  England  in  1858, 
becoming  prebendary  of  Wells  in  1870. 
He  was  Baldwin  lecturer  in  the  University 
of  Michigan  in  1887  and  Slocum  lecturer 
in  1899  In  addition  to  several  important 
works  of  a  religious  nature,  including  the 
lectures  mentioned,  he  has  edited  and 
translated  Hagenbach's  History  of  Christian 
Doctrine  and  Haefele's  History  oj  the  Coun- 
cils. 

Clark  University  was  founded  by  Jonas 

C.  Clark  in  1887,  in  the  city  of  Worcester, 
Mass.,    for   the    purpose    of   promoting   re- 
search by  post-graduate  students  in  scien- 
tific rather  than  in  philosophical  or  literary 
subjects.     An    undergraduate    department, 
was  added  (1902),  of  which  the  late  Carroll 

D.  Wright,     the     well-known     statistician, 
was    made    president.        In    the    university 
proper,  courses  are  now  offered  in  mathe- 
matics,   physics,    chemistry,    biology,    an- 
thropology,    psychology,     education,     eco- 
nomics and  sociology,  history  and  modern 
languages.     The    president    is    G.    Stanley 
Hall,  the  psychologist,  father  of  child-study 
in  America,  and  it  is  in  the  department  of 
psychology   and   education   that   the   uni- 


versity has  secured  the  most  notable  re- 
sults. The  university  is  unique  in  offering 
a  "degree  of  decent,"  certifying  to  fitness, 
both  in  scholarship  and  teaching  ability, 
for  an  academic  chair  or  college  professor- 
ship. There  are  31  fellowships,  worth 
from  $200  to  $600  a  year.  There  are 
exceptional  facilities  to  get  in  touch  with 
the  latest  literature  upon  the  subjects 
above  mentioned.  The  library  contains 
about  40,000  volumes,  and  receives  over 
200  journals,  mostly  technical  in  character. 

Clarke,  James  Freeman,  an  American 
clergyman,  was  born  at  Hanover,  N.  H., 
April  4,  1 8 10.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  and  Cambridge  Divinity  School, 
becoming  pastor  of  a  Unitarian  church 
at  Louisville,  Ky.,  and  afterward  of  the 
Church  of  the  Disciples  in  Boston.  Dr. 
Clarke  became  widely  known  as  a  religious 
writer.  His  best  known  books  are  Ten 
Great  Religions  and  Orthodoxy,  Its  Truths 
and  Errors.  He  died  June  8,  1888. 

Clark,  Capt.  Wm.  See  LEWIS  AND  CLARK 
EXPLORATION. 

Clarks'ville,  Tenn.,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Montgomery  County,  is  located  on 
the  Cumberland  River,  about  40  miles  from 
Nashville.  The  surrounding  country  is  a 
tobacco-growing  region,  and  the  city  has 
tobacco  and  snuff-factories  and  lumber  and 
flour-mills.  The  Southwestern  Presbyterian 
University  is  located  at  Clarksville,  and  the 
city  is  served  by  the  Louisville  and  Nashville 
and  Tennessee  Central  Railroads.  Popula- 
tion, 8,548. 

Claude  Lorrain  (klod-lor-rdn')  (real 
name  Claude  Gel£e),  landscape  painter, 
was  born  at  Champagne  in  1600.  When  a 
boy,  he  was  carried  to  Rome  by  a  relative 
who  deserted  him.  But  he  soon  obtained 
a  place  as  servant  to  a  painter,  learning  to 
paint  as  he  ground  his  master's  colors. 
After  wandering  about  Europe,  he  painted 
for  ten  years  at  Rome  before  his  pictures 
were  sought  after;  but  four  landscapes 

Eainted  by  him  for  the  pope  gave  him  the 
ime  he  had  been  working  for.  He  painted 
about  400  landscapes.  Among  the  best  are 
the  series,  Mormng,  Noon,  Evening  and 
Twilight.  Claude  himself  liked  best  his 
Villa  Madama,  keeping  it  in  his  study 
and  refusing  to  sell  it,  even  when  the  pope 
offered  for  it  as  much  gold  as  would  cover 
the  canvas.  He  also  produced  etchings, 
of  which  Le  Bouvier  is  the  finest.  Claude's 
pictures  brought  such  high  prices,  even 
during  his  lifetime,  that  many  copies  and 
imitations  have  been  sold  as  his.  He 
died  at  Rome  in  November,  1682. 

Claudius,  Roman  emperor,  a  nephew  of 
Emperor  Tiberius,  was  born  at  Lyons,  in 
Gaul,  in  the  year  10  B.  C.  A  sickly  boy,  he 
was  neglected  and  left  pretty  much  to 
himself,  growing  up  a  timid  student.  When 
Caligula  was  murdered,  he  hid  himself  in 
a  corner  of  the  palace,  fearing  that  he 


CLAUSIUS 


406 


CLAY 


would  be  the  next  victim.  A  common 
soldier,  finding  him,  saluted  him  as  Emperor; 
others  entered  and  bore  him  to  the  camp, 
where  he  was  crowned,  41  A.  D.  In  his 
reign  the  southern  part  of  Britain  was 
conquered  and  Mauritania  made  a  Roman 
province.  At  home  his  rule  was  mild 
in  the  main,  but  he  was  influenced  by  his 
wives — he  married  four  times — to  commit 
some  cruel  acts.  Two  of  his  wives,  Messa- 
lina  and  Agrippina,  were  among  the  worst 
Roman  women  of  whom  we  know;  and 
it  was  Agrippina  who  poisoned  him  in 
54  A.  D.  to  secure  the  throne  for  her  son, 
Nero.  Claudius  built  the  famous  Claud ian 
aqueduct,  and  spent  large  sums  in  other 
improvements  at  Rome. 

Clausius  (klou'ze-us),  Rudolf  Julius  E., 
a  distinguished  German  physicist,  born  at 
Koslin,  in  Pomerania,  Jan.  2,  1822;  died 
at  Bonn,  Aug.  24,  1888.  He  was  educated 
at  Berlin  University,  where  he  later  became 
privat-docent  and  still  later  an  instructor 
in  the  school  of  artillery.  In  1855  he  went 
to  Zurich  as  professor  of  physics  in  the 
Polytechnic  school;  two  years  later  he 
accepted  the  chair  of  physics  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Zurich.  From  1869  until  his  death 
he  was  professor  of  physics  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Bonn. 

His  best  work  was  done  at  Berlin,  for  it 
was  here,  between  1845  and  I8so,  that  he 
placed  the  science  of  thermodynamics  upon 
a  sound  basis,  building  the  entire  structure 
upon  the  then  recently  discovered  prin- 
ciple of  the  conservation  of  energy.  In 
addition  to  this,  his  most  important  con- 
tributions are  perhaps  to  the  kinetic  theory 
of  gases  and  to  the  subject  of  radiant  heat. 

Clay  is  a  term  rather  loosely  applied  to 
all  sorts  of  earthy  matter,  which,  when  wet, 
becomes  sticky  or  plastic.  In  this  respect, 
clay  is  in  contrast  with  sand.  The  sticki- 
ness depends  in  part  on  the  size  of  the 
individual  particles.  The  smaller  they  are, 
the  more  tenacious  the  clay.  Clay  origi- 
nates from  the  decomposition  of  certain 
sorts  of  rock,  especially  those  containing 
feldspar.  In  the  popular  use  of  the  term 
no  account  is  taken  of  the  composition  of 
clay,  but  silicate  of  alumina  is  a  common 
constituent.  Common  clays  also  contain 
free  silica,  iron  oxide,  etc.  When  beds  of 
clay  are  solidified  by  natural  means,  they 
constitute  the  rock  known  as  shale.  Flag- 
stones are  a  variety  of  shale,  and  slate  is 
a  variety  of  rock  formed  from  shale  by 
great  compression.  Clay  is  widely  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  brick,  tile,  pottery, 
etc.  and  in  modeling.  For  the  finer  wares, 
such  as  china  and  porcelain,  especially 
fine  grades  of  clay  (kaolin)  are  required. 
The  value  of  the  products  manufactured 
from  clay  in  the  United  States  in  1898 
exceeded  $71,000,000.  The  leading  states 
in  the  utilization  of  clay,  in  the  order  of 
their  importance,  are  Ohio.  Pennsylvania, 


New  Jersey,  Illinois  and  New  York.  The 
value  of  the  clay-products  of  these  five  states 
in  1898  was  considerably  more  than  half 
the  total  value  of  clay-products  in  the 
United  States. 

Clay,  Cassius  Marcellus,  American 
statesman,  abolitionist  and  United  States 
minister  to  Russia,  was  born  in  Madison 
County,  Ky.,  Oct.  19,  1810,  and  graduated 
from  Yale  in  1832.  For  a  time  he  practiced 
law  in  Lexington,  Ky.,  became  a  member 
of  the  state  legislature  and  was  an  active 
antislavery  man  and  the  editor  of  The 
True  American,  which  brought  him  into 
collision  for  a  time  with  the  proslavery 
men  of  his  state.  He  served  in  the  Mexican 
War  of  1846—47  and  was  taken  prisoner. 
He  afterward  took  part  in  the  elections 
of  Presidents  Taylor  and  Lincoln,  and 
in  1 86 1  was  appointed  United  States  min- 
ister to  Russia,  in  which  capacity  he  served 
from  1863  to  1869.  He  died  Nov.  28,  1913- 
See  the  Memoir's,  Writings  and  Speeches 
of  Cassius  M.  Clay. 

Clay,  Henry,  a  noted  American  states- 
man and  orator,  was  born  in  Hanover 
County,  Virginia,  April 
12,  1777.  His  father 
died  when  he  was  five 
years  old,  but  his 
mother,  a  woman  of 
great  goodness  and 
force  of  character,  well 
supplied  his  place  in 
the  boy's  training.  Af- 
ter a  meager  amount  of 
schooling,  Henry  en- 

HENRY    CLAY  tefed     &    Richmond 

law-office.  Commenc- 
ing to  practice  at  Lexington,  Kentucky, 
he  soon  became  known  as  an  able  lawyer, 
his  high  personal  gifts,  winning  address 
and  frank,  hearty  manner  helping  him 
here,  as  they  did  all  through  life.  From 
the  first  he  took  an  interest  in  public  affairs, 
and  after  two  years  in  the  state  legislature, 
was  chosen  United  States  senator  to  fill 
a  vacancy.  He  at  once  became  an  advocate 
of  the  government's  building  roads,  canals, 
etc.,  being  known  as  a  loose  constructionist 
of  the  constitution,  as  it  is  called.  His 
short  term  over,  he  went  back  to  the  Ken- 
tucky legislature.  This  was  in  the  days 
of  duels,  and  it  is  not  strange  that  Clay 
should  have  fought  two,  one  at  this  time 
in  Kentucky  and,  later,  one  with  John 
Randolph  of  Virginia,  both  growing  out 
of  politics.  In  1809  he  was  chosen  to 
fill  a  second  vacancy  in  the  senate.  In 
this  session  he  spoke  in  favor  of  protection 
to  American  manufactures  against  foreign 
traders.  He  also  opposed  the  United 
States  Bank,  but  later  he  changed  his  views 
in  the  matter,  the  only  instance  in  which 
he  ever  changed  his  attitude  on  a  political 
question.  In  1 8 1 1  he  was  elected  a  repre- 
sentative in  Congress,  and  the  day  on  which 


CLAYTON-BULWER  TREATY 


407 


CLEMATIS 


he  took  his  seat  was  chosen  speaker.  He 
was  heartily  in  favor  of  war  with  England, 
and  named  his  committees  with  a  view  to 
an  early  declaration  of  war.  The  war 
party  was  in  a  majority  in  the  i3th  Congress, 
which  met  in  May,  1813,  and  again  Clay 
was  made  speaker.  When  overtures  of 
peace  were  made  by  the  British,  Clay  was 
appointed  one  of  the  commissioners,  and 
helped  to  draft  the  treaty  of  Ghent.  Re- 
elected  to  Congress  while  in  Europe  on  this 
mission,  he  was  chosen  speaker  for  the  third 
time,  and,  except  one  term,  when  he  de- 
clined an  election,  he  was  a  representative 
and  speaker  until  1825.  At  this  session 
he  made  some  of  his  finest  speeches,  in 
favor  of  the  South  American  patriots  who 
were  struggling  for  independence  from  Spain ; 
later  on  he  was  just  as  eager  in  behalf  of 
Greece,  when  fighting  to  free  herself  from 
the  yoke  of  Turkey.  In  1821  he  brought 
forward  the  famous  Missouri  Compromise; 
20  years  afterward,  when  South  Carolina 
wished  to  secede  on  the  tariff  question, 
he  proposed  a  gradual  lowering  of  the 
tariff,  such  as  would  work  the  least  harm 
to  manufactures;  and  in  1850  he  attempted, 
by  compromise,  to  settle  the  slavery  ques- 
tion, which  his  Missouri  Compromise  had 
failed  to  dispose  of,  and  in  other  ways 
he  stood  between  the  warring  factions  of 
north  and  south,  to  bring  about  concessions 
that  would,  in  a  measure,  satisfy  both 
sides,  thus  winning  the  title  of  the  Great 
Pacificator. 

In  1824  Mr.  Clay  was  one  of  the  four 
candidates  for  president,  and  received  37 
electoral  votes.  In  1832  he  ran  for  presi- 
dent again;  but  was  beaten  by  Jackson. 
He  was  nominated  again  by  the  Whigs  in 
1844,  but  beaten  by  Polk,  who  received 
65  more  electoral  votes.  Clay  served  as 
secretary  of  state  in  John  Quincy  Adams' 
cabinet,  and,  besides  filling  the  two  vacancies 
in  the  senate  referred  to,  was  chosen  senator 
from  Kentucky  for  three  full  terms.  One 
of  those  who  opposed  him  politically  is 
on  record  as  saying  that  as  a  congressional 
leader  Mr.  Clay  had  no  equal  in  America. 
He  was  the  most  persuasive  speaker  in 
the  country  during  what  was  called  the 
golden  age  of  American  oratory.  He  was, 
further,  most  popular  with  his  party,  while 
few  men  had  a  larger  following  of  personal 
friends.  He  died  at  Washington,  D.  C., 
on  June  29,  1852. 

Clayton=Bulwer  Treaty,  a  treaty  con- 
cluded in  1850  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  by  which  the  contracting 
parties  agreed  that  neither  power  should 
obtain  or  exercise  exclusive  control  over  a 
ship-canal  then  contemplated  to  be  con- 
structed across  Central  America  and  con- 
necting the  Atlantic  with  the  Pacific.  The 
negotiators  were,  on  the  part  of  Britain, 
Sir  Henry  Bulwer  Lytton  (afterward  Lord 
Dalling),  brother  of  the  novelist;  and,  on 


the  part  of  the  United  States,  J.  Middleton 
Clayton,  secretary  of  state  under  President 
Taylor.  The  treaty,  about  1880  and  1900, 
once  more  came  under  public  discussion, 
in  consequence  of  efforts  being  made  to 
proceed  actively  in  the  construction  of  the 
Nicaragua  Inter-Oceanic  Canal,  which  many 
of  our  senators  and  public  men  desired  to 
place,  untrammeled,  under  the  control  of 
the  United  States.  A  new  agreement  was 
reached  in  1901  through  the  adoption  of 
the  Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty.  This  treaty 
omitted  the  restrictions  against  fortifica- 
tion, and  this  has  been  interpreted  by  the 
United  States  as  giving  her  the  right  to 
fortify.  Without  such  a  right,  the  defenders 
of  this  interpretation  point  out,  her  coasts 
would  be  far  more  open  to  attack  with  the 
canal  than  without  it.  Her  objections  to 
defending  the  canal  by  agreement  among 
the  Powers  are  that  such  treaties  are  often 
observed  only  so  long  as  it  is  to  the  interest 
of  the  parties  to  observe  them;  furthermore, 
that  under  such  an  arrangement  the  canal 
would  be  as  open  to  the  fleet  of  an  enemy  as 
to  her  own.  Under  her  treaty  with  Panama 
the  United  States  binds  herself  to  maintain 
the  neutrality  of  the  canal,  the  independence 
of  the  republic  of  Panama  and  that  the  canal 
shall  be  open  to  all  nations  on  uniform 
terms. 

Clearing=House.     See  BANKS 

Cleary,  The  Most  Reverend  James 
Vincent,  Archbishop  of  Kingston,  was 
born  at  Waterford,  Ireland,  1828,  and 
studied  theology  at  Rome,  Maynooth  (Ire- 
land) and  Salamanca,  Spain.  In  1854 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology 
in  St.  John's  College,  Waterford,  becoming 
president  in  1873.  He  was  appointed  bishop 
of  Kingston  (Ontario)  in  1880  and  arch- 
bishop in  1889.  He  reopened  Regiopolis 
College  (theological)  at  Kingston  in  1896, 
giving  a  large  private  contribution  for  the 
purpose. 

Cleburne,  Texas,  the  county-seat  of 
Johnson  County,  is  located  in  a  good  agri- 
cultural region.  Its  leading  industries  are 
cotton-gins,  flour-mills  and  machine-shops. 
The  division-offices  and  shops  of  the  Gulf, 
C.  &  S.  F.  R.  R.  are  located  here.  Cle- 
burne has  good  schools,  and  is  a  growing, 
progressive  city.  Population,  16,505. 

Cleistogamous  (klis-tog'd-mtis)  Flower? 
In  many  flowering  plants,  in  addition  to  thw 
ordinary  conspicuous  flowers,  there  are 
other  flowers  which  are  very  small  and 
inconspicuous,  and  even  concealed.  The 
common  violet  is  a  prominent  illustration 
of  such  a  plant.  Cleistogamous  flowers 
are  now  known  in  very  many  genera 
Such  flowers  never  open,  are  self-pollinated, 
and  are  very  productive  of  good  seed. 

Clem'atis.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the 
crow-foot  family,  consisting  of  climbing 
vines  or  erect  herbs,  all  more  or  less  woody. 
About  150  species  are  recognized-  which 


CLEMENCEAU 


408 


CLEOPATRA 


are  widely  distributed,  about  20  of  them 
being  native  to  North  America.  Many 
of  the  climbing  species  are  cultivated  to 
cover  walls,  arbors,  etc.  The  flowers  are 
often  very  showy  and  of  numerous  shades. 
Cle'menceau  (kid!  man'  so'},  George  B.  E., 
a  French  statesman  and  senator  and  premier 
of  France  and  minister  of  the  interior, 
under  the  presidency  of  Armand  Fallieres. 
A  clever  debater  and  born  orator,  as  well 
as  an  able  journalist  in  his  day,  M.  Cle"- 
menceau  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
figures  in  modern  politics.  A  native  of 
Brittany  (he  was  born  in  1841  in  the  depart- 
ment of  La  Vendee),  he  early  studied  and 
for  a  time  practised  medicine  in  Mont- 
martre,  and  then  travelled  abroad,  paying 
a  brief  visit  the  while  to  the  United  States. 
In  1869  he  returned  to  France,  and  two 
years  later  was  elected  to  the  National 
Assembly,  later  on  becoming  a  member 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  leader  of 
the  Extreme  Left.  Though  holding  radical 
views,  he  has  usually  acted  with  modera- 
tion and  good  sense,  though  he  was  com- 

?elled  successively  to  oppose  Gambetta, 
ules  Ferry  and  the  Boulangists.  For  a 
number  of  years  he  devoted  himself  to 
journalism,  editing  for  a  time  not  only 
his  radical  journal,  La  Justice,  but  con- 
tributing many  notable  articles  to  L'Aurore, 
among  them  several  defending  Dreyfus, 
besides  writing  fiction  and  social  studies 
and  taking  active  part  in  politics  and  the 
questions  of  the  day.  Chief  among  the 
controversies  of  the  time  is  the  part  played 
by  M.  Cle'menceau  in  defining  the  relation 
of  Radicals  to  Socialists,  in  reply  to  M. 
Jaures,  the  Socialist  leader.  Among  his 
published  works  are  Les  Massacres  d' 
Armenie  (1896),  Les  Phis  Forts  (1898) 
and  La  Mele  Sociale  (1895). 

Clemens  (klem'enz),  Samuel  Langhorne 
(MARK  TWAIN),  was  born  at  Florida,  Mo., 
Nov.  30,  1835.  He  was  first  a  printer,  and 
afterward  a  pilot 
on  the  Mississippi 
River.  One  of  the 
commonest  sounds 
heard  on  a  Mis- 
sissippi steamboat 
in  shallow  water 
is  the  call  of  the 
man  sounding  the 
depth  of  the  water 
—  "Mark  Twain," 
meaning  mark  two 
fathoms  ;  and 
when 
wanted 
donym, 
««««.  L.  C.BMEHS  jhj., 

some  time  in  the  silver  mines  of  Nevada, 
ne  became  a  journalist  in  San  Francisco. 
He  became  widely  known  as  a  humorist 
through  his  first  book,  Innocents  Abroad 


Clemens 
a  pseu- 
he took 


which  he  brought  out  in  1869.  Tom  Saw- 
yer, perhaps  his  most  popular  work,  was 
published  in  1876.  Other  of  his  works  are 
A  Tramp  Abroad  (1880);  The  Prince  and 
the  Pauper  (1882);  Life  on  the  Mississippi 
(1883);  Huckelberry  Finn  (1885);  Pudd'n- 
head  Wilson  (1895);  Tom  Sawyer  Abroad 
(1894);  Personal  Recollections  of  Joan  of 
Arc  (1896);  Following  the  Equator  (1897); 
The  Man  that  Corrupted  Hadleyburg  (1900); 
Christian  Science  (1903);  How  to  Tell  a 
Story  (1904) ;  and  Editorial  Wild  Oats  (1905). 

Through  the  failure,  in  1894,  of  the  pub- 
lishing house  of  Charles  L.  Webster  &  Co., 
of  which  he  was  the  founder,  Mr.  Clemens 
was  left  deeply  in  debt.  To  retrieve  his 
fortune  he  entered  upon  a  lecturing  tour, 
which  extended  around  the  world  and 
furnished  material  for  Following  the 
Equator.  On  the  completion  of  this 
tour  he  resided  for  a  time  in  Vienna.  He 
returned  to  America  in  1900,  and  actively 
resumed  literary  work.  In  1907  he  visited 
England,  where  he  was  most  heartily  re- 
ceived, and  was  honored  with  the  degree 
of  D.C.L.  from  the  University  of  Oxford. 
Mark  Twain's  humor  is  simple  and  direct, 
never  strained,  and  has  been  described 
as  "a  sort  of  good-natured  satire  in  which 
the  reader  may  see  his  own  absurdities 
reflected."  He  died  Aoril  21,  IQTO. 

Clement  (klem'enf) ,  the  name  of  1 7  popes. 

Clement  XIV  was  born  in  1705,  near 
Rimini,  Italy.  He  studied  and  taught  phi- 
losophy and  theology,  was  a  friend  of 
Benedict  XIV,  became  cardinal  under  Clem- 
ent XIII,  and  was  elevated  to  the  papal 
chair  on  May  19,  1769.  In  1773  he  issued 
his  famous  brief,  suppressing  the  Society 
of  the  Jesuits.  He  was  remarkable  for 
his  high  character  and  learning  as  well 
as  for  his  liberal  ideas.  He  died  on  Sept. 
22,  1774. 

Clement!  (kid-men' te) ,  Muzio  (1752- 
1832^,  an  Italian  composer  and  pianist. 
The  work  by  which  he  is  best  known  is 
his  Gradus  ad  Parnassum,  a  series  of  100 
piano-studies.  Though  his  contemporary, 
Mozart,  spoke  of  him  with  a  sneer,  he  was 
highly  esteemed  by  Beethoven  for  the 
virile  and  artistic  traits  developed  in  his 
sonatas. 

Cleopatra  (kle'd-pa'tra),  daughter  of  the 
Egyptian  king  Ptolemy  Auletes,  was  born 
in  69  B.  C.  Her  father  wished  her  to  reign 
jointly  with  her  brother,  who  was  also, 
according  to  the  Egyptian  custom,  to  be 
her  husband;  but  the  boy's  guardian  drove 
her  from  the  throne.  She  was  just  about 
to  return  from  Syria,  backed  by  an  army, 
when  Caesar  reached  Egypt  in  pursuit  of 
Pompey.  Her  charms  won  the  great  soldier 
to  her  cause,  who  placed  her  again  on  her 
throne,  this  time  with  a  still  younger  brother 
as  colleague  and  husband,  of  whom  she 
quickly  rid  herself  by  poison.  Soon  after 
she  followed  her  conquering  lover  to  Rome 


CLEOPATRA'S  NEEDLE 


409 


CLEVELAND 


where  she  was  covered  with  honors.  After 
the  battle  of  Philippi,  Mark  Antony  sum- 
moned her  to  appear  before  him  at  Tarsus. 
The  Egyptian  queen  sailed  up  the  River 
Cydnus  to  meet  him,  in  a  sumptuous  gal- 
ley, arrayed  as  Venus  rising  from  the  sea. 
Then  under  30  years  of  age,  in  the  per- 
fection of  her  Grecian  beauty,  she  fascinated 
the  heart  of  Antony,  who  henceforth  be- 
came her  lover  and  slave.  Leaving  her  to 
marry  Octavia,  sister  of  Octavianus  (after- 
ward Emperor  Augustus),  he  hurried  back 
to  the  arms  of  Cleopatra,  who  met  him 
in  Syria  and  proceeded  with  him  on  the 
march  to  the  Euphrates.  After  this,  An- 
tony's time  was  spent  mostly  with  her  at 
Alexandria,  where  he  loaded  her  with  gifts 
and  honors.  It  was  Cleopatra's  counsel 
that  Antony  followed  in  risking  the  naval 
battle  of  Actium;  and  when  she  fled  with 
her  60  ships,  he  forgot  everything  else, 
and  "flung  away  half  the  world  to  follow 
her."  When  Augustus  appeared  before 
Alexandria,  the  fickle  queen  at  once  treated 
with  him  for  her  safety;  while  Antony,  on 
being  told  that  she  had  killed  herself,  fell 
en  his  sword.  But  finding  the  report  was 
false,  he  had  himself  carried  into  her  pres- 
ence and  died  in  her  arms.  Cleopatra, 
now  Augustus'  prisoner,  finding  that  she 
could  not  win  him,  as  she  had  won  Caesar 
and  Antony,  from  disappointed  pride  took 
poison  or  killed  herself  by  suffering  an 
asp  to  bite  her  bosom  (30  B.  C.).  Two 
women  only,  Helen  of  Troy  and  Mary 
Stuart,  vie  with  Cleopatra  in  the  fascination 
which  her  story  exerts  over  men's  minds. 
Cleopatra's  Needle.  See  OBELISK. 
Cleveland,  Stephen  Grover,  was  born 
at  Caldwell,  New  Jersey,  March  18,  1837. 
He  began  to  prac- 
tice law  at  Buffalo 
in  1859.  He  was 
assistant  district- 
attorney  for  three 
years,  and  in  1870 
was  chosen  sheriff 
and,  later,  mayor 
of  Buffalo.  In 
1882  he  was  elec- 
ted governor  of 
New  York  by 
190,000  majority. 
After  an  exciting 
canvass  he  was 
elected  president 
of  the  United  States  in  1884,  receiving  219 
electoral  votes.  The  most  important  act  of 
his  administration  was  his  message  to  con- 
gress in  1887  in  which  he  announced  a  tariff 
policy  on  which  the  election  of  1888 
turned,  when  Mr.  Cleveland  was  defeated 
by  General  Harrison,  receiving  168  elec- 
toral votes  to  Harrison's  233.  During  his 
term  as  president  he  married  Miss  Frances 
Folsom  of  Buffalo,  who  brought  social 
success  and  popularity  to  his  administration. 


GROVER  CLEVELAND 


In  1892  he  was  nominated  a  third  time  for 
the  presidency,  and  was  elected,  defeating 
General  Harrison.  His  second  adminis- 
tration added  to  his  fame  as  a  wise  and  able 
executive.  Retiring  to  private  life  at 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  he  there  interested  him- 
self in  delivering  addresses  at  Princeton 
University,  a  collection  of  which  he  pub- 
lished in  1904.  His  death  occurred  June 
24,  1908  at  his  New  Jersey  home. 

Cleveland,  O.,  county-seat  of  Cuyahoga 
County,  takes  high  rank  among  the  cities  of 
the  United  States  in  the  rapid  growth  of  its 
commercial  interests,  in  the  administration 
of  its  schools  and  other  public  affairs  and  its 
development  of  ideals  of  civic  beauty  and 
usefulness. 

Standing  on  a  plateau,  which  in  places 
rises  200  feet  above  Lake  Erie,  with  its  great 
public  square,  wide  thoroughfares  lined  with 
magnificent  buildings,  its  residence  districts 
with  handsome  homes  in  spacious  grounds 
fronting  on  streets  of  majestic  elms,  wide 
spreading  maples  and  other  shade  trees,  it  is 
one  of  the  most  attractive  of  our  great  centers 
of  population.  The  arrangement  and  con- 
struction of  its  public  buildings  under  what 
is  known  as  the  Group  Plan  at  a  cost  of 
$25,000,000  was  begun  in  1902.  The  city  is 
divided  by  the  Cuyahoga  river  which  is 
spanned  by  five  great  viaducts.  In  the  public 
square  is  the  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Monu- 
ment and  statues  of  Moses  Cleaveland  who 
laid  out  the  city,  and  of  Tom  L.  Johnson, 
former  Mayor  of  the  city,  known  as  the 
"father"  of  three  cent  street  car  fare.  The 
majestic  Garfield  Monument  occupies  a  con- 
spicuous site  in  Lakeview  Cemetery,  which 
lies  on  a  ridge  250  feet  above  the  lake.  Its 
numerous  office  buildings  include  the  Rocke- 
feller, New  Guardian,  Garfield,  Rose,  Citi- 
zens, Williamson,  Leader-News,  and  Union 
National  Bank.  One  of  the  twelve  Federal 
Reserve  banks  is  located  in  Cleveland.  It 
also  has  several  arcades  running  through  an 
entire  block,  which  are  used  for  mercantile 
and  office  purposes. 

Among  the  other  beautiful  structures  are 
many  churches  of  every  denomination.  Be- 
sides its  fine  public,  it  has  many  parochial 
schools  and  other  educational  institutions, 
including  Western  Reserve  University,  the 
College  for  Women,  St.  Ignatius  College,  St. 
Mary's  Theological  Seminary  and  Case 
School  of  Applied  Science.  It  is  one  of  the 
best  governed  cities  in  the  country  in  its 
methods  of  caring  for  the  poor,  its  reforma- 
tory institutions,  such  as  the  Warrens  ville 
Farms,  its  self-governed  Boyville  Home,  its 
play  grounds,  parks,  public  baths  and  schools. 

Of  social,  fraternal  and  business  clubs, 
Cleveland  has  more  than  one  hundred.  Many 
of  these  are  country  clubs  devoted  to  golf, 
tennis,  hunting  and  other  sports.  Its  down- 
town athletic  club  ranks  with^the  finest  in 
the  country. 


CLIFF-DWELLERS 

Its  public  piers,  covering  five  acres,  were 
built  at  a  cost  of  $500,000.  Its  industrial 
plants  line  the  numerous  railroads  entering 
the  city  and  are  scattered  up  and  down  the 
valley  of  the  Cuyahoga  River.  The  natural 
meeting  point  of  Lake  Superior  iron  ore,  and 
coal  from  Ohio,  West  Virginia  and  Penn- 
sylvania, Cleveland  is  the  largest  ore  market 
in  the  world.  It  takes  its  place  as  one  of  the 
largest  manufacturing  cities  in  the  United 
States  and  is  noted  for  its  iron  and  steel 
plants,  its  shipyards,  automobile  plants,  and 
numerous  other  industries,  including  steel 
rails,  car  wheels,  engines,  boilers,  cranes, 
printing  presses,  sewing  machines,  oil  and 
gas  stoves,  and  electrical  apparatus  and  ma- 
chinery. Optical  instruments  and  other 
specialties  requiring  scientific  skill  are  made 
in  Cleveland  in  great  variety.  It  is  also  a 
great  center  for  the  manufacture  of  wearing 
apparel,  paints  and  chemicals.  It  is  the  site 
of  one  of  the  largest  oil  refineries  in  the 
country;  is  a  large  market  for  fresh  water 
fish;  handles  large  quantities  of  lumber  and 
grain,  and,  what  may  be  of  particular  in- 
terest to  boys  and  girls,  makes  a  large  pro- 
portion of  our  chewing  gum.  Population, 
701,803. 

Cleveland  was  laid  out  in  1796  by  Moses 
Cleaveland,  and  incorporated  in  1836.  The 
village  bore  his  name  and  its  spelling.  This, 
however,  from  time  to  time  changed,  but 
the  present  spelling  became  permanent,  it 
is  said,  in  1831,  because  the  "a"  made  the 
word  a  misfit  in  the  head-line  of  a  news- 
paper. 

Cliff-Dwellers.     See  PUEBLOS. 

Clingman,  Thomas  Lanier,  United  States 
senator  and  Confederate  officer,  was  born 
in  North  Carolina  in  1812,  and  died  at 
Raleigh,  N.  C.,  Nov.  4,  1897.  After  grad- 
uating, he  studied  law,  and  was  a  member 
of  Congress  from  1843  to  1858,  taking  a 
prominent  part  in  the  debates  of  the  house. 
Originally  a  Whig,  he  deserted  his  old 
associates  and  became  a  Democrat,  and  in 
1858  was  elected  to  the  senate.  In  1861, 
when  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  he  withdrew 
from  the  senate  and  entered  the  Confed- 
erate army,  where  be  became  brigadier- 
general,  surrendering  in  April,  1865.  with 
General  J.  E.  Johnston.  After  the  war 
General  Clingman  for  many  years  devoted 
himself  to  mining  and  to  scientific  pursuits. 

Clinostat,  an  apparatus  for  rotating 
plants  in  various  planes  to  counteract  the 
effect  of  a  one-sided  stimulus,  such  as 
light  or  gravity  (see  IRRITABILITY).  It 
consists  of  a  strong  clock-work,  with  suit- 
able regulating  mechanism  and  devices 
for  holding  the  pots  in  which  the  plants 
are  grown. 

Clinton,  Iowa,  a  rapidly  growing  city, 
capital  of  Clinton  County,  Iowa,  is  situated 
on  the  Mississippi  River  between  Daven- 
port and  Dubuque,  and  140  miles  by  rail 
west  of  Chicago.  It  has  communications 
With  all  points  by  a  number  of  railroads, 


CLINTON 

by  steamboat-navigation  on  the  river 
and  two  fine  bridges  across  the  Mississippi 
connects  it  with  Illinois  and  the  east.  It 
possesses  many  thriving  industries,  embrac- 
ing foundries,  machine  and  car-shops,  paper- 
mills,  sash,  door  and  blind-factories,  furni- 
ture-factories, wagon-factory,  wire-cloth 
factory  and  glucose-factory.  Population, 
25.577- 

Clinton,  Mass.,  a  town  of  Worcester 
County,  12  miles  from  Worcester,  on  the 
Nashua  River.  It  has  several  churches, 
a  hospital  and  The  Bigelow  Free  Public 
Library  of  25,000  volumes.  Located  here 
are  the  Bigelow  Carpet  Co.,  the  Lancaster 
Mills  and  the  Clinton  Wire-Cloth  Co.  Clin- 
ton has  the  service  of  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  and  the  Boston  and 
Maine  railroad.  Population  13,301. 

Clin'ton,  De  Witt,  was  born  at  Little 
Britain,  N.  Y.,  March  2,  1769.  He  was  a 
son  of  Gen.  James  Clinton  and  a  nephew 
of  Gov.  George  Clinton.  He  graduated 
at  Columbia  College,  and  after  studying 
law  he  entered  politics  as  a  Republican 
member  of  the  lower  house  of  the  New 
York  legislature  in  1797,  where  he  soon 
became  the  leader  of  his  party  in  the  state. 
He  was  chosen  United  States  senator  in 
1802,  and  was  at  this  time  regarded  as 
"the  most  rising  man  in  the  Union."  But 
he  left  the  senate  to  become  mayor  of  New 
York  city,  an  office  of  considerable  power 
in  those  days,  which  he  held  for  n 
years.  On  the  question  of  war  with  Eng- 
land, hs  competed  for  the  presidency  with 
Madison,  receiving  89  votes.  He  was 
elected  governor  of  New  York  four 
times.  His  greatest  service  to  the  state  was 
in  urging  the  construction  of  the  Erie 
Canal,  and  pushing  the  measure  assiduously 
till  he  saw  that  great  enterprise  completed 
and  the  canal  open  for  traffic.  Clinton 
was  dignified  in  manner,  of  fine  personal 
appearance,  deeply  in  earnest  in  all  he 
undertook,  energetic,  capable  and  popular. 
His  life-work  is  identified  with  the  early 
growth  of  the  state.  He  died  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  Feb.  n,  1828. 

Clinton,  George,  one  of  the  prominent 
men  of  the  Revolution,  was  born  in  Ulster 
County,  New  York,  July  26,  1739.  He  had 
a  careful  schooling  at  home.  As  lieutenant 
of  militia,  he  took  part  in  the  expedition 
against  Fort  Frontenac  (Kingston),  Canada. 
He  entered  law,  but  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  colonial  assembly,  where  he  soon 
became  the  head  of  the  Whig  party.  In 
1775  he  became  a  member  of  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  and  voted  for  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence;  subsequently  he 
was  appointed  brigadier-general.  He  was 
soon  after  chosen  governor  of  New  York, 
and  was  re-elected  six  times  in  succession. 
In  the  Revolutionary  War  it  was  due  to 
him  that  communication  was  hindered  be- 
tween the  British  in  Canada  and  those  in 


CLINTON 


CLOCK 


New  York  city.  The  number  of  Tories  in 
the  state  made  his  position  the  most  difficult 
to  fill  of  any  in  the  country,  except  that 
of  Washington.  When  the  time  came  to 
adopt  the  Constitution,  Clinton  opposed 
it,  on  the  ground  that  it  gave  the  general 
government  too  much  power.  In  1804  he 
was  elected  vice-president  of  the  United 
States,  on  the  ticket  with  Jefferson,  and 
was  re-elected  in  1808.  He  died  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  April  20,  1812. 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  an  English  general, 
was  born  about  1738.  He  served  in  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  and  was  sent  to  America 
as  major-general  in  1775  He  took  part  in 
the  battles  of  Bunker  Hill  and  Long  Island, 
and  captured  Fort  Clinton  on  the  Hudson. 
In  1778  he  became  commander-in-chief 
of  the  British  land-forces.  He  was  forced 
out  of  Philadelphia  by  Washington,  cap- 
tured Charleston  in  May,  1780,  and  sailed 
from  New  York  with  7,000  men  to  relieve 
Cornwallis  on  the  day  he  surrendered. 
He  was  superseded  by  Sir  Guy  Carleton 
in  1781.  Later  on,  he  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Gibraltar,  where  he  died  Decem- 
ber 23,  1795. 

Clive  (kliv),  Robert,  Lord,  founder  of 
England's  Indian  empire,  was  born  near 
Market-Drayton,  England,  Sept.  29,  1725. 
At  school  Robert  was  a  much  better  fighter 
than  a  scholar.  At  18  he  went  to  India  as 
a  clerk  of  the  East  India  Company,  where, 
penniless  and  tired  of  the  drudgery  of  his 
life,  he  attempted  suicide,  but  his  pistol 
snapped  twice,  and  he  decided  to  bear  his 
trouble  a  while  longer.  When  the  French 
took  Madras  in  1746,  Clive  escaped  in  the 
night  from  the  city,  disguised  as  a  Moham- 
medan, and  made  his  way  to  Fort  St  David. 
Now  21,  he  was  commissioned  as  ensign 
in  the  military  service  of  the  company. 
India  was  at  this  period  rapidly  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  French,  and  the  safety  of 
the  English  trading-posts  was  gravely  in 
peril.  Clive,  now  25,  had  gained  a  name 
for  desperate  courage  as  well  as  for  military 
genius.  Assuring  his  superiors  that  a  move 
must  be  made  at  once  on  Arcot,  he  was 
intrusted  with  200  British  troops  and  300 
Sepoys.  He  seized  Arcot  without  a  blow, 
and  with  his  little  force,  now  reduced  to 
80  Englishmen  and  120  Sepoys,  he  with- 
stood a  siege  of  7,000  natives  and  120 
French  soldiers  for  n  weeks.  Then, 
after  a  last  assault,  the  siege  was  raised, 
and  Clive,  marching  out,  won  two  battles 
and  captured  two  important  forts.  After 
two  years  spent  in  England,  where  he 
refused  a  diamond -hilted  sword  from  the 
company  until  another  was  given  to  his 
superior  officer,  he  came  back  to  India  in 
J75S  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel. 
A  year  later,  with  Admiral  Watson,  he  sailed 
for  Calcutta,  to  avenge  the  Black  Hole 
massacre.  Calcutta  and  other  places  were 
speedily  taken  from  the  barbarous  nawab 


of  Bengal,  Surajah  Dowlah,  and  at  Plassey, 
June  23,  1757,  Clive's  3,200  men,  two  thirds 
of  whom  were  Sepoys,  fought  50,000  natives, 
supported  by  40  French  guns.  After  eight 
hours'  fighting,  Clive  won  the  decisive  battle 
which  fastened  English  rule  upon  Bengal. 
Mir  Jaffir,  one  of  the  nawab's  generals, 
had  agreed  before  the  battle  to  keep  his 
forces  inactive,  for  which  he  was  to  be  made 
nawab.  An  unscrupulous  go-between 
threatened  to  betray  this  agreement,  and 
demanded  from  the  British  a  large  sum  of 
money.  Clive,  however,  overreached  him 
by  a  false  treaty,  to  which  he  forged  Admiral 
Watson's  name.  When  Plassey  had  been 
won,  Mir  Jaffir  was  at  once  declared  nawab, 
and,  leading  Clive  into  the  great  treasury 
of  Bengal,  told  him  to  help  himself,  which 
he  did,  taking  over  $1,000,000.  These  are 
the  only  two  blots  on  his  character.  For 
three  years  Clive  was  ruler  in  all  but  name 
in  Bengal,  and  was  always  called  by  the 
natives  Sabat  Jung,  the  daring  warrior. 
In  1760  he  returned  to  England,  where  he 
was  welcomed  by  the  great  Pitt,  as  "a 
heaven-born  general,"  was  chosen  member 
of  Parliament,  and  made  baron  of  Plassey. 
But  by  1765  the  affairs  of  the  East  India 
Company  were  in  a  bad  way,  owing  to  the 
rank  dishonesty  of  its  servants,  and  only 
Clive  could  set  them  right.  As  governor 
and  commander-in-chief  of  Bengal,  he  set 
out  a  third  time  for  India.  At  once  he 
attacked  the  widespread  abuses  with  vigor. 
At  one  time  200  officers  of  the  army  resigned, 
thinking  to  force  him  to  submit  by  the  sight 
of  an  army  without  leaders ;  but  the  Sepoys 
stood  firm,  and  by  issuing  commissions 
for  new  officers,  even  to  clerks,  and  by 
ordering  every  resigned  officer  to  be  brought 
to  Calcutta  he  quelled  all  insubordination. 
But  the  energy  with  which  he  had  cleaned 
that  Augean  stable  had  raised  up  a  host 
of  powerful  enemies,  who,  after  he  had  left 
India  for  good,  stirred  up  Parliament  to 
look  into  his  early  proceedings  in  Bengal. 
Attacked  in  regard  to  the  fortune  he  had 
amassed,  he  described  the  glittering  heaps 
on  which  he  had  gazed  in  the  treasury  of 
Bengal,  and  exclaimed:  "Mr.  Chairman, 
at  this  moment  I  stand  astonished  at  my 
own  moderation!"  This  storm  of  enmity 
broke  his  health  and  unhinged  his  mind, 
and  opium  did  the  rest.  He  died  at  Lon- 
don by  his  own  hand,  Nov.  22,  1774. 

Clock.  An  ordinary  clock  is  a  machine 
for  driving  a  wheel  at  the  uniform  rate  of 
two  revolutions  a  day.  The  energy  for 
driving  the  machinery  is  stored  up  either  in 
a  raised  weight  or  in  a  coiled  spring.  The 
uniformity  of  the  motion  is  secured  by  use 
of  a  pendulum  and  an  escapement.  The 
clock  in  this  form  was  invented  by  the 
great  Dutch  physicist  Huygens  in  1657. 
Galileo  had  already  shown  that  the  pendu- 
lum, when  left  to  itself,  performs  its  vibra- 
tions in  equal  times.  Huygens  showed  how 


CLOSE  POLLINATION 


412 


CLOUDS 


ANCHOR    ESCAPEMENT 


the  pendulum  might  be  kept  going  and  the 
advantage  of  its  uniform  vibrations  thus 
be  obtained.  This  he  accomplished  by 

the  intro- 
duction of 
the  escape- 
ment,  a 
mechan- 
ism which 
is  unlocked 
by the pen- 
dulum at 
each  beat 
and  thus 
allows  the 
train  of 
wheels  to 
advance. 
But  in  ad- 
dition t  o 
this  the  es- 
capement 
also  gives 
the  pendu- 
lum a  lit- 
tle push, 

which  just  makes  up  for  the  loss  of  energy 
which  the  pendulum  sustains  in  swinging 
through  the  air  and  in  unlocking  the  train. 

The  action  of  the  escapement  will  be 
evident  from  the  accompanying  figure,  in 
which  the  arrow  indicates  the  direction 
in  which  the  mechanism  is  driven  by  the 
spring  or  weight.  In  the  upper  part  of  the 
figure  are  represented  the  two  pallets  which 
receive  alternate  pushes  to  right  and  left 
as,  one  after  another,  the  teeth  of  the  wheel 
pass.  A  good  clock  of  this  type  keeps  better 
time  than  the  sun ;  and  accordingly  we  now 
use  as  our  standard  of  time  the  period  of 
revolution  of  a  fictitious  sun  which  revolves 
uniformly  with  the  average  speed  of  our 
actual  sun.  This  is  called  mean  solar 
time.  The  astronomer  uses  a  clock  in 
which  the  hour-hand  rotates  at  the  same 
rate  at  which  the  fixed  stars  appear  to 
revolve  about  the  earth.  In  other  words, 
this  instrument,  which  is  called  a  sidereal 
clock,  rotates  at  the  same  rate  as  the  earth, 
which  is  the  most  uniform  motion  that  we 
know  anything  about. 

American  clock-making  from  early  days 
has  had  an  interesting  history,  the  men 
who  have  been  connected  with  it  being 
many  and  jn  their  way  characters,  from 
Isaac  Doolittle,  in  the  old  colonial  times, 
who  as  a  brass-founder  built  a  bell-foundry 
and  made  brass  wheel-clocks,  to  the  era 
of  the  New  Haven  Clock  Co.,  with  its  origi- 
nators in  Hiram  Camp  of  Plymouth  and 
Chauncey  Jerome  of  Bristol,  Conn.  In- 
teresting, too,  is  the  story  of  Eli  Terry, 
the  father  of  wooden  clock-making,  as  is  that 
of  the  men  who  had  to  do  with  the  New 
Haven  concern — such  as  James  E.  English, 
H.  M.  Welch  and  Hiram  Camp,  the  latter 
the  inventor  of  a  number  of  automatic 


tools  and  machines  for  making  parts  of 
clock-works,  and  perhaps  the  greatest  of 
American  clock-makers. 

The  chronometer  is  merely  a  spring-clock 
in  which  an  oscillating  wheel  called  the 
balance  is  employed  instead  of  a  pendulum. 
This  wheel  is  lightly  tethered  by  a  fine 
spring  called  a  hair-spring,  and  its  value 
lies  in  the  fact  that  its  vibrations  occupy 
equal  times.  In  1714  the  British  govern- 
ment offered  a  reward  of  $100,000  to  any 
one  who  would  devise  a  means  for  getting 
longitude  at  sea  within  30  miles.  Stimu- 
lated, perhaps,  by  this  offer,  John  Harrison 
(1693-1776),  an  English  mechanician,  in- 
vented the  chronometer,  which  enabled 
navigators  even  then  to  determine  their 
longitude  within  18  miles. 

A  watch  is  merely  a  small  chronometer 
that  can  be  carried  in  the  pocket.  A  strik- 
ing clock  is  one  fitted  with  a  bell  which  is 
struck  by  a  hammer  at  certain  equal  in- 
tervals, generally  an  hour.  It  is  this  form 
of  instrument  from  which  we  derive  our 
word  clock,  which  originally  meant  a 
bell.  Driving-clocks  are  really  engines 
operated  by  a  spring  or  weight.  Telescopes 
in  observatories  are  made  to  follow  the 
stars  by  means  of  such  driving-clocks. 

Time-keeping  before  the  invention  of 
clocks  was  a  very  crude  process.  During 
the  day  the  ancients  were  dependent  upon 
the  position  of  the  sun,  and  during  the  night 
upon  the  positions  of  certain  well-known  fixed 
stars.  Intervals  of  time  were  measured  by- 
allowing  sand  or  water  to  run  through 
funnel-shaped  vessels,  called  hour-glasses 
and  clepsydrae  respectively.  See  Sir  E. 
Beckett's  Clocks,  Watches  and  Bells;  Ben- 
son's Time  and  Time-Tellers  and  Britten's 
Watch  and  Clock-Makers'  Handbook. 

Close  Pol'lina'tion  (in  plants),  the 
transfer  of  pollen  from  the  stamen  to  the 
stigma  of  the  same  flower.  See  POLLINA- 
TION. 

Clouds  are  masses  of  water-vapor  con- 
densed into  very  minute  drops  of  water  or 
frozen  into  very  small  particles  of  ice. 
Every  one  is  familiar  with  fogs.  Clouds 
are  simply  fogs  formed  at  a  considerable 
distance  above  the  earth.  They  are  gen- 
erally white  in  appearance  for  the  same 
reason  that  any  transparent  substance, 
such  as  glass  or  sugar,  is  white  when  broken 
up  into  small  particles. 

The  classification  of  clouds  generally  em- 
ployed is  the  one  which  divides  them 
according  to  their  external  appearance  into 
four  different  groups: 

i.  The  cirrus  or  mare's  tails  clouds  are 
composed  of  long  white  fibers  or  slender 
filaments.  They  are  generally  observed  at 
great  heights,  and  are  probably  composed 
of  small  crystals  of  ice.  Glaisher  in  his 
balloon-ascents  found  cirrus  clouds  above 
him  even  at  the  height  of  23,000  feet; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  cirrus  clouds  are 


CLOVER 


413 


COAL 


never  seen  below  the  summit  of  Mt.  Blanc, 
which  is  nearly  16,000  feet  in  elevation. 

2.  Cumulus  clouds  are  those  which  look 
like   great   mountains  of  cotton  piled   one 
on  top  of  another  and  resting  on  a  horizontal 
base.     It  is  highly  probable  that  the  rounded 
top   of  these   clouds  results  from  columns 
of  hot,  moist  air  rising  and  thrusting  their 
tops  into  the  upper  and  hence  cooler  regions 
of  the  atmosphere. 

3.  Stratus   clouds   consist    of   large    flat 
layers  or  horizontal  sheets.     They  are  seen 
very  frequently  about  sunset. 

4.  The  nimbus  or  rain  cloud  has  no  par- 
ticular  form,    but    generally    is    large    and 
gray  or  dark. 

Regarding  the  causes  which  operate  to 
produce  clouds,  we  may  group  them  all 
under  one  general  head,  namely,  a  lowering 
of  the  temperature  of  the  air  below  the 
dew-point.  Among  the  particular  causes 
which  produce  this  fall  of  temperature  are 
the  following: 

(a)  Radiation  of  heat  from  the  earth  to 
space,  especially  at  night.  This  is  the  most 
frequent  cause  of  fogs  on  land.  (6)  Radia- 
tion from  the  earth's  atmosphere  to  space. 
(c)  Expansion  of  heated  air  on  rising  to 
higher  regions  of  the  earth's  atmosphere 
where  the  pressure  is  less,  (d)  A  cold  wind 
blowing  into  a  region  filled  with  warm, 
moist  air. 

Another  condition  necessary  for  the  forma- 
tion of  clouds  is  the  presence  in  the  air  of 
small  dust-particles  or  of  ions.  This  fact 
has  been  demonstrated  mathematically  by 
Kelvin  and  experimentally  by  Aiken.  In 
reply  to  the  frequent  query  as  to  why  the 
clouds  do  not  fall,  it  is  to  be  said,  first, 
that  they  may  be  falling  when  in  quiet 
air,  but,  secondly,  when  particles  are  as 
small  as  those  involved  in  the  case  of  clouds, 
their  surface  becomes  enormously  large 
compared  with  their  mass;  so  that  the 
resistance  which  the  air  offers  to  a  falling 
body  of  this  size  is  also  enormous  when 
compared  with  its  weight.  Hence  the  rate 
of  fall  is,  in  general,  so  minute  as  to  escape 
observation. 

Clo'ver,  species  of  the  genus  Trifolium, 
belonging  to  the  pea  family,  The  name  is 
chiefly  applied  to  those  species  which  are 
used  in  agriculture.  It  is  also  sometimes 
applied  to  species  of  other  genera  in  the 
same  family,  as  the  sweet  clover,  which 
is  Melilotus;  prairie  clover,  which  is  Peta- 
lostemon,  etc.  About  300  species  of  Tri- 
jolium  have  been  described,  and  they  are 
well-known  by  their  habit  and  three-f  oliolate 
leaves.  The  common  red  clover  (T.  pra- 
tense)  is  probably  not  native  to  North 
America,  but  has  come  from  Europe.  The 
white  clover  (T.  repens)  has  been  introduced 
from  Europe,  but  is  also  probably  native 
to  North  America.  Numerous  native  spe- 
cies belong  to  North  America,  especially 
in  the  far  west. 


Cloves.     See  SPICES. 

Clo'vis,  king  of  the  Franks,  was  born 
465  A  D.,  and  died  in  511.  He  conquered 
the  Gallo- Romans,  and  overran  the  whole 
country  between  the  Somme  and  the  Loire. 
His  wife,  Clotilda,  was  a  Christian,  and 
earnestly  wished  her  husband  to  become 
a  Christian  also.  In  a  great  battle  with 
the  Alemanni  Clovis  was  hard  pressed,  and 
at  last  in  despair  cried  to  the  God  of  Clotilda, 
offering  to  become  a  Christian  if  he  got  the 
victory.  The  Alemanni  were  driven  from 
the  field  and  on  Christmas  day  Clovis  and 
his  soldiers  were  baptized;  while  he  received 
from  the  pope  the  title  of  Most  Christian 
King. 

Clyde,  the  most  important  river  of  Scot- 
land. It  flows  for  106  miles,  past  Lanark, 
Bothwell  and  Glasgow,  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion, and  at  Dumbarton  becomes  a  firth. 
Near  Lanark  are  the  four  famous  Clyde 
falls.  Below  Glasgow  large  sums  have 
been  spent  in  deepening  the  channel,  so  that 
the  former  depth  of  15  inches  at  low  water 
has  now  become  from  18  to  20  feet.  The 
first  steamboat  in  Europe  was  launched 
on  the  Clyde  in  1812.  The  last  14  miles 
of  the  river,  together  with  the  firth,  which 
slowly  widens  from  one  to  37  miles,  are 
one  of  the  world's  chief  commercial  water- 
ways. There  is  a  very  large  amount  of 
shipbuilding  on  the  Clyde. 

Clytemnestra.     See  AGAMEMNON. 

Coal,  a  name  applied  to  considerable 
aggregations  of  carbonaceous  matter  of 
vegetable  origin.  Coal  has  no  definite 
chemical  composition,  the  proportion  of 
carbon  varying  from  95  per  cent,  or  even 
more  down  to  70  per  cent,  or  a  little  be- 
low. Coal  occurs  in  beds  interstratified 
with  shale,  sandstone,  etc.  The  vegeta- 
tion from  which  coal  was  made  is  believed 
to  have  grown  where  the  coal  now  occurs. 
At  the  time  of  the  growth  of  the  vegetation, 
the  regions  where  it  grew  are  believed  to 
have  been  swamps  comparable,  except  in 
size,  to  the  peat-bogs  of  the  present  time. 
As  the  vegetation  growing  in  the  bogs  died, 
it  fell  into  the  water  of  the  swamps,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  Dismal  Swamp  of  the 
present  time.  Beneath  the  water  the  dead 
vegetation  did  not  decay  as  it  would  have 
done  in  the  open  air,  though  it  underwent 
chemical  changes.  The  first  series  of 
changes  resulted  in  its  transformation  into 

Eeat.  After  the  accumulation  of  considera- 
le  beds  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  swamps, 
the  sites  of  the  swamps  seem  to  have  been 
submerged,  probably  by  sinking.  When 
submerged,  either  beneath  the  sea  or  be- 
neath the  waters  of  lakes,  sediment,  such 
as  sand  or  mud,  was  deposited  over  the 
accumulated  vegetable  matter.  Thus  buried, 
the  vegetable  matter  was  still  more  com- 
pletely shut  off  from  the  air  and  under- 
went further  chemical  changes.  At  the 
same  time  the  weight  of  the  sediment  above 


COAL 


414 


COAL 


the  accumulated  vegetation  compressed 
it  into  more  and  more  compact  form.  As 
the  result  of  the  chemical  changes  and  the 
compression,  the  vegetable  Matter  was 
gradually  brought  to  the  condition  of  coal. 

In  many  regions  there  are  numerous 
seams  or  beds  of  coal,  one  above  another, 
separated  by  beds  of  shale,  sandstone,  etc. 
Each  bed  of  coal  represents  the  succession 
of  conditions  sketched  above.  After  the 
burial  of  one  body  of  vegetable  matter  the 
area  was  perhaps  elevated  sufficiently  to 
cause  it  to  become  a  marsh  again,  and  the 
growth  of  vegetation  followed.  This  in 
turn  was  buried. 

Wood  contains  about  50  per  cent,  of 
carbon.  In  the  chemical  changes  which 
it  undergoes  in  peat-bogs,  it  loses  some  of 
the  carbon,  but  still  more  of  its  oxygen 
and  hydrogen,  so  that  the  proportion  of 
carbon  remaining  after  the  changes  is 
greater  than  before.  Peat  contains  about 
60  per  cent,  of  carbon.  With  the  loss  of 
more  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and  with 
compression  which  rendfijts— <t  solid,  peat 
is  transformed  into  coal  When  the  changes 
have  gone  so  far  that  the  proportion  of 
carbon  is  as  great  as  90  per  cent.,  the  coal 
is  anthracite.  When  the  proportion  of 
carbon  is  less,  the  coal  is  said  to  be  bitumi- 
nous or  soft.  Of  bituminous  coal  there 
are  many  grades,  depending  partly  upon 
the  proportion  of  carbon.  The  chemical 
changes  in  the  vegetable  matter  may  go 
so  far  that  the  proportion  of  volatile  mat- 
ter (hydrogen  and  oxygen)  is  reduced  to 
one  or  two  per  cent.  In  this  condition  the 
coal  is  said  to  be  graphitic.  Graphitic 
coal  does  not  burn  readily.  Anthracite 
coal,  which  contains  relatively  little  volatile 
rns  with  little  flame.  Bituminous 
coal,  which  contains  more  volatile  matter, 
burns  with  flame,  and  in  genera  burns  more 
readily  as  the  proportion  of  volatile  mat- 
ter increases.  There  are  several  varieties 
of  bituminous  coal,  named  according  to 
their  uses.  Among  them  are  coking-coal, 
furnace-coal,  cannel-coal,  etc.  Coking- 
coal  melts  on  becoming  hot,  and  after  the 
volatile  matter  escapes  the  solid  product 
is  coke.  It  has  much  the  composition  of 
anthracite  coal,  but  is  spongy  in  texture. 
Cannel-coal  is  impure,  and  contains  much 
volatile  matter.  It  is  rather  earthy  in 
texture,  and  less  hard  than  most  other 
varieties  of  coal.  It  is  extensively  used 
for  burning  in  grates  Furnace-coal  is 
any  sort  of  bituminous  coal  appropriate 
for  use  in  furnaces. 

Anthracite  coal  occurs  mainly  in  regions 
of  folded  strata,  where  the  folds  have  been 
greatly  eroded.  The  compression  to  which 
the  coal  was  subject  in  the  process  of  fold- 
ing, the  heat  generated  by  the  compression 
and  the  subsequent  exposure  of  the  coal- 
beds  after  erosion,  allowing  the  volatile 
matter  to  escape,  have  probably  been  the 


chief  factors  in  the  transformation  of  soft 
coal  into  anthracite.  In  some  places  in 
New  Mexico  and  Colorado  soft  coal  has 
been  changed  into  anthracite  by  contact 
with  lava.  Bituminous  coal,  as  may  be 
inferred  from  the  above,  usually  occurs  in 
regions  where  the  strata  are  horizontal  or 
but  slightly  tilted. 

The  coal  of  the  United  States  belongs 
partly  to  the  carboniferous  system  (see 
GEOLOGY)  and  partly  to  the  systems  of 
later  periods,  especially  to  the  last  part  of 
the  cretaceous.  There  is  a  little  coal  in 
the  triassic  system  of  the  east  (Virginia  and 
North  Carolina),  and  very  considerable 
quantities  of  coal  in  the  tertiary  of  the  west, 
especially  in  Washington. 

The  coal  product  of  the  leading  coal  pro- 
ducing countries  in  1910  was  as  follows: 

United  States 501,596,378  metric  ton 

Great  Britain 296,007,699 

Germany 245,043,120 

Austro-Hungary  (1909) . .  54,573,788 

France 42,516,232 

Belgium 26,374,986 

Russia  and  Finland 24,967,095 

Japan  (1909) 16,505,418 

The  total  product  of  all  other  countries 
was  probably  not  more  than  40,000,000  tons. 

The  United  States  coal-fields  of  the  car- 
boniferous period  are  as  follows: 

1.  New    England    field     (Rhode    Island 
and     Massachusetts — coal     more     or     less 
graphitic  and  little  used). 

2.  The     Appalachian     coal-field,     includ- 
ing the  coal-producing  areas  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, eastern  Ohio,  Maryland,  Virginia,  West 
Virginia,  eastern  Kentucky  and  Tennessee, 
Georgia  and  Alabama;  area,  58,695  square 
miles. 

3.  Northern  coal-field,   part  of  southern 
Michigan,  6,700  square  miles. 

4.  The  central   coal-fields,   including  the 
coal-producing    areas    of    Indiana,    Illinois 
and  western  Kentucky,  47,250  square  miles. 

5.  The   western   coal-field,   including   the 
coal-producing    areas    of    Iowa,     Missouri, 
Nebraska,     Kansas,     Arkansas,     Oklahoma 
and  Texas,  98,700  square  miles. 

Coal-formations  of  cretaceous  age  occur 
in  Dakota,  Montana,  Wyoming,  Utah, 
Colorado  and  New  Mexico.  Coal-forma- 
tions of  tertiary  age  occur  in  Washington, 
Oregon,  California  and  Alaska,  but  especially 
in  Washington,  where  the  amount  of  coal 
is  large.  The  area  Of  the  cretaceous  coal- 
fields is  probably  as  great  as  that  of  the 
carboniferous  coal-fields.  The  area  of  the 
tertiary  coal-fields  is  not  known.  The 
amount  of  coal  in  these  western  fields  has 
not  been  estimated.  It  perhaps  equals 
that  in  the  carboniferous  system,  though 
the  quality  of  the  coal  is  on  the  whole  in- 
ferior. 

The  anthracite  coal  of  the  United  States 
is  derived  chiefly  from  Pennsylvania.  Col- 
orado and  New  Mexico,  however,  produce 
some.  Pennsylvania  also  leads  in  the  p 


COAST-DEFENSE 


415 


COBALT 


duction  of  soft  coal.  Named  in  the  order 
of  their  gross  product  in  1910,  the  chief 
coal-producing  states  are  as  follows: 

Pennsylvania  225, 954,772  (of  whichjs, 433,- 
246  were  anthracite) ;  West  Virginia  61,671,019 
Illinois  45,900,246;  Ohio  34,209, 668;  Indiana 
18,389,815;  Alabama  16,111,462.  The  states 
which  produced  from  fifteen  to  one  million 
down,  in  order  named,  were  Kentucky  14,- 
623,319;  Colorado  11,973,736  (a  part  being 
anthracite);  Iowa  7,928,120;  Wyoming  7,- 
553,088;  Tennessee  7,121,380;  Maryland  5,- 
217,125;  Kansas  4,921,451;  Washington  3,- 
911,899;  New  Mexico  3,508,321  (anthracite 
about  20,000);  Missouri  2,982,433;  Montana 
2,920,970;  Oklahoma  2,646,226;  Utah  2,517,- 
809;  Arkansas  1,905,958;  Texas  1,892,176; 
and  Michigan  1,534,967.  States  producing 
less  than  one  million  tons  were  North  Dakota 
(399,041);  Georgia  (177,245);  Oregon  (67,- 
533);  California  (11,164);  and  Idaho  (4,448). 
For  the  fifth  time  in  the  history  of  the 
United  States  the  production  of  coal  reached 
in  1910  a  total  of  over  400,000,000  short 
tons.  The  bituminous  production  was\ 
417,111,142  short  tons,  and  the  anthracite! 
75,433,246  long  tons.  Their  value  was  I 
5629,557,021,  showing  a  considerable  in- 
crease over  the  value  of  the  output  for 
1909  which  amounted  to  $554,668,334. 

The  chief  coal-producing  countries  out- 
side of  the  United  States  are  those  men- 
tioned in  the  general  table.  To  this  list 
should  perhaps  be  added  India,  Nova 
Scotia  and  Spain.  R.  D.  SALISBURY. 

Coast=Defense.  In  1885  the  nation 
awoke  to  the  fact  that  the  fortifications 
that  should  protect  our  cities  and  prevent 
a  foe  from  using  our  harbors  as  bases  of 
warlike  operations  were  absurdly  weak — 
in  many  cases  not  strong  enough  to  keep 
out  a  single  line  of  battleships.  Our  navy 
had  just  been  born,  and  we  were  without 
torpedo  or  other  coast-defense  vessels. 
In  1886  about  100  million  dollars  were  ap- 
propriated to  be  spent  in  10  years  for  coast 
defense;  but  for  many  years  the  matter 
was  greatly  neglected.  To-day,  however, 
it  is  believed  that  our  principal  ports  and 
harbors  are  safe  from  any  attack  from  the 
sea,  even  if  our  navy  were  driven  from  the 
ocean.  The  defences  on  the  great  lakes 
are  comparatively  weak,  as  our  treaties 
with  Great  Britain  prevent  either  country 
from  maintaining  more  than  a  few  small 
vessels  upon  these  waters.  The  first  plans 
for  coast-defense  relied  largely  on  vessels 
of  great  gun-power  and  lying  very  low 
in  the  water,  so  as  to  offer  a  small  target. 
These  ships  were  expected  to  remain  in  the 
harbor  to  supplement  the  forts.  But  this 
type  of  harbor-defense  is  abandoned. 
The  coast-defense  forts  are  to  all  appear- 
ance nothing  but  grassy  mounds  of  earth. 
The  guns  for  the  most  part  are  of  the  dis- 
appearing type,  presenting  a  target  to  the 
enemy  only  at  the  moment  of  firing.  The 


latest  form  of  coast-defense  is  the  sub- 
marine ship  of  which  we  already  have  a 
few  excellent  examples. 

Coast  Range,  a  mountain  range  in 
California,  extending  from  the  Oregon 
boundary  into  Lower  California.  It  is 
30  to  40  miles  wide,  and  is  divided  by  the 
Bay  of  San  Francisco.  From  the  main 
range  spurs  reach  out  to  the  coast  line, 
inclosing  fertile  valleys.  The  most  noted 
are  the  Los  Angeles,  Santa  Clara  and  Sonoma 
valleys.  The  highest  peak  is  Mt.  San  Ber- 
nardino, 1 1, 600  feet  in  height. 

Coast-Survey,  of  the  United  States,  is 
an  undertaking  of  great  importance.  With 
a  long  and  dangerous  seacoast;  with  thou- 
sands of  vessels  yearly  entering  and  leaving 
pur  ports;  and  with  a  great  coasting  trade, 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  nation  to  provide  every 
means  which  science  and  skill  can  offer 
for  pointing  out  the  dangers  of  the  coast. 
The  coast-survey  was  founded  for  these 
objects.  It  furnishes  accurate  maps  of 
the  whole  coast,  including  Alaska;  it  points 
out  the  site  of,  or  suitable  places  for,  light- 
houses and  beacons;  it  traces  the  ocean- 
currents  along  the  shores;  it  studies  the 
tides;  it  finds  out  the  courses  of  the  winds, 
the  changes  which  take  place  at  the  en- 
trance to  harbors,  the  character  of  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  off  the  coast,  etc.  The 
first  suggestion  in  the  way  of  organizing  a 
coast-survey  was  made  in  Jefferson's  mes- 
sage to  Congress  in  1807;  but  work  was  not 
commenced  until  1817.  The  large  scope 
of  the  work,  its  accuracy,  the  quickness 
and  cheapness  with  which  results  have 
been  reached — taking  much  less  time  and 
costing  much  less  than  the  British  survey — 
have  been  largely  due  to  its  long-time  su- 
perintendent, the  late  Prof.  A.  D.  Bache. 
Besides  the  valuable  scientific  knowledge 
gained,  many  discoveries  of  great  value 
to  commerce  have  been  made.  Thus  the 
entrance  to  Delaware  Bay  was  found  to  be 
eight  miles  in  error.  Six  dangerous  shoals 
were  found  in  one  year  near  Nantucket, 
right  in  the  track  of  trans-Atlantic  ships 
and  of  the  heavy  coast-trade  between  the 
eastern  and  the  southern  states.  A  new 
channel,  with  two  more  feet  of  water  than 
any  other,  was  discovered  in  New  York 
harbor.  The  reports  on  the  tides  and  the 
Gulf  Stream  were  also  of  the  greatest  value 
to  commerce. 

Co' bait.  This  chemical  element  has  an 
atomic  weight  of  59.  Its  symbol  is  Co 
It  is  a  metal,  very  tenacious,  but  not  com- 
mercially valuable  except  as  the  basis  of 
certain  brilliant  paints,  sometimes  referred 
to  as  cobalt  green  and  cobalt  blue.  It  is 
often  used  to  color  glass  blue  and  in  the 
making  of  blue  porcelains,  etc.  These 
colors  are  derived  from  the  oxides  of  cobalt. 
The  chloride  of  cobalt  may  be  used  as  a 
sympathetic  ink,  i.e.,  an  ink  which  can  be 
made  to  appear  or  disappear;  for,  when 


COBALT 


416 


COBOURG 


kept  moist,  the  chloride  remains  invisible; 
but  when  dried  before  a  fire,  it  quickly 
appears  as  blue  ink.  The  metal  is  found 
pure  in  meteorites,  but  otherwise  is  found 
only  in  compounds,  usually  with  arsenic 
or  sulphur.  It  is  not  abundant,  though  widely 
distributed. 

Cobalt,  a  noted  mining  center  in  the 
district  of  Nipissing,  Ontario,  Canada,  lying 
just  south  of  the  arable  lands  of  Lake 
Temiscaming.  Discovered  in  1904,  it  now 
has  25  producing  and  shipping  mines,  the 
owners  of  which  have  become  very  wealthy 
men.  In  1904  the  camp  (largely  in  the 
one  township  of  Coleman)  produced  158 
tons  (silver)  valued  at  $136,217;  in  1905, 
2144  tons  valued  at  $1,473,196;  in  1906, 
5129  tons  valued  at  $3,900,000.  Over  14,- 
ooo  tons  were  shipped  in  1907  valued  at 
$9,500,000.  It  is  believed  that  the  value 
of  the  shipments  for  1908  will  exceed  $10.- 
000,000.  The  mines  are  only  beginning  to 
be  worked  in  a  methodical,  scientific  way. 
The  Nipissing,  the  O'Brien,  the  La  Rose 
and  the  Coniagas  are  especially  noted  for 
their  richness  and  extent.  The  district  pro- 
duces other  valuable  minerals  besides 
silver,  including  cobalt,  nickel  and  arsenic. 
Cobalt  (the  mineral  which  gives  the  town 
its  name)  is  a  comparatively  rare  mineral, 
used  chiefly  for  coloring  glass  and  fine 
china  and  pottery,  but  also  for  making 
paints  and  pigments.  A  greater  variety  of 
rare  minerals  has,  it  is  said,  been  found  in 
the  broken  reef  that  runs  west  from  the 
St.  Lawrence  than  in  any  other  region  in 
the  world.  Cobalt  is  3 3 o  miles  from  Toronto, 
and  is  reached  by  the  Grand  Trunk  Rail- 
way via  North  Bay.  From  five  small  veins 
which  have  been  quite  recently  opened  in 
an  area  less  than  a  mile  in  length  and  half 
a  mile  in  breadth,  surrounding  Cobalt 
station  on  the  Temiscaming  and  Northern 
Ontario  Railway,  four  hundred  thousand 
dollars'  worth  of  ore  has  been  shipped. 
The  records  of  this  railway  show  4663  tons 
of  rich  ore  shipped  in  1907.  And  this 
wonderful  district  is  only  on  the  threshold 
of  development.  In  conjunction  with  the 
rich  finds  of  silver  ore  there  are  found 
cobalt,  nickel  and  arsenic. 

Cobb,  Ho  well,  born  in  Georgia  in  1815, 
became  a  lawyer,  and  was  member  of  Con- 
gress from  1843  to  1851.  In  1849  after  a 
debate  that  lasted  three  weeks,  he  was 
elected  speaker.  This  was  a  victory  for  the 
southern  party,  that  sought  to  introduce 
slavery  into  California,  which  had  been 
ceded  by  Mexico  to  the  United  States  and 
was  about  to  enter  the  Union  as  a  state. 
In  1851  Cobb  became  governor  of  Georgia. 
He  presided  over  the  Congress  that  adopted 
the  Confederate  constitution,  and  on  the 
outbreak  of  war  he  became  major-general 
in  the  army  of  the  south.  After  peace  was 
declared,  he  bitterly  opposed  the  policy  of 
reconstruction  until  his  death  in  1868. 


Cobbe,  Frances  Power,  an  English  re- 
former, philanthropist  and  author,  was  born 
in  Ireland,  Dec.  4,  1822.  Early  in  life  she 
devoted  herself  to  relief-work  among  women 
and  to  various  reforms,  by  addresses, 
lectures  and  articles  in  the  newspaper  and 
periodical  press.  She  has  actively  opposed 
vivisection,  and  for  18  years  was  honorary 
secretary  of  a  society  for  the  protection  of 
animals  from  vivisection.  She  has  also  been 
a  zealous  worker  in  educational  and  philan- 
thropic projects,  and  written  extensively, 
from  a  Unitarian  point  of  view  tinged  with 
rationalism,  on  theistic  ethics  and  belief. 
Her  chief  writings  embrace  Studies,  Ethical 
and  Social;  Intuitive  Morals;  Religious  Duty; 
Hopes  of  the  Human  Race;  Duties  of  Women; 
Darwinism  in  Morals;  A  Faithless  World; 
The  Scientific  Spirit  of  the  Age;  etc.  Her 
autobiography  appeared  in  1894,  and  her 
death  occurred  in  1904. 

Cob'den,  Richard,  "the  apostle  of  free 
trade,"  was  bom  at  Heyshott,  England, 
June  3,  1804.  After  five  miserable  years  in 
a  "Dotheboys  school,"  he  was  given  a  posi- 
tion in  his  uncle's  wholesale  warehouse  in 
London.  After  setting  up  for  himself  in 
the  calico-printing  business,  he  settled  at 
Manchester  in  1832.  He  was  an  energetic 
member  of  the  Manchester  Anti-Corn  Law 
League,  which  opposed  all  duties  on  corn 
[wheat]  Becoming  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment, his  speeches  in  the  house  and  lectures 
throughout  the  country  had  great  effect  in 
bringing  about  the  tepeal  of  the  corn-laws 
in  1846.  In  politics  he  was  against  the 
Crimean  War,  declined  to  serve  under 
Palmerston  as  president  of  the  board  of 
trade,  and  arranged  the  treaty  of  com- 
merce with  France  in  1860.  Throughout 
his  life  he  was  earnest  and  simple-minded. 
In  Parliament  he  was  the  master  of  clear, 
persuasive  speech,  and  was  the  champion 
of  free  trade,  peace,  non-intervention  and 
economy.  He  died  on  April  2,  1865. 

Coblenz  or  Koblenz  (ko'blents),  a  city 
of  Prussia,  at  the  junction  of  the  Rhine  and 
the  Moselle.  It  is  strongly  fortified  by  a 
wall  and  a  series  of  forts,  especially  the 
castle  Ehrenbreitstein,  which  was  built  by 
Emperor  Julian  and  is  deemed  almost  un- 
assailable. The  defensive  works  will  shelter 
100,000  men,  though  5,000  are  deemed 
enough  to  defend  them.  The  magazines  are 
designed  to  hold  provisions  for  8,000  men 
for  ten  years,  and  the  cisterns  to  hold  a 
three  years'  supply  of  water.  The  old 
church  of  St.  Castor,  built  in  836,  and  its 

falace  are  the  chief  features  of  the  city, 
ts  main  trade  is  in  champagne  and  cigars. 
Coblenz  became  a  part  of  Prussia  in  1815. 
Population,  53,897. 

Cobourg  (Kd'boorg),  a  favorite  summer 
resort,  70  miles  east  of  Toronto  on  Lake 
Ontario.  Population,  5,000.  Some  beauti- 
ful homes  have  beea  erected  by  wealthy 
Americans  who  spend  the  summer  there. 


COBRA  DE  CAPELLO 


417 


COCKATOO 


Its     public     buildings,     churches,     banks, 
schools  and  hotels  are  unusually  attractive. 
It  is  the  best  harbor  on  the  north  shore  of 
Lake  Ontario.  The  Grand  Trunk  Railway  has 
a  daily  ferry-service  to  Rochester,  New  York. 
Cobra  de  Capello  (ko'brd  da  ka-pel'lo),  the 
hooded  snake  of  India,  the  most  dreaded 
of   the    serpent 
tribe.      Its  poison 
fangs    stand    out, 
not  like   those   of 
the  rattlesnake  at 
the  time  of  strik- 
ing,   but  perma- 
nently. There  is  a 
more     venomous 
snake  in  India,  but 
the  cobra  is  more 
abundant    and    is 
extremely  poison- 
ous.  About  2 5,000 
deaths    occur    an- 
nually in  the  In- 
d  i  a  n    peninsula 
from   cobra   bites. 
Its    usual  food  is 
small      reptiles, 

frogs,  fish,  etc.,  and  it  may  climb  to  roofs 
or  among  branches  or  take  to  the  water  in 
search  of  food.  Its  natural  enemies  are  the 
jungle- fowl,  which  devours  the  young,  and 
the  ichneumon,  which  can  overcome  the 
full-grown  animals.  When  excited,  the 
hood  (see  illustration)  is  expanded  by 
dilating  the  neck.  The  colors  of  this  ser- 
pent vary  from  brownish  olive  to  black, 
with  white  or  black  spots  (usually  two)  on 
the  hood.  The  natives  hold  it  in  super- 
stitious reverence,  and  it  is  a  favorite  with 
the  snake-charmers  of  India. 

Cochin-China  (kd'chin  chi'nd),  the  mari- 
time region  of  Anam,  an  Asiatic  possession 
(since  1861)  of  France,  lies  along  the  east 
coast  of  Indo-China,  washed  by  the  China 
Sea.  The  area  of  the  whole  of  the  Indo- 
Chinese  dependencies  of  France  is  about 
255,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
18  1-4  millions.  It  is  divided  into  four 
main  parts:  Tonquin  in  the  north,  south 
of  it  Anam  proper,  south  of  Anam,  Cochin- 
China  proper,  and  in  the  far  southeast, 
Champa.  The  capital  is  Hue".  The  delta- 
lands  of  Tonquin  are  very  fertile,  yielding 
two  harvests  a  year.  They  are  formed  by 
the  red  soil  earned  down  by  the  main  river, 
of  the  country,  the  Song-coi,  which  is 
rapidly  enlarging  the  delta.  Hanoi,  a  sea- 
port built  by  the  Chinese  in  the  i8th 
century,  is  now  100  miles  inland.  Every- 
where the  delta-lands  are  crossed  by  deep 
dikes,  many  miles  in  length,  from  20  to  30 
feet  high,  and  broad  enough  at  the  top  for 
three  carriages  to  drive  abreast.  The 
people  of  the  hills  are  taller  and  stronger 
than  those  of  the  coast,  who  are  small  and 
so  inactive  that  "lazy  as  an  Anamese"  has 
become  a  proverb.  The  great  crop  is  rice, 


which  is  also  the  main  food,  though  the 
people  are  fond  of  snakes,  locusts,  rats  and 
dogs.  The  emperor  is  a  despot,  and  the 
bastinado,  mutilation  and  torture  are 
regular  punishments.  All  men  between  18 
and  60  must  serve  in  the  army,  and  the 
field-work  is  usually  left  to  the  women. 

Cochin-China,  which  has  an  area  of  23,- 
160  square  miles,  was  conquered  by  China 
in  214  B.  C.,  gained  its  independence  in 
929  A.  D.,  and  was  successful  in  a  second 
war  with  China  in  1403-28.  In  1517  came 
the  Portuguese,  and  soon  after  the  Dutch; 
in  1789  appeared  the  French,  who  have 
slowly  made  themselves  masters,  so  that 
now  the  whole  country  is  a  dependency  of 
France.  The  capital  is  Saigon,  and  the 
chief  products  are  rice,  cotton,  silk,  hides, 
fish,  pepper  and  copra.  Population  is 
about  2,226,935,  and  the  population  of 
Saigon  the  capital  is  47,577.  See  ANAM 
and  CAMBODIA. 

Cochineal.  A  dyestuff,  made  from  the 
cochineal  insect,  scarlet  or  crimson  in  color. 
From  the  same  source  are  derived  the 
carmine  and  lake  paints  or  pigments.  Of 
late  years  this  coloring  matter  is  of  less 
importance,  because  of  the  use  of  aniline 
dyes  which  are  prepared  cheaply  by  chem- 
icals from  coal-tar.  The  home  of  the  insect 
is  Mexico  and  Central  America.  It  is  very 
small,  a  pound  of  cochineal  containing 
about  70,000  dried  insects.  It  feeds  on  the 
cactus,  and  is  secured  by  taking  branches 
of  that  plant  and  giving  the  females  an 
opportunity  to  lay  their  eggs.  These  little 
eggs  are  hatched  in  enormous  numbers, 
and  when  this  second  generation  of  insects 
is  just  ready  to  lay  the  little  creatures  are 
gathered  in  trays  and  placed  in  a  hot  oven. 
They  are  later  dried  thoroughly  in  the  sun. 
From  the  dead  bodies  10%  of  pure  dye  is 
secured.  The  insect  has  been  successfully 
introduced  into  Java  and  Australia. 

Cockatoo,  any  member  of  a  family  of 
parrot-like  birds  inhabiting  the  East  Indian 

archipelago,  Gui- 
nea and  Austra- 
lia. There  is  in 
most  species  a 
crown  of  feathers 
on  the  head, 
which  are  raised 
when  the  bird  is 
excited,  but  quite 
s  m  o  o  t  h  when 
it  is  quiet.  The 
birds  live  in 
"^  flocks  in  the  tops 
of  tall  trees,  and 
make  a  note 
sounding  like 
LEADBEATER'S  COCKATOO  their  name,  but 
they  are  also  great  screamers.  They  are 
very  common  in  zoological  gardens.  The 
prevailing  color  of  plumage  is  white,  but 
there  are  a  yellcw-crested  and  a  pink 


COCKRELL 


418 


COD 


crested  cockatoo,  the  latter  with  feathers 
pink  above  and  almost  crimson  below. 
There  is  also  a  black  cockatoo. 

Cock'rell,  Francis  Marion,  a  member 
of  the  U.  S.  senate,  was  born  in  Johnson 
County,  Missouri,  in  1834.  He  practised 
law,  served  in  the  Confederate  army  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War,  and  attained  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general.  As  a  senator  he  was 
quite  prominent  upon  committees  dealing 
with  appropriations,  military  affairs  and 
industrial  expositions.  He  was  appointed 
on  the  inter-state  commerce  commission 
in  1905.  He  died  in  1915. 

Cockroaches.  The  cockroach  or  ro'ach 
is  a  member  of  the  order  Orthoptera  or 
straight-winged  insects,  and  is  thus  closely 
related  to  locusts,  grasshoppers  and  crickets, 
rather  than  to  beetles.  Fossil  roaches 
are  found  in  such  numbers  in  the  lower 
coal-beds  as  to  suggest  that  they  were  the 
most  common  insects  during  that  warm 
moist  period  of  the  earth's  history.  They 
still  follow  warmth  and  moisture,  and 
for  this  reason  have  attached  themselves 
to  man.  There  are  four  species  that  es- 
pecially infest  our  houses,  the  German,  the 
American,  the  Oriental  and  the  Australian. 

They  are  smooth,  brownish  insects, 
broad  and  very  flat-bodied,  which  enables 
them  to  spend  the  day  between  boards  or 
otherwise  hidden.  The  head  is  bent  under 
the  body,  and  the  eyes  turn  downward. 
The  antennae  or  feelers  take  the  place  of 
noses  and  ears,  apparently,  and  are  very 
long,  about  the  length  of  the  body  and 
very  slender,  having  100  or  more  joints. 
The  males  commonly  have  two  pairs  of 
wings.  The  female  commonly  has  shorter 
wings  or  none  at  all.  They  come  out  to 
feast  by  night.  So  greedy  are  they  that 
they  have  been  known  to  bite  through  book 
covers  and  gilt  lettering  so  as  to  get  at  the 
paste  beneath.  They  leave  an  offensive 
odor  on  all  over  which  they  pass,  and  even 
flavor  dishes  so  that  the  odor  becomes  per- 
ceptible only  when  the  food  cooked  therein 
is  tasted. 

Though  roaches  are  excellent  scavengers 
and  are  reputed  to  destroy  bed-bugs,  they 
are  so  disgusting  that  it  is  important  to 
unite  in  their  destruction.  They  will  in- 
vade a  house  which  is  free  from  them,  so 
that  concerted  action  is  necessary.  They 
are  on  their  guard  against  most  poisons, 
but  can  to  a  great  extent  be  destroyed  by 
the  use  of  pyrethrum  powder.  This,  how- 
ever, spoils  the  shelves  on  which  it  is  placed, 
and  the  roaches  are  only  paralyzed  by  it 
in  many  cases,  and  must  be  swept  up  and 
burnt  in  the  morning,  before  they  recover. 
Phosphorus  paste,  of  which  many  prepara- 
tions are  sold  under  patents,  is  destructive 
to  roaches,  but  is  troublesome  and  not 
free  from  danger.  Wherever  a  room  can 
be  made  airtight,  fumigation  by  burning 
pyrsthrum  is  very  effectiva. 


Co'coa,  a  substance  obtained  from  the 
seeds  of  Theobroma  Cacao,  a  •  member  of 
the  Sterculia  family.  This  particular  species 
is  native  to  tropical  America.  The  cucum- 
ber-like fruit  contains  numerous  seeds 
which  are  called  cocoa  beans.  From  these 
beans  the  cocoa  is  obtained,  and  in  its  re- 
finement it  appears  in  commerce  under  the 
name  of  chocolate. 

Co'coanut,  a  species  of  the  genus  Cocos 
(C.  nucifera),  belonging  to  the  palm  family. 
It  is  native  to  certain  islands  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,  growing  naturally  on  the  sea-shore  or 
in  its  immediate  vicinity,  but  cocoanut  plan- 
tations are  common  throughout  the  tropics. 
A  tough  fibrous  husk  incloses  the  nut,  whose 
hard  shell  is  lined  with  the  food-material. 
The  so-called  milk  in  the  large  cavity  is 
simply  tissue  which  has  not  developed  into 
compact  cells.  Not  only  is  the  fruit  itself 
an  article  of  commerce,  but  the  oil  extracted 
from  the  nuts,  which  is  known  as  cocoa- 


COCOANUT   PALM   WITH    FRUIT 

butter.  This  is  one  of  the  tallest  and  most 
ornamental  of  the  palms,  the  columnar 
trunk  sometimes  rising  to  a  height  of  100 
feet  and  being  crowned  by  a  cluster  of 
leaves  from  10  to  20  feet  long.  As  a  rule 
it  is  found  near  the  sea-coast.  The  tree 
begins  to  bear  fruit  when  about  eight  years 
old ;  the  average  annual  yield  is  from  90  to  100 
nuts;  and  the  tree  remains  productive 
many  years.  The  embryo  finds  outlet  in 
the  largest  of  the  three  black  scars  at  one 
end  of  the  shell.  The  cocoanut  is  propa- 
gated only  by  seeds. 

Cocoon  (ko-koon').     See  CATERPILLAR. 

Cod,  a  common  salt-water  food-fish  re- 
lated to  the  haddock.  The  average  weight 
of  those  taken  about  Cape  Cod  is  about 
ten  pounds,  but  they  may  reach  the  excep- 
tional weight  of  one  hundred  and  sixty 
pounds.  One  weighing  60  pounds  is  con- 
sidered a  large  fish.  They  live  in  the  cold 
waters  of  the  north-temperate  seas,  and 
extend  into  the  Arctic  Circle.  They  are 
remarkable  eaters;  not  only  do  they  eat 
very  many  fish,  but  they  swallow  shelled 
mollusks  whole,  and  rare  shells  have  been 
collected  from  the  cod's  stomach.  They 


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Courtesy  of  Bulletin  of  Pan  American  Union 

NEAR  VIEW  OF  COFFEE  TREE  SHOWING  FRUIT 

When  ripe  the  fruit  is  red.  and  looks  something  like  a  cranberry.     The  coffee  we  buy  is  the  seed 

of  this  berry.     There  are  usually  two  seeds  in  a  berry.      Under  the  outer  skin  is  a  sticky 

pulp  which  incloses  the  seeds  or  beans,  and  these  beans  are  coated  with  a  coarse 

husK  called  "parchment,"  and  under  this  is  a  very  thin  jacket  known 

as  the  "silver-skin." 


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419 


COFFEE 


lay  an  immense  number  ot  eggs — as  many 
as  9,000,000  from  a  75-pound  fish.  The 
cod  are  caught  with  hook  and  line,  and 
great  numbers  are  salted  as  food.  Cod- 
liver  oil  is  a  well-known  medicine. 

Codlin=Moth  (Carpocapsa  pomonella  of 
Linnasus),  according  to  Comstock  "the 
best  known  and  probably  the  most  im- 
portant insect-enemy  of  the  fruit-grower," 
is  gray  with  bronze  markings,  and  has  a 
wing-spread  of  less  than  an  inch  across. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  middle  of  the 
blossom,  and  hatch  into  tiny  maggots, 
which  eat  to  the  center  of  the  young  apple. 
When  the  apple  drops,  as  it  does  prema- 
turely, the  grown  larva  crawls  out  and  into 
the  ground.  Later  it  spins  its  cocoon  under 
the  scales  of  the  bark  of  the  apple-trees. 
Large  numbers  are  destroyed  while  in  this 
stage  by  woodpeckers.  The  larvae  of  the 
second  brood  are  carried  late  in  the  fall  to 
where  apples  are  stored  for  the  winter, 
and  live  to  the  next  spring.  It  is  estimated 
that  this  moth  causes  §7,000,000  damage 
yearly  in  Illinois,  Nebraska  and  New  York. 
Preventive:  Paris  green  or  lead  arsenate 
sprayed  on  the  trees  just  as  the  blossoms 
fall,  with  a  repetition  of  the  treatment  in 
a  few  days  if  rainy  weather  follows.  (See 
SPRAYING.) 

Cody,  William  Frederick,  an  American 
frontiersman  and  scout,  was  born  in  Iowa, 
Feb.  26,1846.  He 
was  familiarly 
known  as  Buf- 
falo Bill,  having 
earned  the  sobri- 
quet by  having 
killed,  in  18 
months  (1867-8), 
over  4,000  buf- 
faloes on  the 
plains,  to  feed 
the  laborers  en- 
gaged in  the  con- 
struction of  t  h  e 
Kansas  Pacific 
Railroad.  H  e 
for  some  time  in 
1868-72  acted  as 
government 
scout  and  guide, 
and  served  in  the  field-operations  against 
the  Sioux  and  Cheyennes.  In  the  battle 
of  Indian  Creek  he  killed  Yellow  Hand,  the 
Cheyenne  chief,  in  a  hand-to-hand  fight; 
and  was  also  in  the  battle  of  "Wounded  Knee. 
In  1872  he  was  a  member  of  the  Nebraska 
legislature.  In  1888  he  organized  what  was 
known  as  the  Wild- West  Show,  an  exhibition 
of  Indians,  rough-riders,  cow-boys  and 
frontiersmen,  with  whom  he  made  tours  of 
the  chief  towns  of  the  United  States  and 
Europe.  He  is  a  joint  author  of.  The  Great 
Salt  Lake  Trail.  He  died  Jan.  10,  1917. 

Ccelenterata  ( se-len'ter-a'  td ) ,  the  sub- 
kingdom  of  animals  containing  the  hydra, 


W.  F.  CODY 


sea-anemone,  jelly-fish  and  coral  animals. 
With  the  exception  of  the  fresh-water  hydra 
and  a  rare  jelly-fish,  they  all  inhabit  salt 
water.  There  are  several  types  ot  animals 
embraced  within  this  subkingdom.  The 
hydroids  are  colonial  and  branching.  They 
have  often  been  collected  and  pressed  under 
the  name  of  sea-moss.  The  polyps  or  in- 
dividuals living  on  the  branches  are  of  two 
kinds:  the  feeding  and  the  medusoids.  The 
latter  are  modified  polyps.  When  mature, 
they  resemble  jelly-fish  and  are  set  free, 
swimming  about  independently.  They  bear 
the  eggs  and  sperms.  When  the  eggs  develop, 
they  are  converted  into  the  branched  colo- 
nial forms  and  as  a  consequence,  there  is  an 
alternation  of  generations.  The  medusoids 
lead  naturally  to  the  jelly-fish,  which  are 
free  swimming  and  of  diversified  form. 
Many  of  them  have  an  umbrella-shaped 
disc  with  tentacles  and  other  structures 
hanging  from  it.  Formerly  they  were 
called  medusae.  The  coral-animals  are 
both  solitary  and  colonial  or  branching. 
All  of  these  animals  have  lasso-cells,  con- 
taining minute  darts  or  threads  which  are 
capable  of  being  discharged.  In  some  forms 
they  are  long  enough  to  penetrate  the  human 
skin,  and  these  can  inflict  severe  stings. 
The  Ctenophora  or  comb-bearers  make  a 
separate  class.  See  CORAL,  HYDRA,  JELLY- 
FISH, 

Coenocyte  (se'no-sit),  a  plant  body  which 
contains  no 
dividing  walls, 
but  consists 
of  a  single  body 
cavity  sur- 
rounded  by  the 
general  bound- 
ing wall.  Such 
bodies  con- 
tain numerous 
nuclei,  and 
may  be  re- 
garded as  be- 
ing composed 
of  just  as  many 
cells,  which 
have  not 
formed  walls 
about  them- 
selves. The 
ccenocytic 
body  is  chiefly 
displayed  b  y 
the  siphon 
forms  among 
the  green  al- 
gse  and  by  the 
Phycomycetes 
among  the 
Fungi. 

Coffee,  the  seed  of  the  coffee-tree  and 
also  a  well-known  drink  made  from  the 
same.  The  coffee-tree  is  a  native  of  Abys- 
sinia, Arabia  and  many  parts  of  Africa. 


BOTRYDIUM,   SHOWING  A 
C03NOCYTIC   BODY 


COFFEE  REPUBLIC 


420 


COLBORNE 


It  is  extensively  grown  iii  Brazil  and  other 
northern  states  of  the  South  American  con- 
tinent, as  also  in  Mexico,  Central  America, 
Haiti,  San  Domingo  and  the  East  Indies. 
In  a  wild  state  it  is  a  slender  tree  from  15 
tc  25  feet  in  height.  When  grown  in  planta- 
tions, it  is  not  allowed  to  become  more 
thaTi  six  to  ten  feet  high,  with  many  branches. 
The  fruit  is  dark  scarlet  when  ripe,  with 
two  cells,  having  one  seed  each.  The  leaves 
are  evergreen,  and  the  flowers  white.  The 
coffee-tree  thrives  best 
in  warm,  moist  lands; 
though  it  grows  at 
Quito,  Peru,  at  an  al^ 
titude  of  1,000  feet, 
where  there  never  is  any 
frost.  The  tree  yields 
its  first  crop  in  the  third 
year;  from  a  full-grown 
tree,  its  yield  may 
amount  to  a  pound  of 
c  o  ff  e  e-b  cans.  Three 
I  gatherings  are  made  in 
the  year,  when  this  pro- 
cess takes  place:  The 
beans  are  placed  on  a 
mat  to  dry  by  the 

COFFEE-PLANT        sun's  rays;   the  pulp  and 

skin  are  taken  off  by  rollers;  and  the  coffee 
is  cleaned  by  winnowing.  The  main  diff- 
erence in  price  and  quality  of  the  product 
is  due  to  care  bestowed  in  preparing  it  in 
different  places.  The  chief  kinds  are  Mocha, 
a  small,  grayish-green  bean;  Java,  a  large, 
yellow  bean;  Jamaica,  smaller  and  greenish; 
Rio,  pale-yellow  and  whitish.  Rio  and 
Maracaibo  are  the  cheaper,  and  Java,  Mocha 
and  Sunda  are  the  more  expensive  brands. 
Coffee  allays  hunger ,  exhilarates  and  refreshes. 
According  to  some  authorities  it  also  lessens 
the  amount  of  wear  and  tear  of  tissue  in  the 
waste  in  the  animal  frame  which  is  going  on 
every  moment.  The  consumption  of  coffee 
in  the  United  States  in  1910  was  873,983,689 
pounds,  an  average  of  9.33  pounds  per  capita, 
and  the  average  import-price  per  pound 
was  7.9  cents.  More  than  half  the  world's 
coffee  is  produced  in  Brazil. 

Coffee  Republic.     See  COSTA  RICA. 

Coffer-Dam  is  a  temporary  dam  built 
around  a  place  to  be  excavated  for  a  founda- 
tion, so  that  the  water  can  be  kept  pumped 
out.  It  is  commonly  constructed  by  driv- 
ing piles  about  the  given  area  and  using 
sheathing  of  various  kinds  to  make  a  water- 
tight wall.  Coffer-dams  are  not  ordin- 
arily used  in  water  over  25  feet  deep.  For 
deeper  water  caissons  are  used.  See  CAIS- 
SON. 

Cohoes  (ko-hoz'),  a  flourishing,  manufac- 
turing city  in  New  York  state,  on  the  Hud- 
son, at  the  mouth  of  the  Mohawk,  and  also 
on  the  State  Barge  Canal.  It  has  six  large 
cotton-mills,  and  some  30  knitting-mills  with 
a  number  of  other  factories.  Population, 
24,709. 


Coin  and  Coinage.     See  MINT. 

Coke,  a  fuel  got  by  heating  coal  in  con- 
fined places.  This  is  done  sometimes  in 
heaps,  just  as  charcoal  is  made  from  wood, 
but  oftener  in  ovens.  It  is  also  made  when 
coal-gas  is  manufactured,  being  left  after 
the  gas  is  driven  off.  Coke  is  a  hard, 
brittle,  porous  solid,  with  a  steel-gray  glint, 
and  it  does  not  readily  soil  the  hands  when 
handled.  It  is  mainly  valued  for  the  great 
heat  it  gives  off  and  its  freedom  from  smoke 
when  burning.  Moreover,  it  does  not  be- 
come pasty  in  the  fire  while  some  of  the 
sulphur  of  the  coal  is  driven  off;  all  these 
qualities  make  it  very  useful  in  smelting 
and  refining  metals.  Coal  yields  about 
70  per  cent,  of  coke. 

Colbert  ( kol'bdr' ) ,  Jean  Baptiste,  one 
of  the  greatest  of  French  statesmen,  was 
born  at  Rheims,  France,  in  1619.  In  1651 
he  entered  the  service  of  the  great  minister 
Mazarin.  On  his  deathbed  Mazarin  warmly 
recommended  Colbert  to  Louis  XIV.  "I 
owe  you  everything,"  said  he,  "but  I  pay 
my  debt  to  your  majesty  by  giving  you 
Colbert."  It  was  in  1661  that  Colbert 
became  chief  minister  to  Louis  XIV.  He 
at  once  began  to  improve  the  ruinous  'con- 
dition of  the  finances.  So  thorough  was 
the  change  which  he  brought  about,  that 
in  ten  years  the  yearly  revenue  (net)  was 
77,000,000  livres,  when  before  it  had  been 
only  32,000,000  livres.  But  his  reforms 
did  not  stop  here.  Farming,  business, 
roads,  canals  and  French  colonies  all  felt 
his  energetic  hand.  He  found  France 
with  a  few  old  rotten  ships,  and  in  a  few 
years  provided  her  with  one  of  the  strongest 
navies  in  the  world.  He  also  was  a  friend 
to  all  men  of  learning.  In  short,  Colbert 
was  the  patron  of  industry,  commerce,  art, 
science  and  literature,  the  founder  of  a 
new  epoch  in  France.  His  aim  was  to  raise 
the  power  of  France;  but  all  he  accom- 
plished was  undone  by  the  wars  of  Louis 
and  his  spendthrift  court.  He  died  at 
Paris  in  1683. 

Col'borne,  Sir  John,  born  in  England 
in  1788,  was  educated  at  Christ's  Hospital 
(the  Bluecoat  School)  and  Winchester  Col- 
lege. He  entered  the  army  in  1794  and 
saw  active  service  in  Egypt,  Sicily,  Portugal 
and  elsewhere.  In  1828  he  was  appointed 
lieutenant-governor  of  Upper  Canada  (now 
Ontario).  Greatly  interested  in  education, 
he  founded  Upper  Canada  College  which 
has  for  many  years  been  one  of  the  most 
important  educational  institutions  in  Canada. 
Owing  to  the  agitation  by  William  Lyon 
Mackenzie  his  term  of  office  was  one  of 
stress  and  storm.  He  later  became  ad- 
ministrator of  Lower  Canada  and  suppressed 
the  Papineau  rebellion.  He  was  subse- 
quently made  governor  of  the  Ionian  Is- 
lands, and  later  attained  the  highest 
military  rank,  that  of  Field-Marshal.  As 
Lord  Seaton  he  died  in  England  in  1863. 


10 


HOPS 


J6    TOBACCO 


AU.  RIGHTS  RESERVED  F.   E.  COMPTON  *  CO. 


1— Coffee  Branch,  showing  Fruit  and  Blossom.     2— Single  Blossom.     8— Fruit,    f— Cut  Fiuit.     5— Tea  Branch 

showing  Blossoms.   6— Fruit.  7— Cocoa  Branch,  showing  Fruit.   8 — Opened  Fruit.   9—  Blossom.    10 — Hops, 

Male  Plant.    11— Male  Blossom.    12— Female  Plant.    13—  Fruit.    14—  Minute  Grains  (greatly 

enlarged)  at  base  of  petals.    15— Catkin  of  Female  Flower.    16 — Tobacco  Plant, 

17— Flower.    18— Fruit. 


RUBBER  TREE 


COCO  AN  UT  PALM 


OIL  PALM 


ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED  F.  E.  COMPTON  i  OCX 


1— Blossom.    2— Fruit.    3— Fruit;  shell  split.    4— Seed.   5— Olive  Fruit.   6— Blossom.    7— Fruit;  cut  lengthwise. 

8— Seed.    9—  Blossom.    10— Blossom;  cut  lengthwise.    11— Fruit.    12—  Branch  of  Blossoms.    13— Blossom 

of  Female  Tree.    14— Fruit.    15— Fruit;  cut  in  half.    16— Branch  of  Oil  Palm  Fruit.    17— Branch 

of  Male  Flowers.    IS— Single  Fruit.    l»-Single  Male  Flower.    20— Single  Female  Flow«r. 


COLD  HARBOR 


421 


COLERIDGE 


Cold  Harbor,  a  village  in  Virginia,  nine 
miles  northeast  of  Richmond,  where  a  bloody 
battle  was  fought,  June  3,  1864,  between  the 
Federal  army  under  Grant  and  the  Confed- 
erate army  under  Lee.  Lee  held  a  strong  po- 
sition, having  his  entire  line  covered  with 
earthworks.  In  the  early  morning  the 
Federal  line  advanced  in  a  grand  assault 
on  the  Confederate  works.  They  were 
obliged  to  pass  over  a  naked  plain  covered 
by  the  Confederate  guns.  Bravely  and 
swiftly  they  advanced,  only,  however,  to 
be  swept  down  by  the  enemy's  fire.  In  less 
than  an  hour  after  the  first  volley  was  fired 
6,000  Union  soldiers  lay  on  the  ground  dead 
or  wounded,  and  the  assault  failed.  The 
attack  was  not  renewed,  and  at  night  Lee, 
in  turn,  assaulted  the  Federal  lines,  but 
was  repulsed. 

Cold  Storage.     Food  may  be  preserved 
either  by  some  chemical  change  made  in 
it  or  by  keeping  out  the  bacteria  of  decompo- 
sition or  by  cold.     The  first  method,  which 
includes    smoking    and    the    use    of    large 
quantities  of  sugar,  has  the  disadvantage 
of  making  the  food  less  wholesome.     The 
second  method  depends  upon  the  fact  that 
bacteria   are   kept   out   with   the   air,    and 
requires  that   the  bacteria  present   in  the 
food  or  vessel  be  first   destroyed,   usually 
by  prolonged  boiling.     By  this  method  the 
food    loses    taste,     in    most     cases.     Cold 
storage  depends  upon  the  fact  that  below 
a  certain  temperature  the  bacteria  of  de- 
composition cannot  work,  though  they  may 
continue    alive.     A    mammoth's    flesh    was 
preserved  in  the  snows  of  Siberia  for  proba- 
bly   20,000  years  or  more;  and  when  found 
the  dogs  ate  the  flesh.     Cold  storage  is  the 
best  method  of  preserving  food.     In   1867 
the  first  refrigerator-car  ran   from  Chicago 
to  New  York  with  a  load  of  beef;  it  was  a 
success,  and  enormous  quantities  of  meat 
are  now  sent  east  in  this  way.     The  butchers 
in  New  York  and  other  cities  are  able  by 
the  same  method  to  keep  the  meat  a  long 
time  after  receiving  it.     Meat  is  now  sent 
across    the    Atlantic    in    cold    storage,    es- 
pecially  to    England,   thus   saving   the   ex- 
pense and  the  risks  of  sending  live  animals. 
For  about  25  years  mutton  has  been  sent 
in    ever-increasing     quantities     from     New 
Zealand  and  Australia  to  England  by  cold 
storage,  with  excellent  results  to  all  con- 
cerned.    Fruits  are  now  sent  in  refrigera- 
tor-cars from  California  and   the    south  to 
all    parts    of    the    country.     Bananas    are 
thus   packed,    and   the   heat    regulated   on 
the    journey,    so    that    the    bananas    arrive 
at  their  destination  at  just  the  required  de- 
gree  of   ripeness;   for   cold  prevents   ripen- 
ing as  well  as  decay.     The  cars  are  built 
double,  with   ice   at   each  end,    and   a  fan 
turned   by    the  forward  motion  of  the  car 
keeps  the  air  circulating  over  the  ice  to  the 
meat  and  back  again.     The  art  of  cold  storage 
was    neglected    until    the    American    people 


developed    it    into    a    great    industry    and 
common  practice. 

Cold  Wave.  From  time  to  time  great 
masses  of  air  that  have  been  chilled  by  the 
cold  soil  of  northern  Canada  flow  south- 
ward over  the  United  States.  Such  cold 
waves,  as  they  are  called  by  the  United 
States  weather-bureau,  usually  cause  a 
sudden  fall  in  the  temperature  to  the  extent 
of  at  least  20°.  The  mass  of  cold  air,  being 
dense,  usually  lies  near  to  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  It  pushes  its  way  beneath 
the  less  dense  air  of  the  south,  which  curls 
and  rises  away  before  it.  The  clouds  which 
mark  the  advance  of  a  cold  wave,  and  often 
bring  snow,  seem  to  be  caused  by  the  cool- 
ing of  the  southern  air,  so  that  it  can  no 
longer  contain  so  much  water-vapor.  A 
cold  wave  will  sometimes  reach  even  Mexico, 
where  it  is  known  as  the  Norte. 

Cole,  Thomas,  an  American  painter,  was 
born  at  Bolton-le  Moors,  England,  Feb.  i, 
1801.  At  Steubenville,  O.,  where  his  father 
settled  after  emigrating  to  America,  the  sight 
of  a  wandering  portrait-painter,  with  his  can- 
vas and  colors,  made  him  decide  to  become 
a  painter.  He  painted  portraits  in  sev- 
eral Ohio  cities  with  no  success,  after  which 
he  set  up  as  a  landscape-painter  at  Philadel- 
phia in  1823.  Here  he  had  a  hard  time, 
glad  even  to  ornament  chairs  for  a  living. 
But  in  1825  he  painted  several  landscapes 
from  sketches  he  had  made  in  the  Cats- 
kills,  which  gave  him  a  name  among  ar- 
tists. Prosperity  at  once  followed  and 
never  afterward  forsook  him.  Among  his 
finest  pictures  are  Mi.  ALtna,  View  of  the 
White  Mountains  and  The  Voyage  of  Life, 
the  last  a  series  of  four  pictures  represent- 
ing childhood,  youth,  manhood  and  old 
age.  He  died  at  Catskill,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  u, 
1848. 

Coleridge  (kol'rtj),  John  Duke,  Lord, 
son  of  a  nephew  of  the  poet,  was  born  in 
1820,  and  graduated  at  Oxford.  He  sat  in 
Parliament  from  1865  to  1873,  where  he 
was  solicitor-general  and  attorney-general 
under  Gladstone.  In  1880  he  became  lord- 
chief-justice  of  England.  He  died  on  June 
14,  1894. 

Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor,  an  English 
poet,  was  born  at  Ottery  St.  Mary,  England, 
Oct.  21,  1772.  At  the  age  of  four  he  had 
read  the  Arabian  Nights.  Schooled  at 
Christ's  Hospital,  where  he  was  poorly  fed 
and  badly  taught,  he  afterward  became  a 
wide  reader,  reading  Homer  for  the  mere 
fun  of  it;  and  here  he  had  as  a  school- 
comrade  Charles  Lamb.  Here  he  planted 
the  seeds  of  his  after  ill-health  by  bathing 
in  the  river  with  his  clothes  on,  and  then 
joining  in  a  game  or  reading  without  chang- 
ing his  garments.  Entering  Cambridge,  he 
was  known  as  a  xreat  talker,  a  gift  in  which 
he  excelled  throughout  life.  Careless  and 
extravagant,  he  was  so  exercised  over  his 
money  troubles,  that  he  fled  and  enlisted 


COLFAX 


422 


COLLEGES 


in  a  dragoon-regiment  under  a  false  name. 
Later  he  was  discovered  by  his  friends  and 
sent  to  Oxford,  where  he  met  Southey.  In 
1795  he  lectured  and  even  preached  in  the 
Unitarian  chapels  around  Bristol,  and 
founded  a  short-lived  journal.  Coleridge 
and  Wordsworth  early  became  fast  friends, 
spending  much  time  together.  Their  talks 
on  poetry  led  to  their  jointly  bringing  out 
the  Lyrical  Ballads  (1798),  containing 
Coleridge's  Ancient  Mariner,  and  the  little 
book  marked  a  new  departure  in  poetry. 
A  year  later  appeared  his  translation  of 
Wallenstein,  one  of  his  best  bits  of  work. 
During  these  years,  troubled  with  rheu- 
matism and  neuralgia,  he  began  to  use 
opium,  and  the  habit  grew  and  enslaved 
him.  It  ruined  his  health,  was  fatal  to  his 
imagination,  and  weakened  his  will.  Very 
sad  is  his  lament  over  his  own  decay  in  his 
beautiful  ode  on  Dejection.  He  had.  before 
contributed  to  the  London  journals,  and 
now  began  to  issue  a  weekly  paper,  The 
Friend,  which,  however,  lived  but  a  few 
months.  As  a  poet  and  philosopher  Cole- 
ridge ranks  high;  while  as  a  critic  he  is 
unsurpassed.  Besides  his  poems,  his  finest 
works  are,  perhaps,  Biographia  Liter  aria 
and  Aids  to  Reflection.  He  wrote  but  little 
poetry,  but  that  little  deserves  to  be  printed 
on  purple  vellum  and  bound  in  covers  of 
gold'  He  died  at  London,  July  23, 1834. 

Coif  ax  (kol'faks),  Schuyler,  a  vice- 
president  of  the  United  States,  was  born 
at  New  York,  March  23,  1823.  Removing 
to  Indiana,  he  published  a  newspaper  at 
South  Bend,  which  he  made  the  foremost 
Whig  journal  in  the  district.  Chosen  a 
representative  to  Congress  by  the  newly- 
formed  Republican  party,  in  1854,  he 
remained  a  member  until  1869  and  was 
three  times  speaker.  He  was  elected  vice- 

6-esident  on  the  ticket  with  Grant  in  1868. 
e  died  on  Jan.  13,  1885. 
Coligni,  Gaspard  de  ( di:h  ko-len'ye ) ,  a 
French  general,  was  born  Feb.  16,  1517. 
A  soldier  at  22,  he  fought  bravely  in  the 
wars  against  Spain,  and  was  made  general 
of  infantry  by  Henry  II.  In  1552  he  was 
made  admiral  of  France,  though  he  never 
commanded  on  the  sea.  In  1557  he  stub- 
bornly held  St.  Quentin,  with  a  handful  of 
men,  for  1 1  days  against  the  Spanish  army, 
and,  though  all  hope  of  defending  the  town 
was  gone,  he  refused  to  surrender  and  was 
captured,  fighting  desperately  at  the  head 
of  a  few  soldiers.  This  defense  saved 
France  from  being  overrun  by  the  Spaniards. 
Imprisonment  followed,  during  which  he 
became  a  Huguenot.  As  able  a  statesman 
as  he  was  a  soldier,  he  succeeded  in  outwit- 
ting the  Guises  and  securing  for  the  Hugue- 
nots freedom  of  worship.  The  bad  faith  of 
the  queen-mother,  Catherine  dei  Medici, 
brought  about  the  second  Huguenot  war, 
in  which  Coligni  was  chief  commander  of 
the  forces  of  Henry  of  Navarre,  afterward 


Henry  IV.  When  peace  was  concluded, 
Catherine  took  advantage  of  the  marriage 
of  Navarre  with  the  sister  of  Charles  IX, 
the  king,  to  older  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew (1572).  Its  chief  victim  was 
Coligni,  who  was  murdered  in  his  bed,  at 
Paris  and  his  body  thrown  into  the  street. 
Personally,  Coligni  was  one  of  the  noblest 
Frenchmen  of  the  i6th  century  and  had  a 
profound  love  for  his  country. 

Colleges,  American.  The  course  of 
study  in  our  American  colleges  has  been 
constantly  enlarging  and  widening.  The 
knowledge  required  for  entering  has  also 
risen  greatly,  so  that  now  colleges  proper — 
as  distinguished  from  the  many  high-schools 
and  academies  calling  themselves  colleges 
— furnish  young  men  with  an  education 
fully  equal  to  that  of  the  undergraduate 
departments  of  English  and  German  uni- 
versities. The  high  conditions  of  admission 
are  shown  by  the  fact  that  15  per  cent,  of 
the  candidates  for  the  freshman  class  at 
Harvard  fail  to  pass  the  entrance  examina- 
tions, while  ten  per  cent,  fail  each  year  at 
Yale.  Besides  the  regular  course,  aln-ost 
all  colleges  offer  the  student,  especially  in 
the  last  two  years  of  the  course,  elective 
studies,  which,  if  he  prefers,  he  can  ex- 
change for  studies  in  the  regular  course. 
Training  in  writing  and  public  speaking  is 
also  carried  on,  either  under  the  direction 
of  the  faculty  or  in  the  exercises  and  debates 
of  the  literary  societies  and  in  the  editing 
of  college  papers.  Elective  studies  as  a 
system  were  not  introduced  into  Harvard 
till  the  accession  of  President  Eliot  (1869). 
They  have  since  been  widely  adopted  in 
other  colleges.  A  student's  expenses  of 
course  vary  greatly.  In  city-colleges,  like 
Yale,  Harvard  and  Columbia,  the  extremes 
are  from  about  $450  to  $3,000  a  year. 
At  the  country  colleges  of  the  east,  a  poor 
student's  bills  need  not  be  more  than  $350, 
while  at  the  smaller  western  colleges  they 
may  be  still  less.  Moreover,  all  colleges 
grant  aid  to  poor  students  of  good  brains, 
while  teaching  and  tutoring  or  "coaching" 
often  pay  the  whole  of  a  student's  expens  s. 
Harvard  bears  the  name  of  a  Congrega- 
tional clergyman.  Princeton  was  founded 
to  train  up  able  ministers.  And  in  fact, 
all  the  early  colleges  were  founded  for  a 
like  purpose.  Many  western  colleges  w  re 
also  started  as  home-missionary  sch  ols. 
The  aim  of  colleges  has  since  greatly  wid- 
ened; yet  college-professors  to-day  are  in 
the  main  Christian  men,  and  the  influence 
in  colleges  on  student  and  on  the  coui.try 
is  a  Christian  one.  One  feature  of  college 
life  is  its  student-societies,  open — most  of 
them  literary — and  secret.  These  societies 
are  often  known  as  fraternities,  with  chap- 
ters in  many  colleges.  In  1908  there  were 
32  men's  fraternities  in  connection  with 
American  colleges,  with  1,013  active  chap- 
ters and  a  total  membership  of  198,507;  in 


COLLEGE  EXAMINATION 


423 


COLLEGE,  GOING  TO 


the  same  year  there  were  17  women's  fra- 
ternities, with  254  active  chapters  and  a 
total  membership  of  22,833. 

Athletics  receive  their  full  share  of  atten- 
tion. Each  college,  usually  each  class,  has 
its  baseball-nine,  football-eleven  and  boat- 
crew.  Series  of  games  are  played  with 
other  colleges  each  year  The  Thanks- 
giving Day  football  game  between  Yale  and 
Princeton,  which  for  years  was  played 
in  New  York  city,  drew  thousands  of 
spectators,  as  does  also  the  spring  regatta 
between  the  Harvard  and  Yale  crews, 
which  is  rowed  on  the  Thames,  at  New 
London,  Conn.  Field-days,  in  which  prizes 
are  given  to  the  winners  in  running,  jump- 
ing, vaulting  and  other  matches,  are  held 
in  most  colleges.  Over  half  the  colleges  of 
the  country  have  gymnasiums,  and  in  at 
least  one — Amherst — exercise  under  an  in- 
structor is  required.  The  Dartmouth 
Gazette  was  the  first  college  paper,  founded 
in  1800.  The  Harvard  Lyceum,  which  was 
begun  in  1810,  had  Edward  Everett  as  its 
first  editor.  Such  men  as  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes,  James  Russell  Lowell  and  Phillips 
Brooks  were  college  editors.  There  are  now 
over  200  college  journals.  Many  colleges 
now  give  fellowships  to  specially  able 
graduates  to  study  in  some  special  branch, 
usually  abroad.  The  most  prominent  in 
this  respect  is  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
The  colleges  of  the  country — some  500 — 
are  well-distributed.  The  largest,  as  a  rule, 
are  in  the  east.  The  University  of  Wis- 
consin at  Madison,  Wis.,  the  University  of 
Illinois  with  4,920  students,  the  Universit) 
of  Chicago  with  its  3,035  students  and 
the  University  of  Michigan  at  Ann  Arbor, 
Mich.,  with  its  297  professors  and  lecturers 
and  5,500  students,  are  among  the  mort 
prominent  western  colleges.  The  oldesi 
college  in  the  country  is  Harvard  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  with  597  instructors 
and  its  4128  students.  Yale,  Princeton, 
Amherst,  Dartmouth,  Bowdoin,  Brown, 
Cornell,  Columbia,  Lehigh,  Lafayette,  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  and  Williams 
are  the  other  leading  eastern  colleges. 
Most  of  the  colleges  will  be  found  mentioned 
under  the  name  of  the  town  where  they  are 
located.  The  total  number  of  students  of 
both  sexes  attending  the  453  American 
colleges  in  1908  was  close  upon  200,000, 
about  one  fourth  being  women.  The  num- 
ber of  instructors  was  over  18,000,  2,250 
being  women.  The  benefactions  of  the 
year  amounted  to  nearly  15  million  dollars, 
and  the  total  income  was  over  $30,750,000; 
while  the  gross  productive  funds  amounted 
to  208^  millions. 

College  Entrance-Examination  Board, 
of  the  middle  states  and  Maryland,  was 
established  in  1899  at  the  instigation  of 
Nicholas  Murray  Butler  to  obviate  the 
difficulties  arising  from  the  diversity  of 
standards  of  admission  required  by  the 


various  colleges  and  universities  through- 
out the  country.  It  is  composed  of  repre- 
sentatives of  colleges  and  secondary  schools 
in  the  Middle  States  and  Maryland  whose 
duties  are  to  hold  yearly  a  series  of  college 
entrance-examinations  with  uniform  tests  in 
the  various  subjects  and  to  issue  certificates 
based  upon  the  results  of  these  examinations. 
The  examination-papers  for  each  subject 
are  made  out  by  a  committee  of  three  (two 
college  professors  and  one  high-school  in- 
structor), and  then  revised  by  a  committee 
made  up  of  the  original  three  members, 
together  with  five  additional  high-school 
teachers.  The  papers  are  then  sent  to  the 
places  where  examinations  are  held,  which 
now  include  nearly  all  the  larger  cities  in 
the  United  States,  and  some  cities  in  foreign 
countries.  No  candidate  fails,  unless  judged 
unfit  to  pass  by  at  least  two  examiners. 
The  certificates  issued  by  the  board  are  now 
accepted  by  nearly  all  colleges  of  the 
United  States.  Pupils  who  fail  may  have 
their  examination  papers  sent  to  the  college 
which  they  wish  to  enter,  and,  if  their 
standing  is  satisfactory  to  that  institution, 
they  may  be  admitted. 

College,  Going  to.  To  raise  the  ques- 
tion whether  or  not  one  should  go  to  college 
is  much  like  questioning  the  advisability 
of  one's  doing  much  reading  and  thinking. 
There  are,  for  various  reasons,  many  per- 
sons from  whom  only  a  minimum  amount 
of  mental  activity  can  be  expected,  and  a 
meagre  education  must  suffice  for  them. 
But,  ordinarily,  any  one  who  finds  it 
possible  to  go  to  college,  or  who  has  energy 
enough  to  make  it  possible,  can  profit 
greatly  by  going. 

It  is  true  that  occasionally  a  successful, 
or  even  a  college-bred,  man  opposes  a  college- 
course  for  his  son,  on  the  ground  that  such 
a  course  unfits  one  for  business  instead  of 
helping  him  in  it. 

But,  in  general,  one  vital  condition  of 
success  in  life  is  a  knowledge  of  what  people 
have  thought  and  done  in  the  past:  a 
knowledge  of  the  principal  problems  that 
have  confronted  them  and  the  ways  in 
which  they  have  been  solved.  This  is  one 
of  the  things  that  a  good  college-course 
attempts  to  give,  and  does  give.  It  gives 
it  in  the  study  of  literature,  history,  natural 
science,  art  and  other  subjects,  the  various 
studies  representing  nothing  more  than  the 
main  lines  of  human  endeavor. 

The  college-course  accomplishes  this 
object  much  better  now  than  it  did  25 
years  ago.  At  that  time  nearly  all  students 
were  expected  to  take  much  the  same 
course,  consisting  of  Latin,  Greek  and 
mathematics,  no  one  of  which  subjects 
dealt  extensively  with  the  actual  problems 
of  life.  But  since  that  time  many  subjects 
have  been  introduced,  such  as  sociology, 
domestic  science,  domestic  art,  manual 
training  and  educational  psychology,  be- 


COLLEGE,  GOING  TO 


424 


COLLEGE  OF  NEW  YORK  CITY 


cause  they  deal  with  real  issues;  and  most 
of  the  old  lines  of  study  have  been  so 
modified  in  content  and  method  that  they 
function  much  more  than  formerly.  There- 
fore, as  a  result  of  a  good  college-course, 
to-day,  one  becomes  reasonably  well-in- 
formed in  regard  to  modern  problems,  and 
he  has  such  an  interest  in  them  that  his 
mind  is  likely  to  be  alert  and  active  in 
regard  to  these  and  other  problems  in  the 
future.  He  is  then  well-prepared  to  be 
identified  with  the  workers  of  the  world. 

All  this  applies  as  well  to  college-educa- 
tion for  young  women  as  for  young  men. 
It  is  true  that  it  used  to  be  a  question 
whether  the  ordinary  college-course  for 
young  women,  while  it  possessed  many 
merits,  did  not  to  a  considerable  extent 
inculcate  a  distaste  for  home-keeping— a 
sad  result,  indeed.  It  tended  to  do  this 
through  neglect  of  the  problems  of  the 
home,  if  in  no  more  positive  way.  But 
that  evil  is  now  being  rapidly  remedied, 
just  as  are  the  somewhat  similar  but  lesser 
evils  in  the  men's  colleges. 

But  knowledge  of  and  interest  in  human 
problems  are  only  some  of  the  benefits  of 
a  college  course.  Any  one  who  spends  three 
or  four  years  at  college  forms  there  many 
of  his  main  friendships  for  life.  It  is  an 
especially  cultured,  ambitious  and  able  class 
of  persons  that  one  meets  in  college;  and 
to  cement  enduring  friendships  there  that 
one  will  often  enjoy  later  is  one  of  the 
chief  objects  of  going  to  college.  Many 
an  adult  suffers  from  lack  of  numerous 
well-educated  and  close  friends.  The  sug- 
gestion follows  from  this  fact  that  study 
should  not  be  taken  so  seriously  as  to  ex- 
clude social  life  at  college. 

The  college-graduate,  to  be  sure,  is  likely 
to  feel  his  lack  of  preparation  for  most 
lines  of  work,  the  moment  he  leaves  college 
and  sets  out  to  earn  a  living.  He  must 
often  at  first  take  a  position  much  inferior 
to  those  occupied  by  other  persons  possess- 
ing little  education.  But  his  superior  knowl- 
edge, training  and  associations  give  him 
innumerable  advantages  over  such  persons 
in  the  race  for  advancement,  and  usually, 
before  many  years  are  passed,  he  passes  be- 
ycnd  them.  He  not  only  occupies  a  higher 
position  in  his  chosen  work,  too,  but  he  takes 
higher  rank  as  a  factor  for  progress  in  com- 
munity life. 

The  selection  of  a  good  college  is  not  an 
easy  matter.  A  college  that  is  very  good 
for  one  person  may  not  be  desirable  for 
another.  Large  colleges  or  universities 
possess  the  advantage  over  small  ones  of 
having  more  valuable  equipments  and  of 

Saying  larger  salaries  to  head-professors, 
ut  the  difficulty  with  the  large  college  is 
that  the  average  student  who  attends  it 
becomes  lost  in  the  mass.  The  lecture-plan 
is  largely  followed,  and  the  classes  are 
large,  so  that  few  responsibilities  besides 


getting  his  lessons  fall  upon  the  ordinary 
student,  and  he  has  little  or  no  personal 
contact  with  his  instructors.  Many  of 
these,  also,  are  poorly  paid  underlings,  the 
head-professors,  worth  large  salaries,  work- 
ing mainly  with  advanced  students. 

The  small  college,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
very  likely  to  secure  a  close  contact  be- 
tween teacher  and  student,  and  each  student 
is  likely  to  feel  more  social  responsibility. 
The  difference  is  much  the  same  as  that 
between  life  in  a  great  city  and  that  in  a 
small  town.  Any  person  having  any  vigor 
is  likely  to  count  for  something  in  a  small 
community;  while  only  the  born  leaders  are 
called  forth  in  great  cities.  Many  enlight- 
ened persons  to-day  are  inclined  to  favor 
the  small,  reasonably  well-equipped  college 
to  the  very  large  one  for  the  ordinary 
student. 

But  the  college  that  one  chooses  should 
depend  very  much  upon  its  strength  in  the 
line  of  study  that  one  expects  mainly  to 
pursue.  Moreover,  whatever  college  one 
attends,  the  courses  that  he  selects  after 
he  arrives  there  should  not  be  determined 
solely  by  their  titles.  In  fact,  one  should 
not  choose  a  college  chiefly  either  because 
it  is  small  or  large,  but  because  there  are 
certain  persons  of  power  there  whom  he 
wants  and  can  have  as  his  own  instructors. 
The  average  instruction  in  any  school  or 
college  is  not  very  good,  and  frequently  it 
is  very  poor.  This  is  not  due  to  any  care- 
lessness on  the  part  of  any  class;  it  is  true 
because  good  teaching  is  so  difficult  an  art 
that  it  is  not  common.  Not  infrequently 
professors  with  national  reputations  are 
miserable  instructors.  They  can  attract 
students,  but  cannot  hold  them.  In  choos- 
ing a  college,  therefore,  one  should  make 
sure,  by  correspondence  with  friends  and 
in  other  ways,  that  his  prospective  teachers 
will  be  a  source  of  inspiration.  It  makes 
little  difference  how  learned  the  faculty  as 
a  whole  is,  or  how  many  members  it  may 
contain;  the  very  few  men  who  will  instruct 
a  given  student  are  practically  the  institu- 
tion for  that  particular  student. 

The  principal  of  the  high-school  nearest 
to  you  can  probably  be  relied  upon  to  give 
good  advice  about  particulars  in  regard  to 
going  to  college.  By  writing  to  the  secre- 
tary of  any  college  one  can  obtain  desired 
information,  including  the  catalogue  of  the 
institution.  See,  also,  COLLEGES,  AMER- 
ICAN. F.  M.  McMuRRY. 

College  of  the  Cityof  New  York. 
In  1847-8  the  city  board  of  education 
established  an  institution  for  higher  educa- 
tion which  was  at  first  known  as  the  New 
York  Free  Academy.  In  1866  it  became  a 
college,  but  it  had  no  separate  board  of  trus- 
tees until  1900,  when  the  members  of  the 
board  of  education  were  replaced  by  the 
president  of  that  board,  acting  with  the 
president  of  the  college  and  nine  members 


COLLEXCHYMA 


425 


COLOGNE 


chosen  by  the  mayor.  The  college  is  now 
housed  in  splendid  four-million-dollar  build- 
ings. A  notable  feature  of  its  recent  develop- 
ment has  been  its  co-operation  with  the  city. 
For  example,  the  Department  of  Chemistry 
works  with  the  municipal  testing  laboratories 
in  the  analysis  of  products  purchased,  with 
the  Health  Department  in  food  analysis  and 
sanitary  inspection;  the  Department  of  Psy- 
chology acts  with  the  Board  of  Education 
in  the  treatment  of  defective  children. 

Collenchyma  (kol-len'kt-ma)  (in  plants), 
a  peculiar  kind  of  tissue  in  many  plants 
which  serves  as  an  elastic  mechanical 
support  and  is  developed  immediately 
beneath  the  epidermis.  It  may  be  recog- 
nized in  cross-sections  by  the  fact  that  its 
cell-walls  are  thickened  at  the  angles  and 
have  a  characteristic  pearly  white  luster. 

Col'lingwood,  a  town  of  7,291,  one  of 
the  principal  seaports  on  Georgian  Bay 
(Ontario),  beautifully  located  at  the  foot 
of  the  Blue  Mountains.  Enjoys  a  large 
grain  trade  with  Chicago.  A  lumber  cen- 
ter for  all  the  ports  on  the  north  shore  of 
Georgian  Bay.  It  is  on  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway,  and  the  home  port  of  the  Northern 
Navigation  Co.,  the  steamers  of  which  ply 
thence  to  the  numerous  lake-ports. 

Col'Hns,  William,  an  English  poet, 
was  born  at  Chichester,  Eng. ,  Dec.  25,  1721. 
While  a  schoolboy  be  wrote  his  Oriental 
Eclogues,  the  most  popular  of  his  poems 
during  his  lifetime.  After  leaving  Oxford 
he  sought  to  make  a  living  as  an  author 
in  London,  but  his  health  and  irregular 
ways  of  working  unfitted  him  for  success 
in  such  a  life.  His  place  among  British 
poets  is  due  to  his  Odes,  which  did  not  meet 
with  the  praise  they  deserved,  when  they 
first  appeared,  and  were  little  valued  even 
by  such  critics  as  Dr.  Johnson  and  the 
poet  Gray.  In  1753  Collins'  reason  gave 
way,  and  he  died  on  June  12,  1759,  utterly 
unnoticed  by  a  single  newspaper  of  his  time. 
His  finest  odes  are,  perhaps,  To  Evening 
and  The  Passions,  though  his  most  popu- 
lar poems  are  that  on  the  Death  of  the  Poet 
Thomson  and  that  beginning  with  "How 
sleep  the  brave." 

Col'Hns,  William  Wilkie,  an  English 
novelist,  was  born  in  London,  Jan.  8,  1824. 
He  had  a  good  schooling,  spent  four  years 
in  business,  and  studied  law.  However, 
he  turned  to  writing,  first  bringing  out  a 
life  of  his  father,  who  was  an  eminent 
painter.  His  novels  took  high  rank,  and 
he  became  famous  for  devising  deep  and 
tangled  plots  for  his  stories.  Hence  he 
was  called  the  Weird  Concocter.  His  best 
novels  are  The  Woman  in  White,  The  New 
Magdalen,  No  Name,  Poor  Miss  Finch, 
Armadale  and  The  Moonstone.  He  died 
in  London,  Sept.  23,  1889. 

Collodion,  a  clear,  colorless,  gummy 
and  highly  inflammable  liquid  prepared 
by  dissolving  gun-co'  ->n  or  pyroxylin  in 


an  equal-parts  mixture  of  alcohol  and 
ether.  The  gun-cotton  is  prepared  from 
common  cotton-wool  by  first  boiling  it  in 
a  solution  of  sodium  carbonate,  washing 
and  drying  it  and,  second,  by  placing  tufts 
of  it  for  eight  or  ten  minutes  in  a  mixture 
of  nitric  acid,  water  and  sulphuric  acid, 
and  again  washing  and  drying.  Collodion 
was  once  extensively  used  in  photography, 
and  for  some  lines  of  that  art  is  still  used. 
It  is  very  commonly  used  in  surgery  and 
chiropody,  being  especially  valuable  for 
scratches,  chafings  and  minor  cuts,  as  it 
keeps  out  poisonous  substances  and  is  not 
soluble  in  water.  In  one  of  its  common 
commercial  forms  it  is  known  as  New  Skin. 

Coll'yer,  Robert,  was  born  at  Keigh- 
ley,  England,  Dec.  8,  1823.  When  a  boy, 
he  worked  in  a  factory  and  afterward  be- 
came a  blacksmith.  All  his  spare  time 
was  spent  in  educating  himself.  In  1850 
he  emigrated  to  America,  settling  in  Shoe- 
makertown,  Pa.,  as  a  blacksmith  and 
Methodist  preacher.  He  afterward  be- 
came pastor  of  a  Unitarian  church  in  Chi- 
cago, and  later  on  of  the  Church  of  the 
Messiah  in  New  York  city.  His  sermons 
and  books,  especially  his  Lectures  to  Young 
Men  and  Women,  have  made  him  widely 
known,  and  the  story  of  the  rise  of  the 
blacksmith-preacher  to  a  commanding  posi- 
tion is  familiar  to  all  Americans.  A  liter- 
ary society  of  Cornell  University  asked  Mr. 
Collyer  as  a  great  favor  to  make  them  a 
horseshoe  to  hang  in  their  hall,  saying  that 
Cornell  boys  could  have  no  better  stimulus 
than  a  piece  of  his  handiwork  always  in 
sight.  The  preacher  complied,  and,  asking 
a  blacksmith  to  allow  him  to  use  his  ham- 
mer, soon  proved  that  he  had  not  lost  his 
skill.  A  picture  of  the  scene  has  been 
painted,  showing  the  white-haired  old  man 
with  a  blacksmith's  apron  tied  over  his 
clerical  garb,  fashioning  a  horseshoe  on  the 
anvil.  He  died  Nov.  30,  1912. 

Cologne  (ko-lon"),  the  capital  of  Rhenish 
Prussia,  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine. 
It  is  built  in  a  half-circle,  surrounded  by 
the  Ringstrasse,  a  6o-foot-wide  boulevard. 
Its  old  churches  and  buildings  of  the  nth, 
1 2th  and  i3th  centuries,  of  Gothic,  Roman- 
esque and  Transition  styles  of  architecture, 
are  of  great  interest.  But  its  most  famous 
building  is  the  cathedral,  one  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  in  Europe. 
Said  to  date  back  to  the  reign  of  Charle- 
magne, it  was  burned  in  1248;  its  rebuild- 
ing was  begun  in  about  1270,  and  was  car- 
ried on  interruptedly  till  1509.  It  was  not 
until  1823  that  work  on  it  was  recommenced, 
and  the  spires  were  not  finished  until  1880. 
Its  entire  cost  was  about  $10,000,000 
Cologne  is  a  fortress  of  the  first  rank,  de- 
tached forts  encircling  the  city  at  a  radius 
of  four  miles  from  the  cathedral.  It  is 
well-placed  for  commerce,  and  many  manu- 
factures are  carried  on,  among  them  the 


COLOMBIA 


COLOMBO 


famous  eau-de-cologne.  The  town  was 
founded  by  the  Ubh  about  30  B.  C.  It  be- 
came a  part  of  the  German  empire  in  870, 
was  a  member  of  the  league  of  the  Hansa 
towns  in  1201,  and,  losing  its  independ- 
ence, came  under  the  sway  of  Prussia  in 
1 80 1.  Population  of  Cologne  (Koln), 
516,167. 

Colombia  (k$-lom'be'-a) ,  a  South  Ameri- 
can republic,  in  the  northwest  corner  ot 
the  continent,  formerly  including  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama.  It  is  washed  by  two 
oceans,  and  has  3,000  miles  of  coast  and  an 
area  estimated  at  500,000  square  miles. 

Surface.  In  the  east  are  low,  wide  plains, 
and  in  the  west  three  great  ranges  of  the 
Andes  spreading  out  like  the  ribs  of  a  fan. 
The  deep  gorge  through  which  the  Patia 
River  forces  its  way  to  the  Pacific  between 
steep  walls  from  10,000  to  12,000  feet  in 
height  forms  the  only  break  in  the  western 
range  of  the  Andes  from  Darien  to  Patagonia. 

Drainage.  The  rivers  chiefly  belong  to 
the  Atlantic  system.  The  lea,  a  feeder  of 
the  Amazon,  provides  quick  and  easy  com- 
munication with  Brazil.  The  Meta,  an 
affluent  of  the  Orinoco,  affords  navigation 
from  near  Bogota  to  the  Atlantic.  The 
Magdalena-Cauca  and  the  Atrato  are  more 
important,  flowing  nearly  the  length  of 
the  land,  emptying  into  the  Carribbean, 
and  offering  feasible  communication  to 
the  tablelands. 

Climate  and  Rainfall.  In  a  day's  jour- 
ney one  may  encounter  all  the  climates 
of  the  world,  from  the  valleys  choked 
with  the  rich  growth  of  the  tropics  to  the 
never-melting  snows  of  the  peaks.  On 
the  lowlands  there  are  a  dry  and  a  rainy 
season,  on  the  tablelands  two  of  each. 
The  rainfall  is  enormous,  short  rivers  car- 
rying almost  continental  volumes  of  water. 

Natural  Resources.  Colombia  distinc- 
tively is  a  mineral  land.  It  abounds  in  alum, 
amber,  amethysts,  antimony,  asphalt,  coal, 
copper,  emeralds,  gold,  iron,  lead,  lime- 
stone, magnesium,  mercury,  platinum,  pot- 
ash, salt,  silver,  soda.  Spain  in  three 
centuries  mined  $300,000,000  of  precious 
metals.  The  forests  contain  the  aloe, 
brazilwood,  cinchona,  fustic,  indigo,  log- 
wood, sarsaparilla,  tolu  balsam.  The  flora 
ranges  from  tropical  varieties  to  alpine  or 
arctic  types. 

Agriculture.  On  the  loftier  levels  the 
crops  of  the  temperate  zone  are  cultivated; 
on  the  coast  the  banana,  chocolate,  cocoa, 
coffee,  cotton,  pepper,  plantains,  rice,  sugar, 
tobacco  and  yams.  On  the  plains  cattle 
and  horses  are  largely  bred. 

Manufactures  and  Commerce.  Beyond 
basketmaking,  dying,  tanning  and  weav- 
ing, there  are  almost  no  manufactures, 
though  distilleries,  glassworks,  cigar-fac- 
tories and  sulphuric-acid  factories  have 
been  founded.  Other  manufactures  in- 
clude candles,  iron,  "panamas,"  shoes  and 


soap.  Excellent  harbors  on  both  coasts 
create  a  favorable  situation  for  commerce, 
but  the  absence  of  good  roads  and  rail- 
ways hampers  trade.  Honda,  the  head 
of  steam-navigation  on  the  Magdalena,  is 
connected  by  rail  with  Bogotd,  and  there 
are  other  short  railroads,  but  they  serve 
only  the  most  limited  areas.  The  prin- 
cipal exports  are  cinchona,  coffee,  cotton, 
hides,  indigo;  the  minor  items  balsam, 
ipecac,  ivory-nuts. 

Education.  Public  instruction  was  in 
1870  entrusted  to  the  state,  the  schools 
reformed,  teachers  brought  from  Europe, 
and,  anticipating  the  rest  of  South  America, 
primary  education  made  free.  Higher  edu- 
cation is  provided  by  normal  schools,  state 
colleges,  technical  schools  and  a  national 
university. 

Races.  The  most  densely  populated  part 
of  the  country  is  the  high  and  healthy  table- 
land of  the  eastern  Cordilleras,  where  stands 
the  capital,  Bogota  (population  150,300), 
8,694  feet  above  the  sea.  Of  the  natives, 
the  Chibchas  were  the  chief,  being  in  civ- 
ilization almost  equal  to  the  Peruvians. 
Many  other  tribes  lived  among  the  mount- 
ains, and  about  200,000  survive.  The 
population  is  made  up  of  whites,  Indian 
half-breeds,  mulattoes  and  Zamboes  (half 
negro  and  half  Indian). 

History.  Amerigo  Vespucci  visited  the 
northern  coasts  in  1499;  three  years  later 
Columbus  tried  to  found  a  Spanish  colony 
in  Panama;  Balboa  discovered  the  Pacific 
in  1513;  and  the  native  empire  was  over- 
come by  Jimenez  de  Quesada  in  1536. 
The  Spaniards  ruled  badly,  and  reduced 
the  Indians  to  serfdom.  In  1819  was 
formed  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  including 
what  are  now  Colombia,  Venezuela  and 
Ecuador.  The  character  of  the  people 
and  the  lack  of  close  communication  be- 
tween districts  far  apart  made  the  state  un- 
wieldly,  and  in  1831  the  confederation  fell 
to  pieces.  What  now  is  Colombia  was  first 
called  the  Republic  of  New  Granada,  but 
took  its  present  name  in  1861.  Its  consti- 
tution is  m; deled  after  that  of  the  United 
States.  Besides  Bogota,  the  capital,  the 
other  chief  towns  are  Cartagena  (popu- 
lation 27,000)  and  Medellm  (60,000). 
Panama  was  formerly  a  part  of  Colombia, 
but  seceded  in  Nov.,  1903.  The  secession 
was  caused  by  the  action  of  Colombia  in 
refusing  to  ratify  a  treaty  which  had  been 
negotiated  with  the  United  States  for  the 
construction  of  the  Panama  Canal,  and 
the  refusal  was  held  to  be  directly  opposed 
to  the  interests  of  Panama. 

Colombo  (ko-lom'bo),  capital  of  Ceylon, 
was  named  by  the  Portuguese  after  Christo- 
pher Columbus.  It  has  a  fine  harbor,  and 
within  the  town  are  two  mission-colleges. 
Colombo  was  captured  by  the  British  in 
1796.  It  has  railway  connection  with 
Kandy,  60  miles  to  the  northeast.  In  1910 


COLON 


427 


COLOR 


Ceylon  had  577   miles  of  railway   open  for 
traffic.     Population,  158,228. 

Colon  (ko-lon')  (formerly  Aspinwall),  a 
seaport  at  the  Atlantic  extremity  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama.  During  the  gold-rush 
to  California  in  1849  the  necessity  for  a 
short  route  between  the  two  oceans  finally 
resulted  in  railroad  connection  between 
Colon  and  Panama.  Colon  is  the  terminus 
of  the  Kingston  cable.  The  canal-author- 
ities have  laid  out  regular  streets,  built  a 
good  hospital  and  in  various  ways  improved 
the  town,  which  has  a  population  of  about 

4,5°°- 

Colonna,  V  i  1 1  o  r  i  a ,  the  best-known 
poetess  of  Italy,  was  born  in  1490,  daughter 
of  the  constable  (a  high  officer  on  the 
European  continent  in  the  middle  ages)  of 
Naples,  and  of  a  famous  Roman  family. 
She  was  married  at  17,  having  been  be- 
trothed when  only  four  years  old.  She 
was  a  close  friend  of  Michael  Angelo,  and 
admit  ed  by  the  poet  Ariosto.  Her  poems 
appeared  in  1538.  She  died  at  Rome  in 
February,  1547. 

Col'ony,  a  name  applied  to  the  foreign 
dependencies  of  a  state.  Roman  colonies 
were  military  settlements,  usually  towns 
planted  to  overawe  a  conquered  country. 
The  Greek  colony  consisted  of  a  band  of 
emigrants,  who,  as  a  rule,  because  of  politi- 
cal troubles  sought  a  new  home  beyond 
the  seas.  According  to  the  story  of  the 
^Eneid,  Rome  itself  was  a  colony,  in  the 
Greek  sense,  of  Troy.  Greek  colonists  did 
not  go  far  inland,  but  fringed  the  shores 
of  Asia  Minor,  Sicily,  southern  Italy  and 
even  the  Crimea  with  trade-settlements, 
many  of  which,  in  wealth,  wrere  in  advance 
of  the  cities  of  Greece  proper.  Modern 
colonies  began  a  little  before  the  discovery 
of  the  New  World  in  the  isth  century. 
Love  of  adventure,  thirst  for  gold  and  the 
desire  to  spread  religion  sent  Europeans  to 
the  far  west  and  east.  A  long  and  bitter 
struggle  between  the  different  states  for 
this  new  land  left  some  of  them,  at  the 
end  of  the  igth  century,  much  shorn  of 
their  possessions.  Spain  lost  South  and 
Central  America,  with  Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico  in  the  West  Indies  and  the  Philip- 
pine, Mariana  and  Caroline  groups  of 
islands  in  the  east,  though  she  still  has 
possessions  in  Africa,  with  an  area  of  80,- 
580  square  miles  and  a  colonial  population 
close  upon  300,000.  Portugal  has  lost 
Brazil,  but  has  long  strips  on  both  coasts 
of  Africa  and  a  few  small  settlements  in 
India,  together  with  the  Madeira,  Cape 
Verd  and  Azores  Islands.  Holland  has  lost 
Ceylon  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to 
England,  but  is  still  enriched  by  Java  and 
the  Spice  Islands,  Sumatra,  the  Celebes, 
the  Moluccas,  New  Guinea  (in  part)  and 
Curasao.  The  French  have  fared  badly. 
India  and  halt  of  North  America  would, 
perhaps,  be  French  to-day  but  for  two 


Englishmen,  Clive  and  Wolfe.  Algeria  and 
Cochin-China  have  been  acquired  later,  as 
also  Tunis,  Tonquin  and  Madagascar.  The 
colonies  and  dependencies  in  Asia,  Africa, 
America  and  Oceania  extend  to  4,227,826 
square  miles,  with  a  total  population  ex- 
ceeding 56  millions.  Italy  has  the  port  oi 
Massowah,  on  the  African  shore  of  the  Red 
Sea,  together  with  Italian  Somaliland  and 
other  African  dependencies.  Germany  has 
only  lately  reached  out  for  colonies,  but 
has  gained  valuable  possessions  on  the  east 
and  west  coasts  of  Africa,  in  China  and  in 
New  Guinea.  The  area  of  Germany's  col- 
onies exceeds  one  million  square  miles,  with 
a  population  of  12,686,000. 

The  most  important  colonies  ever  founded 
were  the  13  colonies  of  England  which  now 
are  the  United  States.  Though  England 
lost  half  of  the  North  American  continent, 
her  colonies  dot  the  globe;  cover  much 
more  land  than  those  of  all  other  countries 
taken  together;  and  through  them  she  rules 
over  an  area  of  11,400,000  square  miles 
(including  the  United  Kingdom)  with  a 
total  population  of  about  410,000,000. 

Counting  the  United  States  as  a  British 
colony,  the  history  of  modern  colonies  is 
the  story  of  the  spread  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
race.  In  North  America,  Australasia  and 
South  Africa  this  race  already  is  in  posses- 
sion of  the  only  large  tracts  of  uninhabited 
land  where  white  men  can  work  and  thrive. 
The  main  British  possessions  are,  in  Europe, 
Gibraltar,  Malta,  Cyprus;  in  North  America, 
Canada,  Newfoundland,  the  Bermudas,  with 
various  West  India  islands,  Honduras;  in 
South  America,  Guiana  and  the  Falkland 
Islands;  in  Africa,  Cape  Colony,  the  Trans- 
vaal, the  Orange  River  Colony,  Natal, 
Mauritius,  Ascension,  St.  Helena;  in  AsK, 
India,  Ceylon,  Straits  Settlements,  North 
Borneo,  Hong-Kong;  in  Australia  and 
Oceania,  Australia,  Tasmania,  New  Zealand, 
New  Guinea  (in  part)  and  Fiji. 

Color,  a  sensation  of  the  eye  produced 
by  light-waves.  When  a  beam  of  white 
light  is  passed  through  a  prism  of  glass,  it 
is  stretched  out  into  a  band  of  light  called 
the  prismatic  spectrum.  One  part  produces 
the  sensation  of  red ;  another  part,  the  sensa- 
tion of  green;  another,  of  blue;  and  so  on 
These  different  sensations  are  called  colors. 
As  was  proved  by  Newton,  Young  and 
others,  each  of  these  different  colors  is  pro- 
duced by  light  of  a  different  wave-length, 
and  white  light  consists  merely  of  light  in 
which  all  these  colors  are  combined  in  the 
proper  proportion.  Newton  showed  that 
colored  light  may  be  produced  from  white 
light  in  one  of  three  ways:  (i)  By  refrac- 
tion in  a  prism  or  lens,  as  seen  in  the  rain- 
bow. (2)  By  diffraction,  as,  for  instance ; 
in  the  colors  seen  in  mother-of-pearl  and  in 
the  blue  color  of  the  sky.  (3)  By  absorp- 
tion, as,  for  instance,  the  red  color  of  a 
brick-house  or  the  green  color  of  grass 


COLORADO 


428 


COLORADO 


where  all  the  white  light  which  falls  upon 
the  house  is  absorbed  except  the  red,  and 
all  which  falls  upon  the  grass  is  absorbed 
except  the  green. 

The  mixture  of  colors  is  a  very  compli- 
cated subject,  but  the  student  will  find  it 
very  lucidly  treated  in  Captain  Abney's 
little  book :  Color  Mixture  and  Measure- 
ment in  the  Romance  of  Science  Series;  as 
also  in  Shelford  Bidwell's  Curiosities  of 
Light  and  Sight. 

Colorado  is  located  in  the  center  of 
that  portion  of  the  United  States  west  of 
the  Mississippi  River.  The  state  is  quad- 
rilateral in  shape;  and  is  bounded  by 
Wyoming  and  Nebraska  on  the  north,  Ne- 
braska and  Kansas  on  the  east,  Oklahoma 
and  New  Nexico  on  the  south  and  Utah  on 
the  west. 

Area.  The  state  is  about  370  miles  long 
and  280  miles  wide,  while  the  gross  area  of 
the  state  is  103,948  square  miles.  Deduct- 
ing a  few  small  lakes  and  «.  ther  bodies  of 
water  leaves  103,658  square  miles  of  land 
area.  Colorado  is  larger  than  Great  Britain, 
half  as  large  as  France,  and  nearly  equal 
in  area  to  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New 
Jersey  and  Delaware  combined. 

Mountains.  The  continental  range  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  extends  across  the  state 
from  north  to  south  near  its  center.  Pike's 
Peak,  west  of  Colorado  Springs,  is  the  most 
famous  peak  in  the  state,  but  not  the 
highest,  it  being  one  of  many  that  have  an 
elevation  of  14,000  feet  to  14,500  feet. 

The  surface  of  Colorado  has  two  natural 
divisions, — mountains  and  plain.  The 
mountain-division  has  an  altitude  from 
5,000  feet  to  14,000  feet.  The  plain-division 
is  from  4,000  feet  to  5,000  feet  high. 

Rivers.  The  principal  rivers  of  the  eastern 
slope  are  the  South  Platte  and  the  Arkansas. 
The  Rio  Grande  drains  the  San  Luis  valley. 
The  Grand  flows  toward  the  southwest. 
The  Yampa  and  White  are  tributaries  of 
the  Green,  which  unites  with  the  Grand  in 
eastern  Utah  and  forms  the  Colorado  River. 
None  of  these  rivers  is  navigable.  These 
rivers  with  their  numerous  branches  fur- 
nish a  supply  of  water  for  irrigation  pur- 
poses. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  delightful;  the 
air  is  dry,  the  sunshine  abundant.  There 
are  rains  throughout  the  warm  parts  of  the 
year  and  snows  in  winter,  but  both  are 
moderate  in  quantity.  The  altitude  and 
dryness  minimize  the  heat  in  summer  and 
the  cold  in  winter.  The  perpetual-snow 
line  varies  between  13,000  and  14,000  feet, 
except  on  the  side  of  the  mountains  slop- 
ing to  the  north  and  in  deep  canyons  where 
it  is  lower. 

Mineral  Springs.  There  are  more  than 
seventy-five  groups  of  mineral  spings  hav- 
ing medicinal  properties.  The  most  noted 
ones  are  located  at  Manitou,  Canon  City, 
Idaho  Springs,  Glenwood  Springs,  Hot  Sul- 


Ehur  Springs,  Steamboat  Springs,  Pagosa 
prings,  etc. 

Land.  The  report  of  1911  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  the  United  States  General  Land- 
Office,  Washington,  D.  C.,  shows  that  20,- 
599,100  acres  of  government  land  were 
unappropriated  and  unreserved,  of  which 
19,069,624  acres  had  been  surveyed  and 
1,529,476  acres  had  not  been  surveyed. 
Since  the  date  of  that  report  there  have 
been  many  entries  by  settlers  on  such 
lands.  When  Colorado  was  admitted  to 
the  Uni^n,  Congress  granted  to  the  state 
two  sections  of  land  in  every  township  for 
the  support  of  the  public  sc'/ools. 

The  soil  on  the  uplands  ;s  a  rich,  sandy 
loam,  varied  in  some  localities  by  clay  or 
adobe.  Along  the  river-bottoms  it  is  largely 
alluvial;  in  some  places  siliceous  and  mica- 
ceous. 

Agriculture.  The  recent  development  of 
agriculture  through  irrigation  has  been  the 
wonder  of  western  civilization.  In  1910 
there  were  46,170  farms,  average  value 
$10,645.  The  average  number  of  acres  per 
farm  was  293,  which  was  more  than  twice 
the  size  of  the  average  farm  in  the  United 
States.  This  is  due  to  the  number  of  stock- 
grazing-farms.  Farm-products  are  cereals, 
roots,  vegetables,  fruit,  hay-fodder,  live 
stock,  wool,  dairying,  poultry,  honey,  etc. 

Colorado  excels  other  states  in  the  average 
value  per  acre  of  farm-crops.  Owing  to  the 
superior  quality  of  Colorado  fruit,  it  is  very 
extensively  shipped  to  other  states. 

Mining.  Colorado  leads  in  the  produc- 
tion of  the  precious  and  allied  metals,  pro- 
ducing twice  as  much  gold  and  silver  as 
any  other  state  and  more  than  one  third 
of  the  total  output  of  the  United  States. 
Colorado  possesses  inexhaustible  coal-depos- 
its, and  in  1906  was  seventh  among  the  coal- 
producing  states,  surpassed  by  Pennsyl- 
vania, Illinois,  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Ala- 
bama and  Indiana  in  the  order  named. 
It  ranked  second  among  the  states  as  a  pro- 
ducer of  anthracite,  being  surpassed  by 
Pennsylvania.  The  Colorado  coal-fields  are 
found  on  both  sides  of  the  Rock)"  Moun- 
tains, those  on  the  western  slope  being  the 
largest  and  most  important  in  quantity 
and  quality.  In  the  year  1910  the  state  pro- 
duced 11,973,736  tons,  which  were  valued 
at  $17,026,934,  and  employed  15,864  men 
in  and  about  the  mines.  Coke  is  manu- 
factured extensively,  and  the  state  has  abun- 
dant deposits  of  iron  ores. 

Manufacturing.  The  great  variety  of  raw 
materials  gives  Colorado  advantages  as  a 
manufacturing  state.  The  leading  manu- 
facturing industries  are  the  iron  and  steel 
plant  at  Pueblo,  foundries  and  machine- 
shops  at  Denver,  smelting  of  gold,  silver, 
copper,  lead  and  other  ores,  canning- fac- 
tories, creameries  and  cheese-factories,  flour- 
ing and  grist-mills,  printing  and  publishing 
plants,  saw-mills,  beet-sugar  factories,  etc. 


COLORADO 


429 


COLOSSEUM 


Population.  Colorado's  total  population 
in  1900  was  539,700.  It  is  now  estimated  by 
latest  federal  estimate  is  now  975,190.  Eighty- 
three  per  cent,  are  American  born  and  17  per 
cent,  foreign  born.  Colorado  has  only  1.6 
per  cent,  negroes,  a  less  percentage  than 
other  states,  and  a  less  percentage  of 
Orientals  than  any  of  the  Pacific  states. 
As  to  Indians,  Colorado  has  fewer  than 
either  New  York  or  Pennsylvania. 

Railroads.  Colorado  has  better  railroad 
accommodations  than  any  other  Rocky 
Mountain  state,  only  one  county,  Baca, 
being  without  railroad  communication. 
There  already  are  over  5,000  miles  of  rail- 
road within  its  boundaries,  and  more  are 
being  constructed.  The  principal  railroads 
are  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande,  Colorado 
\nd  Southern,  Union  Pacific,  Burlington, 
Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe,  Colorado 
Midland,  the  Denver,  Northwestern  and 
Pacific  and  the  Missouri  Pacific  roads. 

Education.  Colorado  ranks  among  the 
foremost  in  education.  There  are  more 
than  2,000  school-buildings,  with  5,000 
teachers  and  an  attendance  of  168,000  pupils. 
The  annual  expenditure  for  school  pur- 
poses is  five  and  one-half  million  dollars. 
The  state  institutions  of  higher  educa- 
tion are  the  State  University  at  Boulder, 
State  School  of  Mines  at  Golden,  State 
Agricultural  College  at  Fort  Collins  and  the 
State  Normal  School  at  Greeley. 

History.  Colorado  was  acquired  in  three 
tracts:  a  portion  of  the  north  and  east  by 
the  Louisiana-purchase  of  1803;  a  portion 
of  the  west  and  north  by  the  Mexican 
cession  of  1848;  the  remainder  by  a  pur- 
chase from  Texas  in  1850.  Coronado,  in 
1 54 1 1  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 
white  man  to  set  foot  withm  the  present 
limits  of  Colorado.  In  1776  Escalante 
traversed  the  western  and  southern  por- 
tions. The  first  organized  American  ex- 
ploration was  made  under  government 
authority  in  1806  by  Lieutenant  Zebulon 
N.  Pike.  The  next  expedition  was  under- 
taken in  1819  by  Major  Stephen  S.  Long. 
In  1842  John  C.  Fremont  began  a  series  of 
five  explorations  in  search  of  practicable 
rail-routes. 

The  first  important  discovery  of  gold 
was  made  in  1858.  At  this  time  trappers 
and  scouts  were  about  the  only  white 
inhabitants  of  Colorado,  and  there  were 
only  a  few  forts,  stockade  and  trading-posts; 
such  a  trading- post  was  established  in  1840 
on  the  present  site  of  Pueblo.  When  the 
first  gold-hunters  came  to  Colorado  the 
parks  were  inhabited  by  the  Ute  Indians; 
the  plains  by  the  Cheyennes,  Arapahoes, 
Kiowas  and  Comanches.  The  Indians  have 
since  been  placed  upon  reservations. 

In  1876  Colorado  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  as  the  Centennial  State.  The  pre- 
historic remains,  consisting  of  numerous 
Cave-dwellings  and  ruins  found  in  southern 


Colorado,  have  been  set  apart  as  a  govern- 
mental reservation. 

_  Colorado  (kol'o-rd'dd)  (meaning  red),  a 
river  900  miles  long  and  navigable  for  600 
miles.  It  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the 
Grand  and  Green  Rivers.  Its  main  branches 
are  the  San  Juan,  Flax,  Bill  Williams  and 
Rio  Gila.  It  flows  southwest  through  south- 
ern Utah  and  northwestern  Arizona;  next 
separates  Arizona  from  Nevada  and  Cali- 
fornia; then  enters  Mexico  and  empties 
into  the  northern  end  of  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia. The  Colorado  itself  and  most  of  its 
branches  flow  at  the  bottom  of  deep  canons, 
slowly  cut  out  by  water  during  the  lapse  - 
eons.  Below  the  mouth  of  the  Flax,  for 
nearly  400  miles,  the  canon  walls  rise  from 
4,000  to  7,000  feet,  forming  the  Grand 
Canon  of  the  Colorado,  one  of  the  great 
wonders  of  the  world.  In  1906  .'he  river 
created  Salton  Sea  in  southern  California. 

Colorado  River  of  Texas  is  over  poo 
miles  long,  and  averages  250  feet  in  width. 
In  winter  steamboats  go  up  the  river  as 
far  as  Austin.  Throughout  most  of  its 
length  it  flows  through  a  region  of  rich 
soil,  and  is  a  beautiful,  clear  stream.  It 
empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  at  Mata- 
gorda  Bay. 

Colorado  Springs,  county  seat  of  El 
Paso  County,  is  an  attractive  city,  75  miles 
south  of  Denver.  Its  altitude  is  6,000  feet, 
and  it  is  situated  on  a  plain  near  Pike's 
Peak,  and  is  known  the  world  over  as  a 
health  and  pleasure  resort.  The  city 
possesses  a  handsome  opera-house,  five 
clubs,  several  fine  school-buildings,  the 
State  Blind  and  Mute  School,  sanitariums, 
hospitals  and  fine  churches.  It  was  settled 
in  1870:  but  the  Cripple  Creek  gold  dis- 
covery in  1891  nearly  doubled  its  popula- 
tion. Colorado  Springs  is  served  by  six 
railroads,  and  has  all  the  adjuncts  of  a 
modern  city.  Population,  31,717. 

Colosseum  (kol'os-se'um) ,  the  largest  of  tne 
Roman  amphitheatres.  Amphitheatres  were 
oval-shaped  buildings,  used  by  the  Romans 
for  combats  of  gladiators  and  for  wild  beast 
fights.  In  the  theatre,  where  plays  were 
performed,  the  seats  faced  the  stage  in  a 
half-circle;  in  the  amphitheatre  the  seats 
entirely  surrounded  the  place  of  perform- 
ance; hence  the  name,  from  amphi,  mean- 
ing all  around.  The  Colosseum,  besides 
being  the  largest  of  these  buildings,  is  the 
best  preserved,  and  is  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting ruins  in  the  world.  It  was  begun 
by  Vespasian,  and  finished  by  Titus  in  80 
A.  D.  It  covers  about  five  acres  of  ground, 
and  was  able  to  seat  87,000  persons.  It 
is  612  feet  in  length,  and  515  feet  wide. 
When  Titus  dedicated  it,  5,000  wild  beasts 
were  slain  and  the  games  lasted  for  a  hun- 
dred days.  On  the  outside  it  is  160  feet 
high,  built  in  three  rows  of  columns  and 
surrounded  by  a  row  of  pilasters.  Between 
the  columns  are  arches,  forming  open 


COLOSSUS 


430 


COLUMBUS 


falleries  running  throughout  the  entire 
uilding.  On  the  inside  the  open  space  in 
the  center  was  covered  with  sand  or  saw- 
dust, while  the  games  were  going  on,  and 
so  was  called  the  arena,  from  the  Latin  word 
for  sand.  Around  the  arena  was  a  gallery 
where  sat  the  emperor,  senators  and  vestal 
virgins.  Above  were  three  other  tiers  of 
seats,  corresponding  with  the  three  rows  of 
columns  on  the  outside.  The  Colosseum  in 
the  middle  ages  gave  rise  to  the  saying: 
"While  stands  the  Colosseum  Rome  shall 
stand;  while  Rome  shall  stand,  the  world." 

Colossus  (kd-los'sus)  of  Rhodes,  a  huge 
statue  of  Helios  (the  sun),  the  chief  god  of 
the  Rhodians.  It  is  said  to  have  been  the 
work  of  Chares  of  Lindus,  who  spent 
12  years  on  it,  finishing  it  in  260  B.  C. 
It  was  called  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of 
the  world,  though  not  a  masterpiece  of 
sculpture.  Its  height  was  from  90  to  120 
feet.  It  stood  near  the  harbor;  but  the  story 
that  it  was  placed  astride  the  entrance  is 
erroneous.  In  224  B.  C.  it  was  overthrown  • 
by  an  earthquake,  and  lay  an  object  of 
wonder  until  653,  when  it  was  sold  to  a 
Jew  for  old  metal. 

Colt,  Samuel.     See  REVOLVER. 

Columbia.     See  DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

Colum'bia  or  Oregon  River  is  1,400 
miles  long.  Next  to  the  Yukon,  it  is  the 
largest  river  on  the  American  Pacific  coast. 
It  rises  in  the  Rockies  of  British  Columbia, 
flows  through  Washington,  separates  that 
state  from  Oregon,  and  empties  into  the 
Pacific.  Its  mouth  forms  an  inlet  from  three 
to  seven  miles  wide  and  35  miles  in  length. 
Its  main  branches  are  Snake  River  and 
Clarke's  Fork.  There  are  many  falls  and 
rapids,  so  that,  though  it  is  navigable  for 
some  660  miles,  freight  has  to  be  carried  by 
railroads  past  the  various  breaks  of  the 
river.  The  salmon-fisheries  are  noted. 

Columbia,  Pa.,  a  borough  in  Lancaster 
County,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Susquehanna 
River,  80  miles  by  rail  west  of  Philadelphia. 
A  railroad-bridge  across  the  river  connects 
the  town  with  Wrighteville.  The  town  was 
founded  in  1726  by  English  Quakers.  Its 
factories  include  rolling-mills,  flouring- mills, 
foundries,  tanneries,  silk,  lace  and  pipe 
mills,  wagon,  brush,  stove,  novelty,  em- 
broidery and  shirt-works.  It  also  has 
manufactories  of  railroad-iron.  It  has  an 
active  civic  life,  good  schools  and  a  public 
library.  Population,  11,454. 

Columbia,  the  capital  of  South  Carolina, 
is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Congaree 
River.  The  town  is  beautifully  laid  out 
with  broad  and  well-shaded  streets,  all  of 
which  cross  at  right  angles.  Having  been 
the  capital  of  the  state  since  1790,  it  has 
many  imposing  public  buildings,  including 
the  state-house,  penitentiary,  hospital  for 
the  insane,  etc.  Several  well-known  col- 
leges and  quite  a  number  of  fine  cotton- 
mills  are  located  in  the  city.  When  the 


city  was  evacuated  by  the  Confederates 
at  the  approach  of  Gen.  Sherman  in  the 
spring  of  1865,  large  quantities  of  cotton 
piled  in  the  streets  caught  or  were  set  on 
fire,  and  all  the  business  section  and  many 
private  residences  were  consumed.  The 
pormlation  in  1900  was  21,108;  to-day  it  is 
33,506. 

Columbia  University,  located  in  New 
York  city,  was  chartered  in  1754  as  King's 
College.  During  the  Revolutionary  War 
the  work  of  the  college  was  suspended,  and 
the  building  was  used  as  a  hospital.  Col- 
lege work  was  resumed  in  1784,  and  the 
name  of  the  institution  changed  to  Colum- 
bia College.  Under  this  name  the  college 
has  had  a  long  and  prosperous  career.  The 
law  department  was  established  in  1858; 
the  medical  department  in  1860;  the  school 
of  mines  in  1863;  the  school  of  political 
science  in  1880;  the  school  of  philosophy  in 
1890;  and  the  school  of  pure  science  in 
1892.  Barnard  College  for  women,  founded 
in  1889,  became  affiliated  in  1890.  In 
1896  the  name  of  the  institution  was  changed 
to  Columbia  University.  It  is  now  an 
amply  equipped  and  richly  endowed  insti- 
tution. It  has  a  library  of  550,000  vol- 
umes, 888  officers  of  instruction  and  7,322 
students,  exclusive  of  summer-school  and 
extension  students. 

Columbine  (kZl'um-bin),  a  well-known 
and  popular  wild  flower,  which  is  widely 
diffused,  and  which  has  been  suggested  as 
the  national  flower  of  the  United  States. 
The  leaflet  is  three-lobed  and  the  flower, 
which  passes  from  yellow  to  red,  has  five 
petals  with  long  spurs,  giving  it  a  striking 
resemblance  to  the  liberty-cap. 

Columbus,  Christopher.  In  1470  there 
arrived  on  the  coast  of  Portugal,  on  a  plank 
that  was  part  of  the  wreckage  of  a  privateer 
sunk  in  a  sea-fight, 
an  adventurous  mar- 
iner. Born  in  Genoa, 
Italy,  perhaps  in 
1 43  6,  perhaps  in  1446, 
he  was  of  the  stature 
and  coloring  of  Norse 
pirates.  His  eyes 
were  as  pale  a  blue 
as  sea-ice,  his  red  and 
white  skin  was 
bronzed  by  20  years' 
exposure  to  wind  and 
sun;  his  auburn  hair, 
already  pointed  with 
silver,  shone  like 

a  nimbus  above  a  handsome,  smooth- 
shaven,  aquiline  face.  Besides  being  a 
skilled  navigator,  he  was  a  man  of  learning, 
temperate  habits  and  speech  and  as  strict 
piety  as  if  he  were  of  some  religious  order. 
These  qualities  must  have  recommended 
him  in  Lisbon,  for  the  Portuguese  were 
among  the  most  ardent  Christians  and  the 
most  daring  voyagers  in  the  world.  Grad- 


CHRISTOPHER 
COLUMBUS 


COLUMBUS 


431 


COLUMBUS 


ually  the  facts  came  out  that  Columbus, 
Colombo  or  Colon  (for  he  used  the  Latin, 
Portuguese  and  Spanish  forms  of  his  name 
indifferently)  had  learned  geography,  math- 
ematics and  nautical  astronomy,  and  had 
coasted  the  Mediterranean  and  voyaged  to 
the  Guinea  coast.  He  had  read  Marco 
Polo  and  Sir  John  Mandeville,  and  knew 
of  the  strange,  disquieting  adventures  of 
Portuguese  voyagers  who  had  been  blown 
far  to  the  westward.  He  bo-^y  held  the 
not  original  opinion  that  the  earth  is  a 
sphere. 

Although  unknown  and  penniless,  this 
man  was  so  remarkable  that  within  a  year 
he  had  married  the  daughter  of  Palestrello, 
an  ex-governor  of  the  Madeira  Islands  and 
a  learned  geographer.  He  thus  had  access 
to  the  dead  man's  maps,  charts  and  cal- 
culations that  confirmed  his  opinion  that 
the  Indies  and  the  land  of  Kubla  Khan 
could  be  reached  by  sailing  westward.  He 
presented  a  plan  for  an  expedition,  first 
(about  1475)  to  Genoa,  then  to  John  II  of 
Portugal,  to  Henry  VII  of  England,  to 
two  Spanish  dukes  and  finally  to  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  of  Castile. 

Twelve  years  he  spent,  a  beggar  at  in- 
different courts,  dismissed  as  impractica- 
ble by  the  wise,  ridiculed  by  the  foolish, 
betrayed  by  cupidity,  deluded  by  false 
promises.  His  wife  died,  his  property  was 
exhausted,  he  had  been  made  the  buffet 
of  capricious  fortune.  But  he  was  not 
dismayed.  When  learning,  piety,  self-con- 
trol and  a  single-hearted  purpose  go  hand  in 
hand,  they  may  defy  all  the  fates  to  baffle 
them.  At  55  [?45?]  years  of  age  we  find  him 
(1492)  leading  his  motherless  son,  Diego, 
through  the  lovely  landscape  of  Andalusia, 
begging  bread  and  shelter  of  the  monks 
of  La  Rabida,  a  monastery  that  overlooks 
the  harbor  of  Palos.  Undiscouraged,  he 
poured  the  tale  of  his  incredible  ambition 
into  the  ears  of  the  simple  brothers,  only 
to  find  among  them  a  geographer  who  could 
understand  his  plans  and  an  ex-confessor  to 
Queen  Isabella  who  could  recommend  him 
to  royalty.  On  the  30!  of  August,  1492, 
the  monks  of  La  Rabida  bade  him  God- 
speed out  of  the  harbor  of  Palos,  on  the 
most  momentous  voyage  in  history. 

How  perilous  that  voyage  was  you  must 
read  a  long  biography  to  realize.  It  lasted 
ten  weeks.  The  crews  of  120  men  were 
mostly  made  up  of  criminals  and  vaga- 
bonds, who  had  choice  of  this  dangerous 
adventure  or  of  imprisonment  for  their 
misdeeds — as  treacherous  a  lot  of  cut- 
throats as  ever  commander  shipped. 

The  Island  of  Guanahani  was  sighted  on 
the  i  ath  of  October,  1492,  and  the  banner 
of  Spain  unfurled  above  the  soil  of  the  New 
World.  The  details  of  this  and  of  his  three 
subsequent  voyages  are  given  in  every 
school-history.  The  great  discoverer  had 
the  misfortune — for  Spain — to  sail  too  far 


south.  Had  he  cleared  the  Bahamas,  he 
must  have  reached  the  Carolina  coast  and 
discovered  the  continent  of  North  America. 
But  he  struck  the  wilderness  of  islands, 
large  and  small,  that  guard  the  Gulf  and 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  thus  won  tropical 
America  for  Spain  and  Portugal,  leaving 
the  more  valuable  northern  continent  for 
England  and  France  to  colonize  and  fight 
over.  He  thought  the  earth-sphere  much 
smaller  than  it  is  and  Asia  much  larger, 
and  mistook  the  archipelago  of  the  West 
Indies  for  islands  fringing  India,  China 
and  Japan.  So  he  continued  to  explore 
these,  seeking  always  the  continent  beyond. 
On  his  fourth  and  last  voyage  he  skirted 
South  America,  found  the  Orinoco  River, 
and  reached  Yucatan.  The  sweep  of  the  Gulf 
Stream  made  him  look  for  a  passage  west- 
ward about  where  we  are  digging  the  Panama 
Canal  to-day.  On  his  first  voyage  he  built 
a  fort  on  San  Domingo,  now  Haiti,  out  of 
the  wreckage  of  the  Santa  Maria,  and 
planted  a  colony.  Then  he  returned  to 
Spain  with  gold,  strange  plants  and  ani- 
mals and  six  natives  for  baptism.  After 
his  second  voyage,  in  1493,  misfortune, 
misery  and  insults  marked  the  remaining 
ten  years  of  life,  lightened  by  brief  periods 
of  wealth,  honor  and  royal  favor.  In  the 
failure  of  his  colonies  too  little  allowance 
was  made  in  his  own  time  for  the  evils  of 
a  tropical  climate,  savage  natives  and  un- 
cultivated land.  Too  little  is  made  by 
his  biographers  of  the  character  of  Spanish 
colonists.  The  adventurers  who  went  with 
Columbus  were  inspired,  not  by  desire  for 
a  home  in  the  New  World,  but  by  greed 
for  gain  and  by  religious  bigotry  that  had 
its  logical  result  in  exploitation  and  cruelty. 
His  long  absences  from  Spain  gave  am- 
bitious and  unscrupulous  men  at  court 
ample  time  to  plot,  so  that  adequate  sup- 
port and  authority  were  withheld  from 
him.  From  his  third  voyage  (1498)  he 
was  sent  home  (1500)  in  irons  and,  as  he 
feared,  to  disgrace  and  death.  Tardy 
reparation  made  and  his  enemies  punished, 
he  had  the  magnanimity  to  set  out  on  a 
fourth  voyage  in  May,  1502,  for  their  ma- 
jesties of  Spain.  In  May,  1506,  he  died 
at  Valladolid,  Spain,  aged  60  or  70.  In 
1796  his  bones  were  removed  from  San 
Domingo  to  the  cathedral  at  Havana, 
Cuba.  The  title  Duke  of  Veragua  was 
conferred  on  his  son  Diego,  and  continues 
to-day  in  the  descendants  of  his  great- 
gran  ddaughter . 

Columbus'  task  was  to  conceive  a  be- 
nificent  idea  and  to  put  it  to  the  proof  in 
the  most  obvious  way.  For  this  his  knowl- 
edge was  as  complete  as  possible,  his  plan 
definite,  his  purpose  undefiled  by  self-in- 
terest, his  resourcefulness  and  persistence 
unbounded,  his  courage  sublime.  He  found 
a  path  across  the  unknown  seas',  and  charted 
it  so  others  could  safely  follow.  He.  ha<J 


COLUMBUS 


432 


COMETS 


sown  the  seed,  leaving  to  others  the  har- 
vest. Even  the  continent  he  had  discovered 
was  given  the  name  of  a  later,  lesser  man. 
But  for  that  he  probably  would  have  cared 
little.  His  personal  name  Christopher, 
he  shrouded  in  a  mystical,  pietistic  signa- 
ture which  symbolized  the  fact  that  he 
considered  himself  but  a  servant  of  Christ, 
Mary  and  Joseph.  Above  his  title  which 
made  the  descendants  of  a  Genoese  wool- 
comber  grandees  of  Spain,  he  held  his  rank 
of  admiral.  He  was  the  greatest  mariner 
the  world  had  seen,  or  was  to  see,  undes- 
pairing,  undismayed.  By  his  will  he  di- 
rected that  the  head  of  his  house,  in  every 
generation  should  describe  himself  as  Duke 
of  Veragua,  The  Admiral.  The  best  known 
and  most  accessible  life  of  Columbus  is 
probably  the  one  by  Washington  Irving. 
It  needs  to  be  supplemented  by  the  writ- 
ings of  Adams,  Fiske,  Harrisse,  Markham, 
Prescott,  Thacher  or  Winsor. 

Colum'bus,  Georgia,  a  railroad  center  at 
the  head  of  navigation  on  Chattahoochee 
River.  It  has  wonderful  waterpower,  ag- 
gregating 136,000  horsepower  at  and  above 
the  city,  27,000  of  which  is  already  de- 
veloped and  in  use.  It  is  a  large  manufac- 
turing center,  having  16  cotton-factories, 
6  large  fertilizer  factories,  two  large  iron- 
mills,  two  flour-mills,  clothing-factories,  the 
largest  show-case  factory  south  of  the 
Potomac  and  a  variety  of  industrial  estab- 
lishments, including  cotton  compresses,  woolen 
mills  and  wood-working  plants.  There  are 
also  many  large  factories  just  beyond  the  city 
limits.  It  has  an  excellent  school -system, 
providing  for  all  children  from  kindergarten 
to  college.  The  latest  addition  to  its 
school-system  is  the  secondary  industrial 
school  which  is  an  academic  trade-school 
of  high-school  rank.  According  to  the 
census  of  1900,  the  population  was  17,614. 
It  has  had  a  steady  growth  of  recent  years,  and 
its  population  by  latest  census  is  placed  at 
21,805. 

Columbus,  Ind.,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Bartholomew  County,  situated  on  a 
branch  of  White  River.  It  has  flour  and 
starch-mills,  and  manufactures  agricul- 
tural implements,  furniture  and  cerealine. 
It  has  the  service  of  the  Big  Four  and 
Pittsburg,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  St.  Louis 
railroads.  Population,  8,813. 

Columbus,  the  capital  of  Ohio,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Scioto  River,  a  little  south  of 
the  center  of  the  state.  It  is  a  city  of  broad 
streets  and  large  parks.  The  fine  capitol 
and  the  United  States  and  board-of-trade 
buildings  are  among  its  main  structures. 
It  contains  an  insane  hospital,  state  peni- 
tentiary and  asylums  for  the  blind  and 
deaf  and  dumb.  There  are  38  public- 
school  buildings,  four  of  them  high-schools, 
and  they  have  more  than  20,000  pupils. 
Among  the  higher  institutions  are  Capital 
City  University,  Ohio  State  University 


and  St.  Mary's  Academy.  Besides,  there 
are  three  medical  colleges,  a  dental  col- 
lege and  five  public  hospitals.  There  are 
several  parks  and  40  or  more  churches. 
Natural  gas  is  used  for  domestic  purposes, 
and  there  is  an  unlimited  supply  of  bitu- 
minous coal  near  the  city.  Columbus  is 
an  important  manufacturing  city,  pos- 
sessing steel-plants,  blast-furnaces  and 
malleable-iron  works,  and  making  cash- 
registers,  agricultural  implements,  auto- 
mobiles, all  varieties  of  vehicles  and  shoes, 
gloves  and  clothing.  Its  public  buildings 
in  number  and  cost  are  not  excelled  by 
any  city  of  the  country,  except  Washing- 
ton. Columbus  was  laid  out  in  1812  and 
incorporated  in  1834.  It  has  been  the 
state  capital  since  1816.  Eighteen  rail- 
roads and  its  nearness  to  the  Ohio  coal-and 
iron-fields  have  done  much  to  increase  the 
growth  of  the  place  Population.  181,511. 

Columel'la  (In  plants),  an  axis  of  sterile 
tissue  which  passes  through  the  center  of 
the  spore-case  of  mosses.  See  Musci. 

Coman'ches  (ko-mdn' chez) ,  a  tribe  of  In- 
dians of  the  Shoshone  family.  They  do 
not  live  in  villages,  but,  carrying  their 
skin-lodges  with  them,  roam  over  the 
country.  When  first  found  by  the  French 
in  1719,  they  hunted  from  the  head- waters 
of  the  Brazos  and  Colorado  to  those  of  the 
Arkansas  and  Missouri.  They  are  great 
hunters,  riders  and  fighters,  and  are  divided 
into  eight  bands.  They  had  long  and 
bloody  wars  with  the  Spaniards,  were  at 
one  time  on  a  reservation  in  Texas,  and  later 
some  of  them  were  in  the  Indian  Territory. 
Th^y  have  medicine-men,  and  worship  as 
their  god  Niatpol  (meaning  "my  father"). 
Years  ago,  they  numbered  10,000  or  12,000, 
filling  up  their  ranks  with  Mexican  captives. 
They  now  number  some  1,500,  and  are 
chiefly  settled  now  in  Oklahoma. 

Com'edy.     See  DRAMA. 

Com'ets,  the  name  given  to  those  large 
and  more  or  less  bright  bodies  which  now 
and  then  enter  the  solar  system,  sweep 
around  the  sun,  and  again  return  to  more 
distant  regions  of  space  where  they  become 
invisible  as  before.  In  general  comets  are 
composed  of  three  parts.  First,  there  is 
a  luminous  cloud,  the  coma,  from  which  these 
bodies  take  their  name.  In  its  center  is 
generally  found  a  brighter  nucleus,  the 

Eart  which  the  astronomer  observes  when 
e  determines  the  orbit  of  the  comet. 
Thirdly,  there  is  the  tail,  which  is  a  great 
streamer  of  light,  following  the  comet  as 
it  approaches  the  sun  and  preceding  the 
comet  as  it  leaves  the  sun.  Considered 
with  respect  to  their  brightness,  comets 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  telescopic 
comets  and  naked-eye  comets.  By  far  the 
greater  number  belong  to  the  first  class 
and  can  be  seen  only  by  the  aid  of  a  tele- 
scope. Considered  with  reference  to  their 
orbits,  comets  may  be  divided  into  three 


COMETS 


433 


COMMERCE 


classes:  (i)  those  whose  orbits  are  elliptical; 
(2)  those  having  parabolic  orbits;  and  (3) 
those  having  hyperbolic  orbits. 

Nearly  all  cornets  appear  to  move  along 
a  parabola,  having  the  sun  at  the  focus; 
some  20  per  cent.,  however,  of  those  studied 
move  in  elliptical  paths.  Since  a  parabola 
is  a  curve  which  has  two  branches  extend- 
ing off  to  infinity,  we  do  not  expect  ever 
to  see  again  a  comet  which  has  a  parabolic 
orbit.  But  an  ellipse  is  a  closed  curve,  and 
accordingly  some  of  those  comets  having 
elliptical  orbits  have  been  observed  many 
times. 

NATURE  OF   COMETS 

Concerning  the  composition  or  structure 
of  comets  very  little  is  known,  and  that 
little  has  been  learned  almost  entirely  from 
the  spectroscope.  This  instrument  shows 
that  a  very  small  portion  of  the  comet's 
light  is  reflected  sunlight.  The  comet 
shines  by  its  own  light,  giving  a  spectrum 
which  is  described  as  follows  by  Professor 
Young  of  Princeton : 

"The  spectrum  of  most  comets  consists 
of  a  more  or  less  faint  continuous  spectrum 
(which  may  be  due  to  reflected  sunlight, 
though  it  usually  is  too  faint  to  show  the 
Fraunhofer  lines)  overlaid  by  three  bright 
bands, — one  in  the  yellow,  one  in  the  green 
and  the  third  in  the  blue.  A  fourth  band 
is  sometimes  visible  in  the  violet.  The 
green  band,  which  is  much  the  brightest 
of  the  three,  is  in  some  cases  crossed  by  a 
number  of  fine,  bright  lines,  and  there  are 
traces  of  similar  lines  in  the  yellow  and 
blue  bands.  This  spectrum  is  absolutely 
identical  with  that  given  by  the  blue  blaze 
of  an  ordinary  gas  or  candle  flame;  or, 
better,  by  the  blue  flame  of  a  Bunsen 
burner  consuming  ordinary  illuminating 
gas.  Almost  beyond  question  it  indicates 
the  presence  in  the  comet  of  some  gaseous 
hydrocarbon,  which  in  some  way  is  made 
to  shine;  either  by  a  general  heating  of  the 
whole  body  to  the  point  of  luminosity 
(which  is  hardly  probable),  or  by  electric 
discharges  within  tt,  or  by  local  heatings 
due  to  the  action  of  sunlight;  or  none  of 
these  surmises  may  be  correct,  and  we 
may  have  to  seek  some  other  explanation 
not  yet  suggested. 

It  therefore,  on  the  whole,  appears  highly 
probable  that  comets  are  bodies  made  up  of 
small  discrete  particles. 

One  great  mystery  in  connection  with 
these  bodies  is  the  fact  that  the  tail  is 
repelled  by  the  sun.  But  recently  the 
Swedish  physicist,  Arrhenius,  has  given 
an  explanation  of  this  fact,  which  is 
quite  plausible.  He  bases  his  explana- 
tion upon  the  fact,  discovered  by  Max- 
well, that  a  beam  of  light  exerts  a  pres- 
sure in  the  direction  in  which  the  light  is 
traveling  and  that  the  amount  of  this  pres- 
sure is  numerically  equal  to  the  amount  of 
mergy,  in  unit  volume,  of  the  beam  of  light. 


If,  now,  the  particles  of  which  the  comet 
is  composed  are  very  small,  they  will  present 
a  surface  which  is  very  large  compared 
with  their  mass.  Since  this  pressure  in- 
creases very  rapidly  as  the  comet  approaches 
the  sun,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  compute, 
for  particles  of  any  given  size,  just  how 
near  the  sun  they  must  go  in  order  that 
this  repulsive  pressure  due  to  sunlight  may 
equal  the  gravitational  attraction  of  the 
sun  for  the  particle.  If  the  comet  should 
come  nearer  the  sun  than  this  limiting 
distance,  repulsion  will  ensue.  Or  at  any 
given  distance  we  can  easily  compute  the 
size  which  the  particles  must  not  exceed 
in  order  to  be  repelled  by  the  sunlight. 
This  explanation  is  quite  is  accordance 
with  the  results  obtained  by  means  of  the 
spectroscope. 

REMARKABLE    COMETS 

In  recent  times  the  most  brilliant  comets 
are  those  of  1858  and  1882.  The  former  is 
known  from  its  discoverer  as  Donati's. 
To  the  astronomer  no  comet  has  more 
interest,  perhaps,  than  that  of  Halley  (1682) , 
whose  return  to  the  solar  system  in  1759 
was  predicted  by  its  discoverer.  The  comet 
actually  returned,  as  predicted,  and  in 
1835  returned  for  a  second  time.  Its  next 
return  occurred  in  1910.  Encke's  comet 
is  also  one  of  great  interest,  returning  every 
three  and  one-half  years.  See  Miss  Clerke's 
History  of  Astronomy  during  the  igth  Cen- 
tury, Chaps.  5,  10  and  n. 

Commerce.  The  idea  of  commerce  is 
a  part  of  the  idea  of  property,  and  property 
implies  that  a  thing  has  value  to  oneself 
and  also  to  others.  In  commerce  there 
is  an  exchange  of  property,  in  which  each 
party  gains  what  he  desires.  But  commerce 
is  no  longer  the  mere  barter  of  savages.  It 
is  a  vast  system  in  which  all  the  world 
shares.  It  helps  to  make  prices  and  wages 
more  equal.  It  also  keeps  them  more  fixed, 
for,  if  one  group  will  not  pay  a  fair  price, 
the  goods  may  be  sent  elsewhere.  It  gives 
a  very  wide  market,  so  that  a  country  may 
now  produce  more  butter  or  meat  than  it 
needs,  and  yet  sell  all  of  it  by  sending  the 
surplus  abroad.  It  brings  people  all  over 
the  world  into  greater  sympathy  with  each 
other,  and  gives  them  more  knowledge 
of  each  other.  Thus  a  failure  in  the  cotton- 
crop  of  the  southern  states  has  been  the 
cause  of  almost  a  famine  in  Lancaster3 
England,  where  much  of  the  cotton  is  made 
into  cloth.  Commerce  is  favored  by  a 
large  coast-line  and  good  ports;  for  it  is 
cheaper  to  carry  goods  by  water  than  by 
land.  It  depends  partly  upon  soil  and 
climate  and  the  presence  of  iron  and  coal 
in  a  country;  partly,  too,  upon  the  cheap- 
ness of  labor;  but  more  largely  upon  free- 
dom and  security,  industry  and  ease  of 
communication. 

So  far  as  is  known,  the  Arabs  were  the 
first  great  overland  traders.  The  Phoeni. 


COMMONS,  HOUSE  OF 


434 


COMMUTATOR 


cians,  however,  a  nation  of  traders  whose 
home  was  on  the  strip  of  coast  that  lies 
about  Tyre  and  Sidon,  were  the  first  mer- 
chants to  plan  and  execute  great  voyages 
by  sea  for  the  sake  of  trade.  Their  ships 
roved  even  to  the  Atlantic  and  the  distant 
shores  of  Britain.  The  Greeks  also  were 
great  traders;  and  Carthage,  a  Phoenician 
colony,  became  so  powerful  and  wealthy 
through  her  commerce  that  it  required  all 
the  might  of  Rome  to  humble  her  in  the 
dust.  In  the  middle  ages  the  great  trade 
between  Asia  and  western  Europe  lay 
chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  merchant  re- 
publics of  Venice  and  Genoa.  But  so  soon 
as  the  route  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
to  India  was  found  and  the  new  continent 
of  America  also  came  to  attract  the  eye 
of  the  European  trader,  commerce  centered 
in  the  nations  of  the  Atlantic  rather  than 
of  the  Mediterranean.  At  first  Spain  and 
Portugal,  and  afterwards  England  and 
Holland  became  the  great  world-traders. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  long  strife  of  Eng- 
land and  France  for  colonial  empire  the 
United  States,  having  won  their  independ- 
ence, became  the  great  neutral  carriers  of 
merchandise. 

The  extent  to  which  commerce  grew  in 
the  nineteenth  century  is  almost  beyond 
belief.  It  was  favored  greatly  by  the 
invention  of  the  telegraph,  the  success  of 
ocean-cables  (q.v.)  '  the  building  of  rail- 
roads and  the  invention  of  steamships. 
It  was  only  in  1819  that  the  first  steam- 
vessel  crossed  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  In  Eng- 
land in  1800  the  imports  were  valued  at 
under  $29,000,000;  in  1900  at  over  $523,- 
000,000;  while  the  exports  in  1800  were 
valued  at  under  $35,000,000;  and  in  1900 
at  over  $354,000,000.  Or  take  the  com- 
merce of  the  United  States  in  the  second 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Whereas 
in  1850  the  exports  and  imports  together 
amounted  to  $318,000,000;  in  1900  they 
amounted  to  no  less  than  $2,244,000,000 
in  estimated  values,  while  in  1907  they 
amounted  to  $3,315,272,503. 

Commons,  House  of  (English).  See  PAR- 
LIAMENT. 

Com'mune  of  Paris  (kom'mun).  Com- 
mune is  the  unit  or  lowest  political  division 
of  France,  corresponding  to  the  American 
township.  The  rising  of  the  Commune  of 
Paris,  in  1871,  should  not  be  confounded 
with  communism,  with  which  it  had  noth- 
ing to  do.  It  was  a  revolutionary  attempt 
to  establish  self-government  for  Paris.  The 
theory  of  the  rising  was  that  every  commune 
should  have  self-government  and  that  the 
state  or  central  government  should  be 
merely  a  federation  of  communes.  The 
movement  was  caused  by  discontent  in 
Paris,  where  the  people  found  themselves 
in  possession  of  arms  after  the  siege  by  the 
Germans.  The  rising  occurred  on  March  18, 
1871,  and  was  put  down  only  after  10  weeks' 


long  and  bloody  fighting  between  the  forces 
of  the  commune  and  a  large  army  of  the 
central  government.  Sixty-five  thousand 
communists  iell  dining  the  last  ten  days 
in  May. 

Com'mutator.  In  most  kinds  of  electri- 
cal work  it  is  necessary  at  times  to  change 
the  direction  of  the  current  in  some  part  of 
the  circuit.  The  commutator  is  an  instru- 
ment for  producing  this  change.  The  de- 
vice represented  in  the  accompanying  figure 
is  typical  of  all  commutators.  The  block 
A,  B,  C,  D  is  made  of  wood,  and  has  four 
holes  bored  about  half-way  through  it. 
These  holes,  placed  one  at  each  corner  of 
a  square,  act  as  cups  to  hold  mercury 


A  TYPICAL  COMMUTATOR 

Into  the  sides  of  the  block  are  inserted  four 
wires,  E,  F,  G,  H.  Each  of  these  wires 
connect  ?  with  the  mercury  in  the  cup  nearest 
it.  The  poles  of  the  battery  are  joined  to 
two  diametrically  opposite  cups,  say  B 
and  D;  the  wires  from  the  rest  of  the  cir- 
cuit, say  from  a  galvanometer,  are  joined 
to  the  remaining  two  cups,  A  and  C.  For 
closing  the  circuit  two  short,  thick,  copper 
conductors  P  and  Q,  are  mounted  on  a 
movable  b'ock,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
These  comu-ctors,  P  and  Q,  may  be  placed 
in  the  mercary  cups  in  such  a  way  as  to 
connect  B  with  A,  and  hence  C  with  D; 
or  they  may  be  placed  so  as  to  connect  B 
with  C,  and  hence  A  with  D.  In  the  one 
case  the  current  flows  from  G  to  E  through 
the  galvanometer;  in  the  other  case  from 
E  to  G.  To  ihange  the  direction  of  the 
current  in  the  galvanometer  circuit,  we 
have,  therefore,  only  to  lift  tne  top  block 
and  rotate  it  thrt  ugh  90°  in  either  direction. 
Such  an  instrument  is  called  a  commutator. 
In  many  kinds  of  electrical  machinery 
the  commutator  's  made  to  work  auto- 
matically. Thus,  in  the  case  of  the  dynamo, 
the  currents  which  are  generated  in  the  coils 
of  the  armature  are  alternating,  but  a 
commutator  is  in  many  instances  placed 
on  the  shaft  of  the  armature,  which  auto- 
matically reverses  the  connections  of  the 
armature-coil  and  the  external  circuit, 
so  that  the  current  ir,  the  external  circuit 
always  flows  in  one  direction.  Such  a 
dynamo  is  called  a  direct-current  generator. 
The  dynamo  which  is  not  provided  with 
a  commutator  is  called  an  alternate-current 
generator. 


COMO 


435 


COMPOSITE 


Cotno  (ko'mo) ,  Lake,  is  situated  in  north- 
ern Italy,  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps.  It  is 
30  miles  long,  and  its  greatest  width  is 
two  and  one  half  miles.  The  fine  climate 
and  the  beauty  of  the  scenery  of  its  shores 
have  made  it  the  most  popular  resort  of 
any  lake  in  Italy  and  its  shores  are  lined 
with  handsome  villas. 

Comoro  (kom'o'ro)  Islands  or  Comores, 
lie  in  the  Mozambique  Channel.  They  have 
been  French  since  1886,  and  are  administered 
by  the  governor  of  Reunion  Island,  who 
appoints  a  resident  for  Great  Comoro  and 
another  for  Moheli  and  Anjuan,  which 
with  a  number  of  islets  make  up  the  group. 
The  total  area  is  about  620  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  47,000,  nearly  all 
Moslem.  Each  island  has  its  own  budget, 
and  all  are  self-supporting,  sugar  and  vanilla 
being  successfully  grown  and  coffee  and 
cloves  under  development.  An  important 
coaling  station  is  situated  here. 

Comox.  The  northern  part  of  Vancouver 
Island  (British  Columbia).  A  part  of  the 
opposite  mainland  is  called  Comox  district. 
The  two  contain  4,000,000  acres.  The 
district  is  very  rich  in  minerals  and  timber. 
Considerable  fertile  land  is  found  between 
Comox  Bay  and  Campbell  River.  The 
Esquimault  and  Nanaimo  Railway  will  go 
through  the  district.  Along  the  deeply 
indented  coast-line  the  fishing  industry 
is  being  developed  on  a  large  scale.  The 
whole  district  is  very  rich  in  fertile  belts, 
minerals  and  timber. 

Compass  (hum' pas),  Magnetic,  an  instru- 
ment for  indicating  the  direction  of  the 
magnetic  meridian.  The  importance  of  this 
determination  lies  in  the  fact  that,  if  we 
know  any  one  fixed  direction,  such  as  this 
magnetic  meridian,  it  is  easy  to  locate  any 
other  direction  by  the  use  of  a  graduated 
circle.  In  this  way  the  direction  of  a  line- 
fence  or  the  course  of  a  vessel  may  be  easily 
described. 

The  three  parts  of  a  mariner's  compass 
are  (i)  a  freely  suspended  steel  magnet;  (2) 


a  card  attached  to  the  magnet  and  moving 
freely  with  it;    and  (3)  a  compass-box,  ip 


which  the  needle  and  card  are  so  mounted 
as  always  to  remain  level,  however  the 
box  may  be  tilted. 

The  free  suspension  of  the  needle  is  gen- 
erally obtained  by  attaching  to  it  a  cap  of 
agate  or  ruby,  which  rests  on  a  hard,  sharp 
point. 

Practically  all  the  compasses  now  used 
on  ocean-going  vessels  are  of  the  type 
devised  and  patented  by  Lord  Kelvin  in 
1876.  The  magnet  is  built  up  of  eight  or 
ten  small  magnets  placed  some  distance 
apart  but  parallel  to  each  other.  Since 
the  greater  part  of  the  mass  is  thus  placed 
at  considerable  distance  from  the  axis  of 
rotation,  the  Kelvin  needle  is  very  steady. 

For  many  centuries — at  least  since  the 
time  of  Chaucer  (1391) — the  compass-card 
has  been  divided  into  32  equal  angles  called 
points.  Each  point  is  evidently  equal  to 
ni°.  The  names  of  these  points  are  indi- 
cated in  the  accompanying  figure. 

In  the  surveyor's  compass  the  needle 
swings  freely  over  a  circle  divided  into  de- 
grees and  provided  with  a  pair  of  sights. 
When  these  sights  are  so  placed  that  the 
line  joining  them  lies  in  any  desired  direction, 
the  end  of  the  compass-needle  indicates 
at  once  the  angle  which  this  desired  direction 
makes  with  the  magnetic  meridian. 

The  origin  of  the  compass  is  lost  in 
obscurity.  About  1200  A.  D.  it  was  com- 
monly used  on  the  Syrian  coast,  and  it 
is  said  that  Marco  Polo  in  1260  brought  the 
knowledge  of  this  Chinese  invention  to 
Europe.  Gioja  of  Amalfi,  Italy,  improved 
the  instrument  about  1320.  Its  variation 
was  known  long  before  Columbus  noticed 
it. 

Compass-Plants.  The  ordinary  position 
of  a  leaf  is  approximately  horizontal.  In 
regions  of  intense  sunlight  and  dry  air, 
however,  certain  plants  have  learned  to 
turn  their  leaves  edgewise.  This  is  called 
the  profile  position,  and  by  means  of  it  one 
edge  of  the  leaf  is  turned  upward  toward 
the  most  intense  light,  and  thus  the  leaf 
avoids  too  great  drying  out.  The  flat 
surfaces  of  the  leaves  thus  face  the  morning 
and  evening  rays  of  light,  which  are  rays 
of  less  intensity  than  those  of  midday. 
As  a  consequence,  the  leaves  point  either 
north  or  south,  and  hence  such  plants  were 
called  compass-plants.  The  rosin-weeds 
(Silphium)  of  the  prairies  and  the  common 
prickly  lettuce  (Lactv^a  Scar-tola)  of  waste 
grounds  everywhere  are  among  the  most 
notable  of  the  compass-plants.  The  profile 
habit  is  common  in  the  dry  regions  of 
Australia,  giving  to  their  vegetation  a  very 
peculiar  appearance. 

Compos' itae,  the  greatest  family  among 
seed-plants  in  point  of  numbers  and  in  rank. 
They  form  one  tenth  to  one  seventh  of  the 
seed-plant  vegetation  of  almost  all  regions. 
Among  them  are  the  asters,  goldenrods, 
rosin-weeds,  sunflowers,  chrysanthemums 


COMPOSITION  IN  FINE  ART 


436 


COMPOSITION  IN  PINE  ART 


thistles,  daisies,  ragweeds,  sage-brush,  let- 
tuce, dandelion  and  others.  They  are  char- 
acterized by  the  fact  that  their  numerous 
small  flowers  are  closely  packed  together 
in  heads  which  resemble  flowers.  The  sun- 
flower, for  example,  is  a  head  of  very  many 
small  flowers,  the  head  being  surrounded 
by  a  set  of  bracts  known  as  the  involucre, 
which  resembles  a  calyx.  The  outermost 
flowers  develop  showy  petals,  and  thus 
resemble  the  petals  of  an  ordinary  flower. 
Another  peculiarity  of  the  family  is  the 
transformation  of  the  calyx  into  the  so- 
called  pappus,  which  commonly,  as  in  the 
thistle  and  dandelion,  takes  the  form  of 
a  tuft  of  fine  hairs  for  transporting  the 
seed-like  fruit  (akene). 

Composition  in  Fine  Art.  In  the  essay 
upon  the  fine  arts  it  is  shown  that  the 
essential  quality  in  a  work  of  art  is  the 
power  of  bringing  about  a  certain  repose 
in  the  mind  of  the  person  who  is  contem- 
plating the  work.  Hugo  Mxinsterberg  ob- 
serves this  in  defining  the  mission  of  art 
instruction:  "To  bring  into  every  life  the 
ideal  repose,  the  repose  in  the  ideal;  to 
bring  us  that  rest  which  is  not  fatigue 
from  work,  nor  the  rush  of  amusement; 
no,  rather  that  rest  which  is  complete 
satisfaction  beyond  the  struggles  of  the  day, 
complete  harmonization  of  all  our  energies, 
complete  fulfillment  of  our  real  personality." 

A  work  of  art,  in  order  to  give  this  com- 
plete repose,  must  have  but  one  theme;  it 
must  be  free  within  itself  from  conflicting 
attractions  or  suggestions;  it  must,  in  other 
words ,  have  unity.  Whether  it  be  a  sonnet, 
sonata,  picture,  vase  or  cathedral,  it  must 
give  one  impression.  That  impression  may 
be  simple,  as  is  that  given  by  the  architec- 
ture 01  the  California  missions:  it  may  be 
complex,  as  is  that  of  St.  Mark's  cathedral 
in  Venice;  but  it  must  be  one.  It  may 
be  grand,  as  in  the  sculptures  of  Michelan- 
gelo, or  it  may  be  delicate,  as  in  the 
carvings  of  the  Japanese,  but  it  must  be  an 
unconfused  impression.  It  may  be  brought 
about  by  combining  many  similar  forms, 
colors,  lines  or  suggestions  until  they  add 
power  to  one  another,  as  in  some  of  the 
poems  of  Joaquin  Miller  —  giving  that  qual- 
ity which  we  call  harmony;  it  may  be 
brought  about  by  leading  the  attention  to 
an  unlikeness  in  certain  related  things,  as 
in  Keats's  sonnet  The  Grasshopper  and  the 
Cricket,  producing  a  contrast;  but  in  either 
case  a  single  impression  must  result. 

Now,  it  will  be  clear  that  nature  does  not 
always  exist  in  perfect  harmonies  or  per- 
fect contrasts.  Nature  indeed  has  other 
business  in  hand  than  the  forming  of  per- 
fect pictures.  If  he  would  produce  pic- 
torial beauty,  the  artist  must  make  many 
a  change  in  the  "landscape  with  figures 
amid  which  we  dwell."  Let  us  review 
some  of  the  demands  upon  him  in  this 
respect. 


When,  in  looking  over  the  fields,  we 
send  our  glance  from  the  trees  to  the  hills 
beyond  them;  when  we  remove  our  eyes 
from  a  person  to  whom  we  are  speaking, 
to  the  walls  just  behind  him;  when,  in  fact, 
we  leave  off  looking  at  any  one  thing  and 
look  at  something  either  farther  away  or 
nearer  than  that  at  which  we  were  looking 
before,  our  eyes  change  their  focus  for  the 
occasion  in  somewhat  the  way  in  which 
the  focus  of  a  camera  is  changed  to  suit 
varying  distances.  The  eye,  however,  is 
by  far  the  more  subtle  instrument,  and  is 
sensitive  to  variations  of  distance  which 
would  make  no  apparent  difference  to  the 
camera.  It  may  therefore  be  said  that 
each  thing  we  see  in  nature  is,  when  it  is 
being  seen,  the  center  of  a  little  picture 
all  its  own  and  that  it  is  the  sum  of  a  number 
of  these  little  pictures  which  gives  us  our 
impression  of  "all  outdoors."  Now,  if  the 
artist  were  to  try  to  paint  in  one  picture 
the  hills  as  he  sees  them  when  looking 
directly  at  them,  the  trees  as  he  sees  them 
when  looking  directly  at  them,  the  clouds 
as  he  sees  them  when  looking  directly  at 
them,  he  would  have  a  picture  with  as  many 
separate  interests  as  it  contained  objects — 
a  picture  which  could  never  have  unity  or 
give  repose  of  any  sort.  So  the  artist  must 
select  some  one  thing  for  the  main  theme 
of  his  picture,  and  to  this  he  must  subor- 
dinate all  other  things  which  may  occur 
in  it. 

A  study  of  great  paintings  and  illustra- 
tions will  show  the  various  ways  in  which 
artists  accomplish  this  suppression  of  the 
secondary  things  and  emphasis  of  the  im- 
portant ones.  It  will  show  that  a  figure 
may  be  made  prominent  by  the  position  it 
occupies  on  the  canvas,  by  its  relations  to 
other  figures,  by  its  having  a  space  of  com- 
parative quiet  around  it  (notice  the  effect 
of  the  halos  around  the  heads  in  the  old- 
master  paintings  of  the  saints),  by  the 
focusing  of  many  important  lines  upon  it 
or  the  introduction  of  a  contrast  near  it, 
by  its  being  more  minutely  drawn  and 
finished  than  the  rest  of  the  picture,  and  by 
the  suppression  of  other  figures  or  groups 
of  figures  through  partially  hiding  them 
from  view,  turning  them  away  from  the 
spectator,  causing  them  to  look  or  point 
toward  the  principal  figure  or  throwing  them 
into  a  subdued  tone. 

In  nature  it  is  sufficient  if  the  form  of 
a  tree  be  beautiful  against  the  sky;  in  a 
picture  the  visible  shapes  of  sky  seen  through 
the  tree  must  be  equally  beautiful.  The 
picture,  since  it  is  all  to  be  seen  at  once, 
must  be  a  beautiful  pattern  in  which  every 
shape  involved  is  fine,  the  background 
spots  not  in  any  sense  being  left-overs 
from  the  shaping  of  the  motif-parts-^  rather, 
being  conceived  in  the  same  aesthetic  spirit 
which  characterizes  those  parts.  The  con- 
tours which  distinguish  tone  from  tone  may 


COMPOSITION  IN  FINE  ART 


437 


COMPOSITION  IN  FINE  ART 


not  fall  merely  anywhere,  but  only  in  such 
ways  thrxt  tone  and  tone  and  interest  and 
interest  shall  be  fairly  held  at  pleasing 
intervals.  Consistency  of  character,  which 
has  been  called  harmony,  consistency  of 
attractions,  which  has  been  called  balance, 
and  consistency  of  movement,  which  has 
been  called  rhythm  shall  keep  all  elements 
of  the  work  together  in  an  integral  whole. 
Here  again  the  artist  in  forming  his  work 
must  exercise  his  aesthetic  judgment,  vary- 
ing from  nature's  appearances,  if  need  be, 
to  bring  finer  proportion  into  his  work, 
to  give  it  more  perfect  unity. 

The  beauty  of  a  picture  or  a  piece  of  music 
does  not  lie  in  a  pleasing  of  the  sense  alone. 
Perhaps  it  is  impossible  for  the  sense  to 
be  engaged  at  all  without  the  mind  re- 
ceiving some  deeper  message  through  it. 
It  is  this  fact  which  causes  us  to  observe 
in  another  place  that  art  is  a  sort  of  lan- 
guage. But  the  message  which  that  lan- 
guage has  to  deliver  is  not  an  intellectual 
one.  It  is  not  primarily  for  the  rehearsing 
of  facts  that  art  exists.  The  message 
which  a  picture  has  to  give,  like  the  message 
which  music  has  to  give,  comes  to  us  in 
the  form  of  an  experience,  a  mood  which 
the  work  awakens  within  us — not  a  story 
which  the  thing  can  tell  us.  A  Bokhara 
rug  may  be  of  "sleepy  coloring"  and  give 
us  the  repose  of  twilight  as  we  contemplate 
it;  a  clear  melody  may  give  us  the  same 
feelings  as  a  view  from  a  mountain-top;  a 
dash  of  thrilling  color  may  be  to  us  like  a 
battle-hymn.  Such  are  the  messages  we 
may  receive  from  pictures  and  music  'if 
we  but  will,  instead  of  the  story  that  "  here 
is  a  man  and  he  is  doing  so  and  so."  These 
are  the  feelings  which  come  to  us  straight 
from  the  heart  of  the  artist  himself,  even 
though  he  be  centuries  in  his  grave;  the 
tree,  the  figure  and  the  incident  which  the 
work  involves  are  merely  the  words  by  which 
the  message  is  conveyed. 

For  some  reason  music  in  a  minor  key 
is  apt  to  make  us  sigh.  For  some  like 
reason  certain  kinds  of  lines  or  movements 
in  a  picture  give  us  certain  emotions. 
Perhaps  it  is  because  these  lines  or  move- 
ments recall  associations  which  stamped 
themselves  upon  the  impressionable  child- 
hood of  the  race.  The  ridges  of  the  sea 
which  we  call  waves  and  the  grander  ridges 
of  the  continents  which  we  call  mountains 
have  had  their  common  origin  in  the  war 
or  play  of  the  elements — in  activity  rather 
than  in  quiet.  The  risings  and  fallings  of 
the  waves  and  the  mountain-ranges,  the 
high,  straight  stems  of  those  still  forests 
amid  which  generations  of  our  primitive 
ancestors  spent  the  long  days  and  the 
mysterious  nights,  the  long  flat  reaches 
of  the  sea  when  it  is  calm  and  of  the  desert 
and  of  the  clouds  in  a  quiet  sky — all  these 
things  have  been  seen  and  watched  for 
ages;  nor  is  it  to  be  wondered  that  the 


lines  which  we  see  in  them,  the  movements 
which  we  feel  in.  them,  have  come  to  call 
up  the  same  feelings  which  these  things 
themselves  called  up. 

Let  us  look  at  Corot's  landscape  Morning. 
It  has  come  to  be  called  The?  Dance  of  the 
Nymphs.  Is  this  because  there  is  a  group 
of  tiny  figures  at  the  bottom — who  in  truth 
are  scarcely  dancing  and  who  may  hardly 
be  called  nymphs?  Or  is  it  because  of  the 
witchery  of  that  great  movement  which 
takes  us  from  the  bottom  up  into  the  pic- 
ture, across  the  top  and  down  the  other 
side,  lastly  circling  round  and  round  the 
bit  of  sky  in  the  center,  leading  us,  before 
we  know  it,  in  an  airy  dance  through  the 
tree-tops?  The  little  figures  give  the  key- 
note— they  form  a  statement  of  the 
theme,  Morning,  Happiness,  Dancing,  but 
even  if  they  were  suddenly  to  whisk  them- 
selves out  and  disappear  on  the  other  side 
of  the  tangled  shrubbery,  the  movement 
of  the  picture  would  still  go  on,  and  it 
would  still  be  a  dance  of  the  nymphs. 

For  a  contrasting  mood  see  Turner's 
great  picture,  The  Fighting  Temeraire.  What 
is  there  about  this  picture  to  show  us  that 
this  ship  is  the  old  hero  of  England's 
battles  that  she  is, — or  to  tell  us  that  she 
is  being  towed  away  for  breaking  up?  And 
yet  Ruskin  says  that,  of  all  pictures  not 
visibly  involving  human  pain,  this  is  the 
saddest.  What  has  the  artist  done  to 
make  us  feel  the  solemnity  of  this  occasion? 
We  see  a  sheet  of  still  water  under  a  great, 
bending,  sunset  sky.  On  the  other  side 
a  tall  ship  is  coming  up,  towed  by  a  black 
tugboat.  Long  ripples  are  thrown  to  left 
and  right,  and  thin  smoke  pours  back  from 
the  funnel  of  the  tug.  Shadows  are  gather- 
ing  from  all  sides,  and  there  are  the  buildings 
of  a-  great  city  beyond  in  the  gloom.  Study 
the  use  of  lines.  Are  they  like  those  merry 
ones  that  circle  round  the  canvas  of  Corot's 
Morningl  Or  are  they  the  lines  which  we 
see  in  the  solemn  groves  of  pine  or  cypress, 
in  the  desert  and  in  the  great  cathedrals? 
Are  they  not  like  figures  in  a  funeral  march? 
Has  the  artist  accepted  nature  only  as 
he  found  her? 

We  have  shown  the  three  principal  con- 
siderations which  compel  an  artist  always 
to  turn  away  more  or  less  from  the  copying 
of  nature.  Of  all  these,  doubtless  the  last 
one  which  we  have  touched  is  the  deepest, 
the  one  determining  the  trend  of  the  whole 
work, — the  consideration  of  expression.  In- 
timately related  to  that  one  is  the  second — 
the  consideration  of  absolute  beauty;  and 
the  third  is  that  one  which  deals  with  the 
translation  of  the  three-dimensional  aspect 
of  nature  into  the  two-dimensional  limits 
of  a  picture.  We  have  spoken  of  the  lines 
and  colors  and  objects  of  nature  as  the 
artist's  alphabet  and  vocabulary.  Were  he 
to  devote  his  time  merely  to  copying  the 
things  which  nature  wts  before  him.  he 


COMPRESSED  AIR 


438 


COMUb 


would  be  practicing  only  the  handwriting  of 
his  art.  The  considerations  which  we  have 
enumerated  above  give  him  a  grammar 
and  a  composition — the  power  to  express 
himself — the  power  of  being  understood. 

The  process  of  selecting,  arranging,  sub- 
duing and  accenting  the  forms,  tones, 
colors,  movements  and  interests  of  his 
work,  so  that  they  will  produce  the  mood 
or  set  forth  the  idea  which  he  is  endeavoring 
to  present,  so  that  they  will  give  unity  and 
through  it  the  "perfect  repose" — this  the 
artist  calls  composition. 

GEORGE  WILLIAM  EGGERS. 

Compressed  Air.  The  first  scientific 
knowledge  of  the  power  of  air  was  gained 
in  the  sixteenth  century  by  Galileo.  Air 
under  pressure  increases  in  density  and 
heat,  and  exerts  an  increased  power  in 
every  direction.  Hence  compressed  air  is 
applied  in  locomotives;  and  its  power  is 
employed  in  many  machine-plants,  such  as 
those  of  mines  and  water-works.  An  air- 
compressor  or  air-pump  is  a  cylinder  fitted 
with  a  piston  and  rod,  and  with  valves 
at  which  the  free  air  may  enter  and  with 
others  at  which  the  compressed  air  may 
be  applied,  together  with  the  needful  con- 
nections of  this  apparatus  with  the  driving 
power.  In  most  compressed  air  "plants," 
the  pressure  which  is  employed  is  about 
80  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  Air  may  be 
liquified  at  a  temperature  of  312°  below 
zero.  This  temperature  may  be  got  under 
a  pressure  of  1,200  pounds  or  upwards  to 
the  square  inch;  but  the  process  is  thus 
far  not  profitable  from  a  commercial  stand- 
point, although  there  are  several  ways  in 
which  liquid  air  may  be  applied. 

Compromise  of  1 850,  a  measure  designed 
by  Henry  Clay  and,  largely  through  his 
efforts,  adopted  by  both  houses  of  Congress 
in  August,  1850.  Its  chief  purpose  was  to 
satisfy  the  conflicting  demands  of  the  north 
and  the  south  in  the  matter  of  slave  and  free 
territory.  The  leaders  for  the  south  were 
attempting  to  have  the  recently  acquired 
Mexican  domain  organized  into  states  all 
of  which  should  permit  slavery  (The  Clay- 
ton Compromise) ;  were  trying  to  have 
the  Missouri  Compromise  line  extended 
through  to  the  Pacific ;  were  backing  Texas 
in  her  demand  either  for  a  money  indemnity 
or  the  Rio  Grande  as  a  western  boundary; 
were  demanding  an  effective  fugitive-slave 
law;  were  demanding  that  no  free  state 
should  be  admitted  unless  paired  with  a 
slave  state.  The  leaders  for  the  north 
were  backing  California's  demand  to  be 
admitted  as  a  free  state;  were  attempting 
to  have  slavery  abolished  in  the  District 
of  Columbia;  were  seeking  to  prohibit 
interstate  commerce  in  slaves;  were  justi- 
fying the  personal-liberty  laws  which  made 
just  about  useless  the  fugitive-slave  law; 
were  resisting  the  demands  of  Texas.  There 
was  a  deadlock,  and  to  many  civil  war 


seemed  certain.  It  was  at  this  juncture 
that  Clay  introduced  his  compromise.  In 
one  form  or  another  it  was  debated  for 
nearly  five  months,  but  was  finally  passed 
about  as  Clay  had  designed  it.  It  provided 
that  California  be  admitted  with  her  free 
constitution;  that  there  should  be  no 
slavery  prohibition  in  the  organization  of 
territorial  governments  founded  in  the  Mexi- 
can domain  (which  included  the  territories 
of  New  Mexico  and  Utah) ;  that  Texas 
should  receive  her  indemnity;  that  slaves 
might  be  held  in  the  District  of  Columbia; 
that  there  should  be  no  slavetrading  in 
the  District  of  Columbia;  that  the  fugitive- 
slave  law  should  be  enforced;  and  that 
the  interstate  slave-trade  should  not  be 
interfered  with.  Passed  to  avert  a  clash 
at  arms,  the  measure  was  one  of  the  shortest- 
lived  and  least  successful  compromises  in 
history.  The  fugitive-slave  law  in  its  opera- 
tion rapidly  turned  the  whole  north  into 
abolitionists,  and  so  hastened  the  passage 
of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill  which  made 
the  whole  compromise  a  dead  letter. 

Com'stock  Lode,  a  ledge  of  silver  to 
which  Virginia  City,  Nev.,  largely  owes  its 
growth.  Discovered  in  1859,  the  lode  has 
yielded  at  times  over  $10,000,000  yearly. 
The  shaft  is  2,300  feet  deep;  but  work  is 
now  only  done  on  the  upper  levels,  the 
workmen  having  been  driven  from  the 
depths  by  the  great  heat  (120°  F.)  and  by 
the  suffocating  gas  produced  by  the  action 
of  the  air  on  the  sulphurous  rock  cut  at 
different  levels. 

Comte  ( kont ) ,  Auguste,  was  born  Jan.  19, 
1798,  at  Montpellier,  France.  In  philos- 
ophy he  was  for  six  years  a  pupil  of  St. 
Simon.  In  1826  he  began  lectures  which 
grew  into  his  treatise  on  positive  philosophy. 
He  is  the  founder  of  that  school  of  philosophy 
called  positivism.  Comte  died  at  Paris 
on  Sept.  5,  1857. 

Comus,  a  masque  by  Milton,  contains 
perhaps  the  most  beautiful  and  tender 
appreciation  of  the  beauty  of  purity  and 
holiness  which  is  to  be  found  in  all  poetry. 
Its  moral  is: 

"Mortals,  that  would  follow  me, 
Love  virtue;    she  alone  is  free; 
She  can  teach  ye  how  to  climb 
Higher  than  the  sphery  chime; 
Or,  if  virtue  feeble  were, 
Heaven  itself  would  stoop  to  her." 
Comus,  the  god  of  revel,  is  not  mentioned 
in  the  classical  myths ;    but  in  the  3rd  cen- 
tury A.  D.  he  is  referred  to  in  connection 
with    art.     In    Milton's    poem    a    maiden, 
parted  from  her  brothers  in  the  wood  where 
Comus  holds  his  revels,  is  saved  from  the 
swinish  cup  which  is  offered  to  her  by  her 
own  constancy  and  innocence.     Amonp  the 
greatest  lines  are  these: 

"  So  dear  to  Heaven  is  saintly  chastity, 
That,  when  a  soul  is  found  sincerely  so 


CONCHOLOGY 


439 


CONDE 


A  thousand  liveried  angels  lackey  her, 
Driving  far  off  each  thing  of  sin  and  guilt ; 
And,  in  clear  dream  and  solemn  vision, 
Tell  her  of  things  that  no  gross  ear  can  hear; 
Till  oft  converse  with  heavenly  habitants 
Begins  to  cast  a  beam  on  th'  outward  shape, 
The  unpolluted  temple  of  the  mind, 
And  turns  it,  by  degrees,  to  the  soul's 

essence, 
Till  all  be  made  immortal." 

Conchology.     See  SHELLS. 

Con'cord,  a  town  of  Middlesex  County, 
Mass.,  23  miles  by  rail  from  Boston.  It  was 
settled  in  1635.  As  early  as  1767  its  people 
took  a  strong  stand  against  the  measures 
of  the  British.  In  February,  1775,  the 
colonial  government  gathered  valuable  mili- 
tary stores  at  Concord.  British  spies  visited 
the  place,  and  an  expedition  from  Boston 
to  seize  or  destroy  the  stores  was  decided 
upon  by  General  Gage.  On  the  morning 
of  April  19,  800  soldiers  reached  Concord. 
The  country  had  been  thoroughly  alarmed; 
the  people  were  engaged  in  concealing  stores ; 
and  the  militia,  to  the  number  of  180,  had 
gathered  when  the  enemy  came  in  sight. 
Some  were  for  resisting  them,  but,  desiring 
to  throw  the  blame  of  the  attack  on  the 
invaders,  Colonel  Barrett  led  his  men  across 
the  North  bridge.  While  part  of  the 
British  were  destroying  arms  and  provi- 
sions, a  detachment  marched  to  secure  the 
North  and  South  bridges.  The  Americans, 
believing  the  enemy  were  burning  the 
village,  marched  toward  the  bridge,  while 
the  British  drew  up  on  the  east  bank  and 
began  to  pull  up  the  bridge-planks.  They 
were  commanded  to  stop,  which  they  did; 
but  a  single  gun,  followed  by  a  volley, 
was  fired  at  the  Americans.  The  minute- 
men  answered  with  a  volley  also,  and  a 
general  fusillade  ensued,  both  sides  losing 
several  men.  The  British  retreated  to 
the  center  of  the  town,  the  Americans 
following  and  posting  themselves  along  the 
Boston  road.  About  noon  the  retreat  be- 
gan, the  minutemen  pursuing  the  British 
as  far  as  Lexington.  The  Revolution  was 
really  begun  by  the  skirmish  at  North 
bridge,  where,  as  Emerson  puts  it,  was 
"fired  the  shot  heard  round  the  world." 
Concord,  out  of  a  population  of  1,300,  sent 
174  men  to  the  army  of  1775,  the  town 
raising  the  soldiers'  pay.  Concord  is  noted 
as  the  home  of  Hawthorne,  Emerson,  Tho- 
reau,  Louisa  M.  Alcott  and  Channing. 
Population,  6,421. 

Con'cord,  the  capital  of  New  Hampshire, 
is  on  the  Merrimac  River  and  has  some 
handsome  public  buildings.  The  city  has 
extensive  water-power.  It  manufactures 
large  numbers  of  carriages,  also  shoes, 
twine,  leather-goods,  silverware,  electrical 
ap  aratus,  machine-shop  products;  and  has 
quantities  of  fine  granite  in  its  vicinity. 
An  island  in  the  Merrimac  near  the  city 
is  famous  as  the  place  where  Mrs.  Hannab. 


Dustin  and  her  nurse,  with  the  aid  of  a 
boy,  in  1697  killed  ten  Indians  who  had 
taken  them  captive.  Concord  was  the  home 
of  the  Penacooks,  a  powerful  tribe  of  In- 
dians. It  was  settled  in  1725.  Population, 
21,497- 

Concordat,  The,  of  1801,  was  an  agree- 
ment between  Pope  Pius  VII  and  Napoleon 
as  first  consul  of  France.  This  is  the  most 
famous  of  many  such  concordats  between 
the  popes  and  secular  rulers.  By  the 
concordat  of  1801  the  national  Catholic 
church  was  restored  to  France,  though  its 
administration  was  henceforth  more  de- 
pendent upon  the  government.  Church 
property  which  had  been  seized  was  not  to 
be  restored,  but  the  government  was  to 

Eovide  for  the  support  of  a  reduced  num- 
r  of  bishops.  As  in  English  history  of 
old,  it  was  agreed  that  the  government 
should  select  the  bishops,  but  the  pope 
invest  them  with  their  office.  This  con- 
cordat was  replaced  by  similar  agreements 
under  different  French  governments.  But 
there  always  was  a  strong  party  against 
having  any  state-church;  and  in  1906  it 
was  disestablished  and  the  concordat  re- 
pealed. 

Concrete,  a  composition  of  broken  rock, 
gravel,  broken  bricks,  sand,  etc.,  usually 
cemented  into  solid  form  by  the  use  of  hy- 
draulic cement.  The  proportions  of  the 
various  ingredients  differ  according  to  the 
use  to  which  the  artificial  stone  called 
concrete  is  to  be  put,  but  the  principle  to 
be  kept  in  mind  in  the  mixing  is  that  there 
should  be  enough  of  the  mortar  to  a  little 
more  than  fill  the  space  between  the  frag- 
ments of  broken  rock,  etc.  A  typical 
concrete  is  made  of  one  part  of  cement, 
three  parts  of  sand  and  five  parts  of  broken 
rock.  The  mixing  is  usually  done  dry, 
only  enough  water  being  used  to  lay  the 
dust,  but  more  water  is  added  when  the 
stuff  is  tamped  into  position.  Where  con- 
crete has  to  be  laid  down  under  water, 
it  is  usually  pt:t  in  position  in  bags.  It  is 
used  for  the  foundations  of  structures  of 
all  sorts,  for  piers,  fortifications,  sidewalks 
and,  recently,  to  a  great  extent  in  mono- 
lithic buildings,  that  is,  buildings  that  are 
virtually  one  stone.  In  such  buildings, 
as  well  as  in  many  foundations,  many  iron 
girders  and  rods  are  imbedded  in  the  con- 
crete to  add  to  its  strength,  and  this  is  called 
reinforced  concrete.  The  great  earthquake 
in  California  made  apparent  the  superiority 
of  this  kind  of  construction.  Concrete  was 
used  extensively  by  the  Babylonians,  Egyp- 
tians, Greek  and  Romans.  Some  of  their 
buildings  have  stood  over  3,600  years. 
See  CEMENT. 

Conde  (kon-dd'},  Louis  II  of  Bourbon, 
Prince  of,  called  the  Great  Conde,  was 
born  Sept.  8,  1621.  He  early  started  in 
his  soldier's  career.  At  the  age  of  22  he 
was  given  command  of  a  French  army 


CONDOR 


440 


CONFEDERATE  STATES 


and,  against  the  advice  of  older  generals 
who  served  under  him,  he  fought  the  battle 
of  Rocroi,  and  by  skillful  maneuvering  and 
fierce  charges  made  it  a  brilliant  victory — 
the  first  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  Two 
hard-won  victories  in  Germany  and  the 
capture  of  Dunkirk  were  followed  by  his 
winning  the  important  battle  of  Lens  in 
1648,  in  which  the  formidable  Spanish 
infantry  were  destroyed  and  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  ended.  The  next  year  began 
the  war  of  the  Fronde,  and,  though  Cond6 
by  his  generalship  had  placed  the  young 
king  on  the  throne,  his  pride  had  made 
him  enemies  at  court.  Soon  after  he  was  ar- 
rested, and,  when  set  free,  he  at  once  put  him- 
self at  the  head  of  the  troops  of  Bordeaux, 
which  had  rebelled.  But  he  was  no  longer 
successful.  Turenne  defeated  him  twice; 
and,  forced  to  leave  the  country  and  now 
fighting  in  the  Spanish  army,  he  was  again 
overcome  by  the  same  general.  Eight  years 
afterward,  having  been  allowed  to  return 
to  France,  the  death  of  Turenne  again 
brought  him  to  the  front.  In  three  weeks 
he  conquered  Franche-Comt6  and  fought 
William  of  Orange,  (William  III  of  Holland 
and  England),  though  in  a  drawn  battle 
which  lasted  for  17  hours.  This  was  his 
last  engagement,  as  the  campaign  had 
broken  his  health.  He  died  Dec.  n,  1686. 
Condor,  a  very  large  bird  of  prey,  living  in 
South  America,  usually  among  the  peaks  of 
the  Andes.  It  at  one  time  was  considered 
the  largest  bird  of  prey,  but  several  species 


CONDOR 

of  the  Old  World  are  larger,  and  the  Califor- 
nian  vulture  reaches  the  same  size.     Before 


they  were  actually  measured  by  Humboldt, 
fabulous  stories  were  told  in  regard  to  their 
size  and  carrying-power.  They  were  said 
to  reach  30  or  40  feet  in  stretch  of  wing  and 
to  carry  away  sheep  and  children  in  their 
claws;  but  the  toes  are  comparatively 
straight  and  the  claws  are  blunt  and  not 
fitted  for  grasping.  There  is  no  authentic 
case  of  animals  having  been  carried  away 
by  the  condor.  This  structure  of  the  foot 
makes  it  difficult  for  them  to  perch  on  trees 
and  they  prefer  the  bare  rocks.  They  are 
sound  sleepers,  and  may  be  caught  with 
a  noose  while  roosting.  The  plumage  is 
a  glossy  black,  with  broad  white  bars  across 
the  wings  and  a  collar  or  ruff  of  snow- 
white  down  around  the  neck.  The  latter 
is  naked,  and  covered  with  wrinkled  dull- 
red  skin.  They  feed  mostly  on  carrion, 
but  are  also  fond  of  fresh  meat  and  kill 
lambs,  the  goat  and  the  young  of  cattle  and 
deer.  The  white  eggs  are  laid  on  inaccessi- 
ble rocks,  and  the  young  cannot  fly  for 
about  a  year.  They  continue  to  hunt  and 
roost  with  their  parent  for  two  years 
longer.  Their  plumage  is  brownish,  and 
they  have  been  called  brown  condors. 

Conduction  (in  plants).  See  WATER, 
ASCENT  OF. 

Cone  (in  plants) ,  the  characteristic  cluster 
of  seed-bearing  scales  developed  by  conifers 
and  especially  by  the  pines  and  their  allies. 
The  technical  name  of  such  a  cluster  is 
strobilus.  See  CONIFERS. 

Co'ney  Island,  southeast  of  Long  Island 
and  barely  separated  from  it  by  a  rivulet, 
is  a  narrow  strip  of  sand,  five  miles  long 
and  half  a  mile  wide.  It  has  a  fine  beach, 
which  is  lined  with  long  rows  of  huge  wooden 
hotels.  Its  nearness  to  New  York  and 
Brooklyn  makes  it  a  popular  resort.  The 
east  end  is  called  Manhattan  Beach,  and 
its  broad  hotel-verandas,  promenades  and 
well-laid-out  grounds  are  patronized  by 
the  well-to-do.  There  are  two  large  music- 
halls,  with  fine  acoustic  properties,  the 
galleries  open  to  the  air,  where  the  best 
musicians  of  New  York  give  cheap  summer- 
concerts.  The  west  end  is  the  most  demo- 
cratic resort  in  America,  and  its  beach, 
bathing-pavilions,  open-air  restaurants  and 
music-halls,  toboggan-rollers  and  iron 
lookout-tower,  300  feet  high,  are  crowded 
all  summer  by  thousands  of  the  ill-housed 
and  sweltering  men,  women  and  children  of 
the  cities.  Steamboats  land  every  few 
minutes  during  the  day  at  the  tubular 
iron  pier,  1,000  feet  long;  three  railroads 
join  Coney  Island  to  New  York  and  Brook- 
lyn; and  one  surface  and  one  elevated 
road  carry  the  pleasure-seekers  from  one 
end  of  the  island  to  the  other. 

Confed'erate  States  of  America,  The. 
When  the  Republican  or  antislavery  party 
gained  control  of  the  government,  by  the 
election  of  Abraham  Lincoln  to  the  presi- 
dency, certain  of  the  slave-states  took 


CONFUCIUS 


441 


CONGO  FREE  STATE 


steps  to  withdraw  from  the*  Union  and 
establish  a  separate  government.  A  con- 
vention assembled  at  Columbia,  South 
Carolina,  Dec.  17,  1860,  but  adjourned 
on  the  same  date  to  Charleston,  where,  on 
the  2oth,  a  resolution  was  passed  declaring 
that  the  union  hitherto  existing  between 
South  Carolina  and  the  other  states  under 
the  name  of  The  United  States  of  America 
was  dissolved.  Other  states  were  quick 
to  follow.  In  less  than  six  weeks  Mississippi, 
Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia,  Louisiana  and 
Texas  passed  ordinances  of  secession  and 
withdrew  from  the  Union.  On  the  4th  of 
February,  1861,  delegates  from  six  of  these 
states  met  in  convention  at  Montgomery, 
Alabama,  and  organized  a  new  government, 
with  the  title  of  The  Confederate  States 
of  America.  On  the  8th  of  the  same 
month,  the  organization  was  completed 
by  the  choice  of  Jefferson  Davis  of  Missis- 
sippi as  president  and  Alexander  H. 
Stephens  of  Georgia  as  vice-president. 
The  seceded  states  at  once  seized,  with 
few  exceptions,  all  the  forts,  arsenals,  navy- 
yards,  military  stores  and  other  Federal 
property  within  their  limits. 

The  Civil  War  followed,  beginning  with 
the  attack  on  Fort  Sumter  on  April  12. 
On  the  i  yth  Virginia  seceded  and  joined 
the  Confederacy.  Arkansas  followed  on 
May  6,  North  Carolina  on  the  2oth  of  the 
same  month  and  Tennessee  on  June  6, 
making  n  states  in  all.  The  history 
of  the  Confederacy  is  confined  to  the  years 
of  the  Civil  War,  and  it  ceased  to  exist 
with  the  surrender  of  the  Confederate  army 
at  Appomattox,  Va.,  April  9,  1865. 

Confu'cius  (kon-fu'she-us) ,  the  great  Chi- 
nese sage,  was  born  in  the  state  of  Lu,  in 
551  B.  C.  His  father,  an  old  soldier,  died 
when  Confucius  was  three  years  old,  leav- 
ing him  and  his  mother  very  poor.  For 
a  while  he  had  charge  of  the  public  stores 
and  the  public  herds.  At  22  he  began  his 
career  as  a  teacher.  In  501  a  new  ruler 
made  him  governor  of  the  town  of  Chung-tu, 
where  he  brought  about  a  striking  reforma- 
tion in  the  manners  and  morals  of  the 
people.  Soon  after,  he  became  a  minister 
of  state  and  the  most  powerful  man  in  Lu. 
For  three  years  he  was  as  successful  in 
ruling  and  reforming  the  people  as  he  had 
been  when  only  a  town-governor.  Under 
his  rule  dishonesty  was  unknown;  loyalty 
and  good  faith  were  the  characteristics 
of  men.  Confucius  was  now  the  idol  of 
the  people.  But  soon  a  breach  was  made 
between  him  and  his  ruler,  and  for  12  years, 
with  a  company  of  disciples,  he  traveled 
through  other  Chinese  states,  teaching  as 
he  went.  Sometimes  the  company  were 
welcomed  by  high  princes;  at  others  they 
had  not  enough  to  eat,  and  even  were  in 
danger  of  their  lives.  A  new  ruler  sum- 
moned the  sage  back  to  Lu,  where  he  died 
the  eleventh  day  of  the  fourth  month,  479 


B.  C.  Confucius  thought  his  life  a  failure, 
but  he  was  hardly  dead  when  a  temple 
was  built  in  his  honor,  and  to-day  every 
market-town  has  its  Confucius  temple, 
and  twice  a  year  the  emperor  does  honor  to 
the  greatest  and  wisest  of  Chinese  philoso- 
phers. Of  no  ancient  person  do  we  know 
more  than  we  do  of  Confucius.  Not  only 
what  he  taught,  but  just  how  he  looked 
and  acted  at  court,  while  talking  to  his 
disciples,  at  his  table  or  in  his  bed  has 
been  handed  down  to  us.  Confucius  was 
a  great  moral  teacher  and  his  supreme 
teaching  was  his  negative  golden  rule: 
"What  you  do  not  wish  done  to  yourself, 
do  not  do  to  others."  He  never  pretended 
to  be  anything  more  than  a  man,  but  he 
knew  the  right  way  for  each  man  to  live 
and  to  be  right  himself,  and  for  the  ruler 
so  to  rule  as  to  make  men  happy  and 
good.  China  is  his  monument. 

Congo  Free  State  grew  out  of  the 
International  Association,  which  was  formed 
in  1878  with  King  Leopold  of  Belgium  at 
its  head.  The  European  powers  recognized 
the  state  in  1885,  and  in  1890  its  territories 
were  declared  inalienable,  though  a  con- 
vention between  Belgium  and  the  Inde- 
pendent State  reserved  to  the  former  the 
right  of  annexing  the  latter  after  a  period 
of  ten  years.  In  1901  this  right  was 
renewed.  Treaties  with  various  interested 
nations  have  denned  the  boundaries.  It  has 
a  narrow  seacoast,  with  the  Congo  as  its. 
northern  boundary,  and  in  the  interior 
widens  north  and  south,  extending  to 
Lakes  Albert  Edward  and  Tanganyika. 
It  is  governed  by  an  official  living  in  the 
country  and  by  another  at  Brussels  under 
the  headship  of  King  Leopold.  The  people 
of  the  Congo  basin  are  of  the  Bantu  race. 
They  are  harmless,  and  born  traders,  and 
are  lighter  in  color  than  the  Sudanese.  The 
European  population  in  1910  numbered 
3,399t  chiefly  Belgians,  Portuguese,  Italians, 
English  and  Americans.  The  chief  dis- 
tricts are  Boma,  Bangala,  Aruwimi,  Lua- 
laba,  Kwango,  Equator,  Ubangi  and  Stanley 
Pool.  The  area  is  estimated  at  900,000 
square  miles.  Population  possibly  15,000,000 
or  16,000,000. 

There  has  been  a  rapid  expansion  of 
commerce,  and  it  is  being  pushed  and 
developed  with  full  regard  for  the  welfare 
of  the  country.  In  1905  the  imports  were 
45,961,295  francs  and  exports  121,573,949 
francs.  (The  franc  is  about  19  cents.) 

The  chief  imports  are  fabrics,  food, 
machinery,  steamboats,  drink,  metals,  arms 
and  ammunition ;  the  exports  consist  of  rub- 
ber, ivory,  palm-nuts  and  oil,  white  copal, 
coffee  and  cocoa.  Tobacco  is  being  success- 
fully grown.  A  railway  of  about  250  miles 
connects  Matadi  with  Stanley  Pool.  A  local 
railway  of  50  miles  is  open  for  traffic  in  May- 
umbe,  and  a  Belgian  company  is  construct- 
ing 900  miles  of  railway  from  the  Congo 


CONGO,  FRENCH 


442 


CONGRESS 


at  Stanleyville  and  Nyangwe  to  Lakes 
Albert  and  Tanganyika.  Over  100  miles 
of  this  already  are  open.  Thirty-two  steam- 
ers ply  the  upper  Congo.  Telegraph  lines 
connect  Borna  and  the  Equator  by  way  of 
Leopoldville,  744  miles  long,  Kasonga  and 
Baroka  on  Lake  Tanganyika,  200  miles, 
Lisala  and  Umangi,  14  miles,  and  some 
50  miles  in  Mayumbe,  a  total  of  1,008  miles. 

Con'go,  French.     See  FRENCH  CONGO. 

Con'go,  The,  is  the  great  river  of  equatorial 
Africa  and  the  second  largest  river  in  the 
world.  Its  mouth  was  discovered  by  Diego 
Cam  in  1482,  who  set  up  there  a  pillar  and 
called  it  the  Pillar  River.  The  Portuguese 
following  him  did  not  go  far  into  the  in- 
terior, and  called  it  the  Zaire,  a  native  word 
meaning  "the  river."  The  country  there- 
about was  called  the  Congo,  and  the  map- 
makers  gave  the  name  to  the  river.  Cap- 
tain Tuckey,  in  1816,  wished  to  see  if  it 
was  not .  a  mouth  of  the  Niger,  and  with 
his  boats  went  up  the  first  navigable  part, 
no  miles;  but  many  of  his  men  sickened 
and  died,. and  for  half  a  century  the  river 
was  avoided  by  all  but  the  hardy  slave- 
traders.  Livingstone,  between  1867  and 
1871,  while  exploring  between  Lakes  Nyasa 
and  Tanganyika,  found  a  large  river  flow- 
ing to  the  north,  which  he  thought  to  be 
the  Nile.  Five  years  later,  Stanley,  explor- 
ing in  the  same  lake-region,  gazed  on  the 
mighty  stream,  and,  following  its  course 
to  its  mouth,  proved  it  to  be  the  Congo. 
Lake  Bangweolo  is  the  reservoir  from  which 
the  Congo  issues,  called  there  the  Luapula. 
Flowing  north,  it  widens  into  Lake  Moero; 
from  here,  as  far  as  Nyangwe,  its  name  is 
the  Lualaba;  from  Nyangwe  to  Stanley 
Falls  Stanley  named  it  the  Livingstone; 
and  from  Stanley  Falls  to  its  mouth  it  is 
known  as  the  Congo.  It  is  3,000  miles 
long,  and  drains  an  area  of  1,600,000  square 
miles.  It  discharges  a  body  of  water  into 
the  Atlantic  second  only  in  volume  to 
the  Amazon.  Its  two  largest  branches 
are  the  Kasai  from  the  south  and  the 
Mobangi  from  the  north.  The  Congo  is 
divided  into  the  lower,  the  middle  and 
the  upper  river.  The  lower  river  is  navi- 
gable for  its  entire  length  up  to  the  rapids, 
a  distance  of  no  miles,  for  steamers  of 
1 8-foot  draught;  the  middle  river  is  un- 
navigable  through  the  cataract  region, 
extending  255  miles  to  Stanley  Pool.  The 
upper  river,  as  far  as  Stanley  Falls,  is 
navigable  for  1,068  miles  to  steamers  of 
four-foot  draught. 

Cong'ress  of  the  United  States,  the 
legislative  or  law-making  body.  There  are 
two  houses,  the  house  of  representatives 
and  the  senate.  The  senate  is  made  up 
of  two  members  from  each  state,  chosen 
by  direct  vote.  (See  U  S.  p.  1974)  for 
six  years.  One  thirJ  of  the  senate  goes 
out  of  office  every  two  years.  The  senators 
now  (IQIZ)  number  96.  The  representa- 


tives are  chosen  directly  by  the  people 
every  two  years,  the  number  of  members 
from  each  state  depending  upon  its  popu- 
lation. A  new  apportionment  is  made 
every  ten  years  in  accordance  with  the  decen- 
nial census.  On  the  basis  of  the  census 
of  1910  there  is  one  representative  to  every 
211,430  inhabitants.  The  house  at  present 
has  435  members.  The  vice-president  of 
the  United  States  is  president  of  the  senate; 
the  house  chooses  its  own  speaker.  All 
money  or  appropriation  bills  must  originate 
in  the  house.  The  senate  has  sole  power  of 
impeachment  and  of  confirming  or  rejecting 
important  appointments  made  by  the  presi- 
dent. Besides  its  legislative  functions  the 
senate  is  intrusted  with  the  power  of  rati- 
fying or  rejecting  all  treaties  made  by  the 
president  with  foreign  powers,  a  two 
thirds  majority  of  senators  present  being 
required  for  ratification  Congress  lasts 
two  years,  and  has  two  sessions,  both 
commencing  the  first  Monday  in  December. 
The  first  is  called  the  long  session,  and 
lasts  from  seven  to  nine  months,  adjourn- 
ing on  a  day  agreed  upon  by  the  two 
houses;  the  second,  called  the  short  session, 
lasts  until  March  4,  at  12  noon.  Every 
bill  which  passes  the  two  houses,  is  sent 
to  the  president  for  his  approval  or  dis- 
approval. In  the  latter  case  he  vetoes  it, 
that  is,  returns  it  with  his  reasons  to  the 
house  where  it  originated;  if  it  is  passed 
again  by  a  two-thirds  majority  in  both 
houses,  it  becomes  law.  The  powers  of 
Congress  are  limited  and  separated  from 
those  of  the  state  legislature  by  the  federal 
constitution.  By  the  t;th  article  of  the 
constitution,  Congress  has  the  power  to 
propose  alterations  in  the  constitution.  The 
emoluments  of  a  senator  and  representative 
in  Congress,  as  fixed  in  1907,  are  $7  .00  a 
year,  with  traveling-expenses.  The  speaker 
receives  $ 1 2.000  There  also  is  an  allow- 
ance each  year  to  members  for  stationery 
and  similar  expenses.  The  representation 
of  the  various  states  in  Congress  in  1912  is 
as  follows:  Alabama  10;  Arkansas  7;  Cali- 
fornia n;  Colorado  4;  Connecticut  5;  Dela- 
ware i;  Florida  4;  Georgia  12;  Idaho  2; 
Illinois  27;  Indiana  13;  Iowa  n;  Kansas  8; 
Kentucky  n;  Louisiana  8;  Maine  4;  Mary- 
land 6;  Massachusetts  16;  Michigaa  13; 
Minnesota  10;  Mississippi  8;  Missouri  16; 
Montana  2;  Nebraska  6;  Nevada  i;  Ne»v 
Hampshire  2;  New  Jersey  12;  New  York  43; 
North  Carolina  TO;  North  Dakota  3,  Ohio 
22;  Oklahoma  8;  Oregon  3;  Pennsylvania 
36;  Rhode  Island  3;  South  Carolina  7; 
South  Dakota  3;  Tennessee  10;  Texas  18;: 
Utah  2;  Vermont  2;  Virginia  10;  Washing- 
ton 5;  West  Virginia  6;  Wisconsin  n; 
Wyoming  i ;  Arizona  i ;  New  Mexico  i. 

The  first  colonial  congress  met  in  New 
York,  Oct.  7,  1765,  made  up  of  delegates 
from  nine  colonies.  A  second  congress, 
which  met  at  Philadelphia,  July  5,  1774, 


CONIDIA 


443 


CONNECTICUT 


representing  all  the  colonies  but  Georgia, 
set  forth  the  well-known  Declaration  of 
Rights.  This  body  became  known  as  the 
Continental  Congress,  and  on  July  4,  1776, 
adopted  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
The  first  congress  of  the  United  States 
met  in  New  York  in  1789  with  26  senators 
and  65  representatives.  The  next  year  it 
moved  to  Phil- 
adelphia, and  in 
1800  to  Wash- 
ington. See 
Woodrow  Wil- 
son's Congres- 
sional Govern- 
ment; Cooley's 
Constitutional 
Limitation  s; 
Von  Hoist's 
Constitutional 
Law  of  tlte  U. 
S.;  and  Bryce's 
American  Com- 
monwealth. 

Conid'ia  (in 
plants) ,  asexual 
spores  of  cer- 
tain fungi, 
which  are 
formed  by  cut- 
ting off  a  series 
of  cells  from 
special  branch- 
es of  the  my- 
celium, result- 
ing in  more  or 
less  extensive  chains  of  spores  which  separate 
easily.  Such  spores  are  well  displayed  by 
the  mildews  and  the  aecidiurri  forms  of 
rusts.  They  are  often  called  conidiospores. 
The  singular  of  the  name  is  conidium. 
Co'nifers,  the  greatest  group  of  living 
gymnosperms,  contain- 
ing such  plants  as  the 
Sines,  spruces,  hemlocks, 
rs,  redwoods,  cedars, 
cypresses,  junipers, 
yews.  The  species  are 
characteristic  of  the 
temperate  regions  of  the 
northern  and  southern 
hemispheres,  and  are 
almost  entirely  absent 
from  the  tropics.  Among 
them  are  some  of  the 
most  valuable  timber- 
trees,  and  the  yearly  in- 
roads upon  them  for 
lumber,  unless  properly 
controlled,  will  result 
presently  in  their  extinc- 
tion. Their  most  charac- 
teristic features  are  the 
central  shaft  which 
CONJUGATION  OF  never  breaks  up  into 
TWO  FILAMENTS  branches  the  evergreen 
OP  SPIROGYRA  needle-leaves,  the  cones 


CONIDIA 


and  the  soft  and  very  evenly-grained  wood. 
They  are  a  very  ancient  group,  their  remains 
occurring  in  great  abundance  in  the  earlier 
rocks.  See  GYMNOSPERMS. 

Conjugate  Plants,  a  group  of  the  green 
algae,  in  which  different  plants  become  united 
together  by  connecting  tubes,  through  which 
fertilization  is  effected.  The  common  pond- 
scum  or  Spirogyra  is  an  example.  See 
CHLOROPHYCE^E. 

Conjugation.  A  process  of  fertilization 
occurring  in  certain  of  the  lower  plants 
(Thallopnytes),  in  which  the  sexual  cells 
(gametes)  which  unite  to  form  the  spore 
are  alike  in  appearance,  there  being  no 
distinction  of  male  and  female. 

Conk'ling,  Roscoe,  American  politician, 
was  born  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  30,  1829; 
and  died  at  New  York,  April  18,  1888.  In 
1846  he  removed  to  Utica,  N.  Y.,  where  he 
became  district  attorney,  and  was  mayor  in 
1858.  He  was  elected  to  Congress,  and  in 
1879  to  the  Senate.  In  the  practical  business 
of  both  houses  he  took  an  active  and  prom- 
inent part,  serving  on  important  committees, 
and  was  instrumental  in  securing  much  useful 
legislation.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
reconstruction  of  the  southern  states,  and 
advocated  resumption  of  specie-payments. 
He  opposed  President  Johnson's  policy  and 
zealous  championed  Grant's  administration; 
and  in  June,  1880,  nominated  Grant  for  a 
third  term.  In  1881  he  resigned  his  seat  in 
the  senate,  owing  to  Garfield's  exercise  of 
control  over  appointments  in  his  native  state. 
In  1882  he  was  appointed  associate- justice 
of  the  supreme  court  but  declined.  See  his 
Life  and  Letters. 

Connaught,  Arthur,  Duke  of,  Governor 
General  of  Canada  (1911-1916),  is  the  third 
son  of  the  late  Queen  Victoria  of  England. 
Both  in  character  and  attainments,  the  duke 
was  regarded  as  eminently  qualified  for  the 
chief  executive  of  the  Dominion.  Before  his 
appointment  he  had  served  with  distinction 
in  the  British  army,  traveled  widely  and 
availed  himself  of  the  opportunity  to  study 
the  affairs  of  the  empire  at  first  hand.  He 
was  born  in  1850.  The  duchess  was  Princess 
Louise  of  Prussia.  The  duke  commanded  the 
Guards  brigade  at  Tel-el-Kebir  and  was 
mentioned  three  times  in  the  dispatches. 

Connecticut  (kon-ngt'i-kut)  (name  de- 
rived from  Indian  word  meaning  land 
on  the  long  tidal  river  occupies  the  south- 
western corner  of  the  New  England  states. 
Its  northern  boundary  is  Massachusetts,  88 
miles,  its  eastern,  Rhode  Island,  45  miles, 
western,  New  York,  72  miles.  On  the  south 
too  miles  of  irregular  coast  afford  numerous 

S)od  harbors,  the  best  of  which  are  New 
aven  and  New  London.  The  area  of 
the  state  is  5,004  square  miles.  The  census 
of  1900  gave  a  .population  of  908,420.  A 
school  census  in  1907  showed  a  population 
of  1,037.614,  and  the  census  of  1910  gave  a 
population  of  1,114,756. 


CONNECTICUT 


444 


CONNECTICU1 


The  rivers  are  the  Connecticut,  navi- 
gable to  Hartford,  the  Housatonic  and  the 
Thames,  navigable  through  the  tidewater. 
The  various  tributaries  are  the  Farmington, 
the  Naugatuck,  the  Shepaug,  the  Willi- 
mantic,  the  Quinnebaug  and  the  Shetucket. 

Ranges  of  hills  cross  from  north  to  south, 
dividing  the  state  into  the  eastern  upland, 
the  central  lowland,  the  western  upland 
and,  south  of  these,  the  coast  section.  The 
rounded  and  fertile  hills  of  the  eastern 
upland  have  a  lower  average  elevation  than 
those  of  the  western  section,  which  in  the 
extreme  northwestern  corner  reach  the 
height  of  2,355  feet.  The  hills  of  the  west- 
ern upland  are  rugged  and  steep,  broken 
by  bold  bluffs  of  trap-rock. 

Nearness  to  the  ocean  renders  the  climate 
less  severe  than  that  of  inland  states  of 
the  same  latitude.  The  weather  is  change- 
able. The  mean  annual  temperature  is  50°. 

The  geological  formation  of  the  state  is 
interesting.  Ridges  of  trap-rock  are  numer- 
ous through  the  central  portion.  These 
ridges,  forced  up  through  red  sandstone, 
slope  abruptly  to  the  west  and  gently  to 
the  east.  Copper  and  lead,  both  combined 
with  silver,  are  found  in  Hartford  County. 
Copper  was  formerly  mined,  the  first  copper 
cents  used  in  America  being  made  from 
Connecticut  copper.  Later  the  mines 
proved  unprofitable  and  were  abandoned. 
In  the  western  part  of  the  state  a  rich 
deposit  of  iron  has  been  mined  since  1730. 
Limestone,  marble,  brownstone  (freestone), 
granite  and  slate  are  quarried.  The  timber 
includes  hickory,  oak,  chestnut,  butternut, 
beech,  birch,  maple,  ash,  elm.  Much  valu- 
able forest-land  remains,  in  spite  of  the 
large  tracts  which  have  been  cleared.  Scien- 
tific protection  and  increase  of  forests  are 
encouraged  by  a  state-forester  and  the 
Yale  school  of  forestry. 

Four  causes  combine  to  make  Connec- 
ticut prominent  as  a  manufacturing  state: 
the  favorable  location  geographically,  ease 
of  transportation  by  land  and  water,  excel- 
lent water-power  and  the  inventive  genius 
of  the  people.  Among  the  manufactured 
products  are  small  hardware  of  all  sorts, 
machinery,  india-rubber  goods,  paper,  silver- 
plated  ware,  hats,  clocks  and  watches, 
thread,  musical  instruments,  typewriters, 
sewing-machines,  firearms  and  ammunition 
carriages,  bicycles  and  motor-vehicles,  cot- 
ton and  woolen-fabrics  and  silk-fabrics.  One 
large  shipyard  and  two  smaller  ones  do 
a  considerable  amount  of  shipbuilding.  The 
New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Rail- 
road, with  its  branches  and  trolley-lines, 
covers  the  state.  Steamers  run  from  New 
York  to  New  Haven,  New  London,  Bridge- 
port and  Hartford. 

Agriculture  is  second  in  importance  among 
the  industries.  Of  the  crops  raised,  hay 
is  the  most  valuable  and  has  the  largest 
acreage.  The  soil  of  the  upper  valley  of 


the  Connecticut  is  a  deep,  rich  loam,  espe- 
cially suited  to  tobacco-raising.  Much  to- 
bacco is  raised  here  and  in  the  Housatonic 
valley.  The  highlands  are  devoted  largely 
to  dairy-farming,  the  west  and  southwest 
to  market-gardening.  Orchard-fruits  are 
an  important  crop.  Fishing  for  bluefish  is 
followed  along  the  shore,  where  there  are 
also  valuable  shell-fisheries.  The  Connec- 
ticut yields  a  fair  catch  of  shad. 

History.  The  first  permanent  settlements 
we're  made  at  Saybrook  (1635),  Hartford 
(1636)  and  New  Haven  (1637).  Prominent 
men  of  this  period  were  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Hooker  and  the  Rev.  Samuel  Stone,  who  led 
about  100  men,  women  and  children  from 
Massachusetts  to  Hartford;  John  Winthrop, 
jr,  afterward  go vernor,who  was  commissioned 
by  Lords  Say  and  Brook  to  establish  a 
fort  at  the  mouth  of  the  Connecticut, 
named  Saybrook  for  its  owners;  and  the 
Rev.  John  Davenport  and  Theophilus  Eaton 
who  founded  the  New  Haven  colony.  The 
Indians  of  the  Pequot,  Narragansett  and 
various  smaller  tribes  were  practically  ex- 
terminated by  the  settlers  in  1637. 

Connecticut  is  known  as  the  Constitution 
State  from  the  fact  that  almost  the  first 
constitution  adopted  by  vote  of  the  people 
was  drawn  up  and  adopted  by  the  Con- 
necticut colony  in  1639.  In  1662  Gov. 
John  Winthrop,  jr,  obtained  a  charter  from 
King  Charles  II  granting  to  the  colony  an 
unusual  degree  of  independence.  The  hid- 
ing of  the  charter  in  an  oak  must  be  rele- 
gated to  legend.  It  was,  however,  not  sur- 
rendered at  the  demand  of  Sir  Edmund 
Andros,  royal  governor  of  New  England, 
but  was  withheld  until  1689,  when  it  was 
produced  and  the  colonial  government  re- 
established. The  charter  provided  the  ac- 
cepted form  of  government  until  the  adop- 
tion of  the  present  constitution  in  1818. 
Its  terms  and  forms  have  been  largely 
preserved  in  the  constitution,  and  still  are 
the  organic  law  of  the  state.  A  convention 
held  in  1902  to  consider  the  revision  of  the 
constitution  accomplished  nothing.  Repre- 
sentation under  this  constitution  is  in- 
stitutional, the  towns  in  existence  in  1818 
having  two  representatives  each,  the  towns 
incorporated  later  having  one  or  more 
representatives  as  the  population  is  below 
or  above  5,000.  The  system  has  proved 
efficient  and  has  worked  no  injustice. 

The  state  furnished  40,000  soldiers  dur- 
ing the  War  of  the  Revolution.  Jonathan 
Trumbull,  then  governor,  was  a  valued 
friend  and  adviser  of  Washington.  William 
A.  Buckingham,  governor  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War,  made  the  record  of  the 
state  in  that  war  remarkable  for  promptness 
and  zeal.  Nearly  55,000  volunteers  went 
from  Connecticut. 

Immigration  has  changed  the  character 
of  the  population  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  recent  years.  It  is  now  1,254,926. 


CONNECTICUT  RIVER 


445 


CONSERVATION  OF  ENERGY 


Education.  Supervision  of  the  public- 
school  system  is  in  the  hands  of  a  board 
appointed  by  the  legislature.  Financial 
assistance  of'  the  towns  is  provided  by  a 
fund  derived  from  the  sale  of  Connecticut's 
share  of  land  in  the  Western  Reserve  and 
by  high-school  grants,  larger  and  more 
generally  applicable  than  in  any  other  state. 
The  minimum  school-year  covers  36  weeks, 
the  longest  required  by  any  state.  En- 
forcement of  child-labor  laws  is  under  the 
charge  of  the  state  board  of  education, 
and  attendance  laws  are  rigidly  observed. 
Higher  institutions  of  learning  include  Yale 
University,  New  Haven ;  Wesleyan  Universi- 
ty, Middletown;  Trinity  College,  Hartford; 
Hartford  Theological  Seminary,  Hartford; 
and  Berkeley  Divinity  School,  Middletown. 
The  state  maintains  normal  schools  at  New 
Britain,  New  Haven,  Willimantic  and  Dan- 
bury.  An  agricultural  college  is  maintained 
at  Storrs  by  funds  obtained  in  part  from  the 
U.  S.  government  and  in  part  from  the 
state. 

Connecticut  River,  the  largest  in  New 
England,  is  450  miles  long  and  is  navigable 
to  Hartford.  It  rises  in  New  Hampshire, 
forms  the  boundary  line  between  that  state 
and  Vermont,  crosses  Massachusetts  and 
Connecticut,  and  enters  Long  Island  Sound. 
Its  many  falls  afford  abundant  water-power, 
and  along  its  whole  course  it  is  noted  for 
its  beauty. 

Connec'tive  (in  plants).  That  part  of 
an  anther  which  lies  between  the  pollen- 
sacs.  See  FLOWER. 

Con'nellsville,  Pa.,  situated  in  the  south- 
west of  the  state,  about  sixty  miles  southeast 
of  Pittsburg,  is  the  center  of  the  United  States 
coking-coal  trade.  It  may  be  visited  by 
branches  of  the  Pennsylvania  and  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  railroads.  In  addition  to  the  coking- 
coal  industry,  it  has  steel  mills,  coal-mines, 
brick-works  and  pump  and  machine-works. 
Population  15,000. 

Conrad,  Timothy  Abbott,  an  American 
paleontologist,  was  born  in  New  Jersey  in 
1803,  and  died  at  Trenton,  N.  J.,  Aug.  8, 
1877.  Early  in  life,  his  attention  was 
drawn  to  the  geological  features  and  crust- 
depressions  in  the  western  plains,  while  on 
surveying  expeditions  and  while  acting  as 
paleontologist  of  the  N.  Y.  geological  sur- 
vey. His  published  works  include  Fossil 
Shells  of  me  Tertiary  Formations  of  North 
America,  New  Fresh-Water  Shells  of  the 
United  States  and  Paleontology  of  the  State 
of  New  York. 

Conservation  of  Energy.  The  fact 
that  energy  is  conserved  or  preserved  with- 
out loss  or  gain,  where  to  all  appearance 
there  are  successive  loss  and  gain  of  energy, 
is  well-shown  in  the  pendulum.  By  energy 
we  mean  capability  to  do  work.  When  the 
pendulum  is  at  the  height  of  its  swing,  it 
may  be  said  to  be  stationary.  Though  it 


seems  then  to  have  no  energy,  yet,  owing 
to  its  elevation,  it  has  potential  energy,  for 
it  has  the  capacity  to  move  with  constant 
acceleration  down  to  the  "bottom  of  its 
swing.  There  it  is  moving  at  its  maximum 
rate,  and  has  a  maximum  of  kinetic  energy 
or  energy  of  motion,  though  it  has  lost  the 
potential  or  static  energy  with  which  it 
started,  which  was  due  to  its  position  and 
the  attraction  of  the  earth.  This  kinetic 
energy  is  enough  to  carry  the  pendulum  up 
to  a  similar  position  on  the  other  side. 
There  again  the  kinetic  energy  has  dis- 
appeared, for  the  pendulum  is,  as  it  were, 
still,  but  the  same  amount  of  potential 
energy  is  present  as  at  first,  for  the  pen- 
dulum is  now  ready  to  move  as  at  first, 
though  in  the  opposite  direction.  The 
pendulum,  considered  as  a  pendulum,  now 
has  potential  energy  equal  in  amount  to 
the  kinetic  energy  which  it  had  before;  for 
it  has  the  power  to  move  the  same  weight 
(i.e.,  its  own  weight)  through  an  equal  dis- 
tance, at  the  same  average  rate,  as  when 
it  was  moving  at  the  bottom  of  its  swing. 
So,  at  every  point  in  the  swing,  the  loss  of 
potential  energy  is  made  up  by  an  equal 
gain  in  kinetic  energy,  and  vice  versa.  It 
is  true  that  a  pendulum  will,  after  a  time, 
stop  swinging.  But  this  is  because  forces 
outside  it  are  acting  upon  it.  There  are 
the  friction  of  the  point  on  which  it  swings 
and  the  resistance  of  the  air,  etc.  But  the 
original  energy  of  the  pendulum  is  not  lost. 
For,  if  we  measure  the  energy  of  the  heat 
which  the  friction  and  the  resistance  cause 
and  the  energy  of  the  other  motions  of  the 
air,  etc.  caused  by  the  pendulum  while  it 
was  swinging,  we  shall  find  that  in  that 
heat,  motion,  etc.  there  is  just  the  same 
amount  of  energy,  kinetic  or  potential,  as 
that  with  which  it  started.  The  pendulum, 
ifrs  fulcrum  or  point  of  support,  the  air,  the 
earth,  etc.  here  form  a  conservative  sys- 
tem. For  any  system  of  bodies,  where  the 
sum  of  the  energy  which  its  parts  possess 
remains  unchanged  (through  whatever 
changes,  in  position  or  motion,  those  parts 
may  nave  passed)  is  a  conservative  system 
Every  system  of  bodies  that  so  far  has 
been  studied  with  respect  to  its  energies 
has  been  found  to  be  a  conservative  sys- 
tem. If  we  assume  that  the  universe  is 
fundamentally  a  system  of  material  bodies 
and  that  it  obeys,  as  a  whole,  the  same 
laws  of  conservation  that  we  observe  in  its 
parts,  then  the  energy  of  the  universe,  of 
course,  is  always  the  same.  That  it  always 
is  the  same  is  the  theory  of  the  conservation 
of  energy.  It  is  a  theory,  and  not  a  fact 
of  observation. 

The  proof  of  the  conservation  of  energy 
depends  upon  our  power  to  change  one 
form  of  energy  into  another  and  to  bring 
them  all  to  one  standard  of  measurement. 
The  common  standard  of  measurement  for 
all  energies  is  the  erg,  which  is  based  upon 


CONSTABLE 


446 


CONSTANTINE  I 


the  force  found  necessary  to  produce  upon 
a  gram  of  matter  a  velocity  of  one  centi- 
meter a  second.  The  form  of  energy  to 
which  all  other  energies  can  be  reduced  is 
that  of  heat.  The  proof,  therefore,  of  the 
conservation  of  energy  in  any  system 
depends  upon  the  measurement  of  heat  in 
terms  of  motion.  That  heat  could  so  be 
measured  was  advanced  as  a  theory  by 
Count  Rumford  and  Sir  Humphrey  Davy 
in  1798,  and  by  Julius  Robert  Mayer  in 
1842;  but  it  was  first  publicly  demonstrated 
by  James  Prescott  Joule  in  1843.  In  1845 
he  was  able  to  state  that  the  energy  re- 
quired to  heat  one  gram  of  water  at  i°  C. 
is  the  same  as  that  required  to  lift  about 
423  grams  to  a  height  of  one  meter.  This 
result  is  very  near  that  which  is  at  present 
accepted. 

According  to  the  theory  of  matter  which 
regards  it  as  composed  of  very  small  par- 
ticles moving  and  attracting  one  another, 
all  potential  energy  is  a  kind  of  strain. 
There  are  strains  of  extension,  of  com- 
pression and  of  distortion,  of  electrifica- 
tion, of  magnetization,  of  chemical  separa- 
tion and  of  gravitation.  Perhaps  all  these 
may  really  be  called  strains  of  distortion. 
Kinetic  energy  may  be  of  the  following 
kinds,  all  of  which  are  regarded  as  forms 
of  motion:  translation,  rotation,  vibration; 
and,  as  subclasses  of  these,  heat,  current- 
electricity,  light,  chemical  activity,  emana- 
tion (as  in  radio-activity)  and  probably 
other  forms  of  motion.  Now  it  seems  that 
all  these  forms  of  energy,  potential  and 
kinetic,  are  transformable  into  heat;  but 
heat  is  transformable  into  other  kinds  of 
energy  only  when  there  exists  a  difference 
of  temperature  between  different  parts  of 
a  system.  Wherever,  in  any  system,  differ- 
ences of  temperature  are  in  whole  or  in 
part  removed,  therefore,  the  energy  of  heat 
which  that  system  contained  is  in  whole  or 
in  part  changed  from  being  available  into 
a  condition  of  being  unavailable  for  trans- 
formation into  any  other  kind  of  energy. 
Now  in  any  and  all  systems,  in  whatever 
processes  they  undergo,  there  takes  place 
this  transformation  of  available  into  useless 
energy.  The  useless  energy  is  called  the 
entropy  of  the  system. 

The  theory  of  the  conservation  of  energy 
is  not  understood  until  it  is  supplemented 
by  this  theory  of  the  destruction  or  dissi- 
pation of  available  energy  in  all  systems 
and  throughout  the  universe.  The  grandest 
application  of  this  theory  open  to  us  is  un- 
doubtedly the  recognition  of  the  sun  and 
the  earth,  together  with  the  surrounding 
ether,  as  a  conservative  system.  Then  the 
transformation  of  the  heat  of  the  sun  into 
light,  into  the  uplift  of  waters  from  the 
oceans,  into  the  chemical  energy  of  plants 
and  of  animals,  into  the  resultant  deposits 
of  sediment  and  the  erosion  of  mountain- 
ranges,  into  the  heat  of  coal  and  the  energy 


of  Niagara,  with  all  the  applications  of 
these  forces  to  meet  human  necessities;  the 
spectacle  of  all  these  countless  changes  and 
productions  is  dominated  by  the  thought 
that  of  the  energy  thus  poured  forth  none 
is  lost,  but  abides  in  a  potential  or  a  kinetic 
form.  And  yet  the  available  energy  is 
continually  diminished,  as  these  changes, 
one  and  all,  end  their  career  in  the  form  of 
heat,  thereby  continually  diminishing  the 
difference  of  temperature  between  the  sun 
and  that  which  surrounds  it.  Nevertheless 
we  must  remember  that,  admirable  and 
consistent  as  these  theories  of  conservation 
and  entropy  appear,  they  are  subject  to 
revision  with  the  advance  of  knowledge 
and  of  mechanical  art.  PERCY  HUGHES. 

Con'stable,  John,  an  English  landscape- 
painter,  was  born  in  1776  and  died  in  1837. 
He  entered  the  Royal  Academy  when  23 
years  old,  but  his  progress  was  slow.  Not 
until  1814,  12  years  after  he  had  begun  to 
exhibit  pictures,  did  he  succeed  in  selling 
one.  But  in  1819  his  View  on.  the  Stour 
attracted  much  attention,  and  his  reputa- 
tion spread  widely.  His  pictures  are  re- 
markable for  the  truth  and  vividness  with 
which  they  reproduce  country-scenes  and 
the  phases  of  nature.  A  French  critic  said 
that  their  leaves  and  grass  are  fresh  with 
dew,  and  Fuseli  jokingly  asserted  that  they 
made  him  call  for  his  umbrella.  Among 
his  best  paintings  are  Salisbury  Cathedral, 
The  Cornfield,  The  Lock  and  The  Valley 
Farm 

CorTstance,  Lake,  lies  1,290  feet  above 
the  sea,  between  Switzerland  and  Germany, 
north  of  the  Swiss  Alps.  It  is  forty-two 
miles  long  and  seven  and  a  half  miles  in 
average  width,  covering  an  area  of  208 
square  miles;  its  greatest  depth  is  906  feet. 
The  Rhine  flows  through  it  from  east  to 
west.  The  shores  are  formed  by  hilly  lands; 
cornfields,  vineyards,  orchards  and  wooded 
hills,  with  here  and  there  a  ruined  castle, 
surround  the  lake.  The  water  is  dark 
green,  and  in  the  spring  often  rises  ten  or 
twelve  feet  after  a  thaw.  The  fisheries  are 
important. 

Constantino  I  ( kon' stan-tin') ,  Roman 
emperor,  called  the  Great,  born  274  A.  D., 
was  the  son  of  Constantius  Chlorus.  When 
22  years  old,  he  served  as  a  soldier  in  Egypt 
and  in  Persia.  In  305  Constantius  and 
Galerius  became  emperors  respectively  of 
the  west  and  the  east.  Constantino  was 
now  in  the  army  of  Galerius,  who  saw  a 
possible  rival  in  the  young  leader's  brilliant 
genius  and  popularity  among  the  soldiers, 
and  so  took  every  means  to  place  him  in 
danger.  But  Constantine  hastily  joined  his 
father  in  the  west,  and  on  his  death  suc- 
ceeded him  in  306.  However,  things  got 
into  a  muddled  condition  two  years  later, 
for  six  emperors  were  ruling  at  once,  three 
in  the  east  and  three  in  the  west.  Constan- 
tine thus  found  himself  opposed  by  two 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


447 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


rivals,  Maximian  and  Maxentius,  father  and 
son.  The  father  took  refuge  in  Marseilles, 
and,  when  about  to  be  given  up  by  the 
people,  killed  himself.  The  son  gathered  a 
large  army,  but  Constantine,  quickly  cross- 
ing the  Alps  by  the  Mt.  Cenis  pass,  worsted 
him  twice,  and  utterly  crushed  him  in  the 
battle  of  the  Milvian  Bridge  in  312.  It  is 
asserted  that  Constantine,  while  on  the 
march  and  near  the  Alps,  saw  a  naming 
cross  in  the  sky,  with  the  inscription:  "By 
this,  conquer."  During  the  rout  Maxentius 
was  forced  off  the  bridge  and  drowned. 
The  night  before  the  battle,  it  is  said,  Con- 
Ttantine  saw  a  vision,  in  which  he  was  told 
to  place  the  monogram  of  the  name  of 
Christ  on  his  soldiers'  shields.  In  this  way 
\he  standard  of  the  cross  came  (after  323) 
to  be  borne  by  the  Roman  soldiers;  and  a 
year  later,  the  eastern  emperor,  Licinius, 
joined  with  Constantine  in  granting  Chris- 
tians freedom  of  worship  and  the  rights  of 
Roman  citizens.  That  Constantine  became 
a  Christian  himself  at  this  time,  is  doubtful; 
but  during  his  reign  Christianity  was  made 
the  state-religion,  the  heathen  temples  were 
closed,  and  toward  the  end  of  his  life  the 
great  emperor  was  baptized.  Linicius,  now 
sole  ruler  in  the  east,  was  next  conquered 
and  put  to  death,  and  in  330  the  western 
emperor,  now  sole  master  of  the  Roman 
world,  made  Byzantium  his  capital,  chang- 
ing its  name  to  Constantinople,  the  city  of 
Constantine.  He  died  May  22,  337. 

Constantine  I.  of  Greece,  who  succeeded 
his  father  King  George  (q.  v.),  was  forced  by 
the  Allies  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  second 
son  Alexander  in  1917.  He  was  born  August  3 , 
1868,  and  was  married  in  1889  to  Sophia, 
youngest  sister  of  Emperor  William  of  Ger- 
many. The  action  taken  by  the  Allies  was  due 
to  his  alleged  pro-German  activities.  His 
eldest  son,  Crown  Prince  George,  was  ex- 
cluded from  succession  for  a  similar  reason. 

Constantinople,  capital  of  the  Turkish 
empire,  called  Stamboul  by  the  Turks,  was 
formerly  the  ancient  town  of  Byzantium 
and  capital  of  the  Byzantine  or  Eastern 
Empire.  A  colony  from  Megara  settled  it 
about  658  B.  C.,  and  its  commanding  posi- 
tion caused  it  to  be  fought  for  by  Persians, 
Gauls,  Greeks  and  Romans.  In  the  fourth 
century  Philip  of  Macedon  lay  siege  to  it, 
but  was  driven  off  by  an  Athenian  army. 
The  story  is  that  the  Macedonians'  where- 
abouts was  discovered  by  a  crescent  which 
shone  out  in  the  sky;  so,  ever  since,  a  cres- 
cent has  been  the  badge  of  the  city.  In 
330  A.  D.  Constantine  was  so  taken  with 
its  fine  site  that  he  made  it  his  capital, 
giving  it  his  own  name,  by  which  it  is  now 
known.  Of  the  26  sieges  and  eight  captures 
it  has  suffered,  that  by  the  crusaders  in 
1204  was  the  worst,  when  all  that  was 
beautiful  in  the  city,  the  church-treasures 
and  even  the  bodies  of  the  dead  were 


plundered.  In  1453  Constantinople  fell 
before  the  conquering  Turk  and  has  never 
been  besieged  since,  chiefly,  in  modern 
times,  because  of  the  renown  of  the  Otto- 
man empire  and,  later  still,  because  of  the 
jealousy  of  the  European  powers,  which 
would  not  allow  any  one  of  them  to  capture 
the  prize  of  the  Bosporus. 

Stamboul  or  Constantinople  proper  stands 
on  the  site  of  old  Byzantium,  south  of  the 
Golden  Horn,  a  creek  five  miles  long,  half 
a  mile  broad  and  deep  enough  to  float  near 
to  the  shore  the  Turkish  ironclads.  The 
14  miles  of  walls  first  built  by  Constantine 
still  encompass  the  city.  Stamboul,  like 
Rome,  has  its  seven  hills,  where  over  200 
beautiful  mosques  and  countless  chapela 
rise  from  a  mass  of  tumble-down,  ill-smell- 


BLACK         SEA 


JWnWyJkol 
SEA     Of     H  A   K   H  O  H 


ing  wooden  houses  and  long  rows  of  pic- 
turesque bazars.  There  are  many  suburbs, 
including  Eyyub,  where  is  the  mosque  in 
which  every  sultan  must  gird  on  the  sword 
of  Osman  before  he  ascends  the  throne.  No 
Christian  is  allowed  to  approach  the  holy 
place.  The  trade  of  Constantinople  is  large 
and  mostly  in  the  hands  of  Europeans. 
There  are  20  miles  of  fortifications  along 
the  Bosporus.  Railroads  now  connect  Con- 
stantinople with  Paris  and  other  European 
cities  and  also  with  towns  in  Asia  Minor. 
Population,  1,200,000. 

Constitution,  The,  or  Old  Ironsides.  A 
famous  American  naval  vessel.  A  44-gun 
frigate  of  1576  tons,  she  was  launched 
Sept.  20,  1797.  She  took  part  in  the  opera- 
tions against  the  pirates  in  the  Mediter- 


CONSUL,  MERCANTILE 


448 


CONTINUATION-SCHOOLS 


ranean  in  1803 — the  recapture  of  the  Phila- 
delphia and  the  bombardment  of  Tripoli. 
In  the  war  of  1812,  she  brought  renown  to 
the  American  Navy.  Aug.  19,  1812,  under 
Capt.  Isaac  Hull,  she  fought  and  destroyed 
the  British  ship  Guerriere  and  Dec.  29,  of 
the  same  year,  under  Capt.  Bainbridge,  she 
won  a  hard  fought  battle  with  the  Java, 
which  she  destroyed.  Under  Capt.  Stewart 
she  captured  four  prizes  in  1814,  and  Feb. 
20,  1815,  she  captured,  after  a  terrific  fight, 
the  Cyane  and  the  Levant.  In  1830  she 
was  condemned  to  be  broken  up,  but  Oliver 
Wendell  Holmes  published  his  thrilling  poem 
"Old  Ironsides,"  which  aroused  public  pro- 
test, and  the  grand  old  ship  was  saved. 
She  was  rebuilt  and  did  further  service, 
crossing  the  Atlantic  for  the  last  time  in 
1878.  In  1897  she  was  retired  to  the  Boston 
Navy  Yard,  where  she  did  service  as  a 
barrack  ship. 

Consul,  Mercantile,  the  name  given  to 
those  officers  a  nation  maintains  in  a  foreign 
country  for  the  protection  of  its  trade  and 
the  rights  of  its  merchants  and  to  whom 
the  further  duty  is  assigned  of  keeping  the 
home-government  informed  of  all  facts 
bearing  on  the  commercial  interests  of  the 
country.  The  practice  of  maintaining  these 
consular  agents  had  its  origin  among  the 
trading  cities  of  Italy  in  the  i2th  century. 
It  has  since  gradually  widened,  and  in  the 
1 6th  century  had  become  a  regular  custom 
throughout  Europe.  The  consul's  first  duty 
on  reaching  his  post  is  to  show  his  com- 
mission to  the  authorities  of  the  country 
and  receive  their  sanction  of  his  appoint- 
ment. This  sanction  is  called  an  exequatur 
— from  the  Latin  word  meaning  to  perform 
or  execute.  Consuls  attend  mostly  to  com- 
mercial affairs,  such  as  examining  and 
visaing  a  ship's  papers,  taking  note  of  losses 
at  sea,  providing  for  disabled  seamen,  mak- 
ing regular  reports  on  prices  of  crops;  while 
in  some  half-civilized  countries  the  consul 
is  a  judge.  Treaties  are  made  giving  the 
consular  court  power  to  settle  all  disputes 
between  citizens  of  his  own  country.  This 
is  usually  the  case  in  some  North  African  and 
Asiatic  states,  where  the  lives  and  property 
of  foreigners  could  not  safely  be  left  to 
depend  on  their  poorly  carned-out  laws. 
In  1908  Congress  passed  a  law  for  the 
reorganization  of  the  American  consular 
service,  which  had  fallen  far  behind  the 
commercial  requirements  of  the  times,  and 
the  law  took  effect  on  July  i. 

Consumers'  League.  The  consumers' 
leagues  are  organizations,  chiefly  of  well- 
to-do  women,  to  encourage  proprietors  of 
retail  stores  and  of  factories  to  treat  their 
female  and  child  employees  well.  The  first 
league  was  formed  in  England  in  1890,  but 
the  Consumers'  League  of  the  City  of  New 
York  was  organized  next  year.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1898.  Besides  63  leagues 
in  22  states,  there  are  now  national  con- 


sumers' leagues  in  France,  Germany  and 
Switzerland  as  well  as  in  America.  The 
National  Consumers'  League  deals  with 
factories,  and  issues  a  label  certifying  that 
the  goods  have  been  manufactured  in 
factories  where  the  state's  factory-law  ia 
obeyed,  where  ten  hours  are  the  maximum 
day's  labor,  where  children  under  16  are 
not  employed,  and  where  the  inspection 
of  the  Consumer's  League  is  welcomed.  It 
also  works  for  the  passage  of  state  and 
national  laws  to  improve  the  condition  of 
factory  workers,  especially  of  women  and 
children.  Its  main  office  is  105  E.  22d  St., 
N.  Y.  City.  Mrs.  Florence  Kelly,  the  gen- 
eral secretary,  is  inspector  and  missionary 
for  the  league.  Its  work  has  been  heartily 
endorsed  by  the  president  of  the  United  States. 

The  state  and  city  leagues  adopt  the 
regulations  of  the  National  Consumers' 
League,  regarding  the  manufacture  of 
goods;  and  also  aim  to  improve  the  condi- 
tion of  retail  stores,  by  drawing  up  a  list 
of  "fair  houses,"  where  proper  conditions 
prevail.  Members  of  the  leagues  give  these 
stores  the  preference.  Stores  where  men 
only  are  employed  are  not  taken  under  con- 
sideration. 

Contin'ua'tion-Schools,  in  the  proper 
sense  of  the  term,  have  scarcely  any  place 
in  systems  of  public  instruction  in  the 
United  States.  But,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
need  of  such  schools  in  order  to  supplement 
the  education  gotten  in  day  schools  either 
by  liberal  or  vocational  training  is  being 
more  and  more  urgently  felt;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  beginning  has  been  made  by 
the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations 
and  by  private  enterprise.  The  evening- 
schools  which  are  being  conducted  in  con- 
nection with  many  city-school  systems 
are  at  present  little  more  than  schools  for 
the  illiterate;  but  genuine  continuation- 
courses  are  already  being  offered  in  them 
to  a  small  extent  in  New  York  City  and 
elsewhere.  Such  continuation-work  as  is 
to  be  had  is  patronized  chiefly  by  appren- 
tices, assistants  in  business  houses  and 
offices  and  machine-operators.  There  is 
need  of  more  advanced  training  for  jour- 
neymen and  skilled  workers.  It  is  clear 
that  vocational  training  is  felt  to  be  the 
essential  function  of  the  continuation- 
school.  The  older  method  of  apprentice- 
ship has  well-nigh  disappeared,  and  only 
the  continuation-school  can  take  its  place 
and  improve  upon  it. 

Probably  Massachusetts  has  done  more 
than  the  other  states  in  the  direction  of 
providing  continuation-schools  which  are 
more  than  mere  evening-schools  for  illiter- 
ates. Most  important  is  the  success  of  her 
three  state  textile-schools  at  Lowell,  New 
Bedford  and  Fall  River.  In  1906  these 
three  schools  had  an  enrollment  of  only 
167  day-students,  but  there  were  1,419 
evening-students. 


CONVOLVULUS 


449 


COOLEY 


During  a  little  over  ten  years  attempts 
have  been  successfully  made  by  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  to  found  con- 
tinuation-schools. There  now  are  400  of 
these  schools  in  the  U.  S.  under  local  or 
state  supervision.  Several  business  and 
manufacturing  firms,  such  as  the  Boston 
Elevated  Railway  Company,  the  New  Eng- 
land Telephone  and  Telegraph  Company 
and  the  Edison  Company,  have  contributed 
largely  to  the  support  of  the  continuation- 
schools  conducted  by  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Rather 
more  doubtful  is  the  value  of  the  corre- 
spondence-schools which  are  for  many 
workers  the  sole  vehicles  of  continuation- 
work.  These  schools  are  often  efficiently 
conducted;  but  their  method  is  apt  to  be 
discouraging  and  their  management  mer- 
cenary. 

In  Germany  continuation-schools  de- 
veloped from  the  attempt  made  by  the 
Sunday-schools  in  1760  to  extend  their 
teaching  to  primary  secular  subjects.  An 
impetus  was  given  to  the  movement  by  the 
foundation  of  free  schools  for  the  workers, 
first  by  Berlin  and  later  by  other  cities. 
The  modern  German  Fortbildungschulen 
or  continuation-schools,  numbering  3,000 
in  Prussia  and  four  times  that  number  in 
the  empire,  are  one  secret  of  the  industrial 
advances  of  modern  Germany.  France 
has  several  kinds  of  continuation-schools, 
especially  commercial  schools  and  poly- 
technics. The  English  continuation-schools 
are  largely  of  an  advanced  and  secondary 
character.  There  are  systems  of  continua- 
tion-schools also  in  Italy,  Switzerland, 
Holland,  Sweden  and  Australia;  designed 
to  meet  the  same  problem  of  providing 
liberal  and  vocational  training  for  those 
whose  days  are  filled  with  toil.  See  CORRE- 
SPONDENCE-SCHOOLS. 

Convolvulus,  Wild  Morning-Qlory,  a 
common  white  or  pink-and-white  wild- 
flower  of  wayside  wall  and  bank.  It  is 
much  like  the  cultivated  morning-glory 
of  the  home-garden,  but  is  a  hardier  plant; 
the  flowers  are  less  frail  and  remain  open 
longer,  and  it  is  perennial.  It  is  also 
called  Hedge-Bindweed,  also  Lady's  Night- 
cap. It  grows  as  far  south  as  North  Caro- 
lina and  west  to  Nebraska,  and  blooms 
from  June  to  August.  It  is  a  rapid  grower 
and  a  great  twiner,  the  Latin  name  Con- 
volvulus, meaning  little  twiner.  On  moon- 
light nights  the  flower  remains  open,  giving 
welcome  to  visiting  moths.  To  the  Con- 
volvulus family  belongs  the  sweet-potato 
vine;  and  also  a  member  of  this  family  is 
that  bane  of  the  farmer,  dodder,  small  or 
field  bindweed. 

Cook  Islands.  Capt.  Cook  in  1773  dis- 
covered a  number  of  islands  between  8° 
and  23°  south  latitude  and  157°  and  170° 
west  longitude.  These  number  six  prin- 
cipal and  a  number  of  smaller  islands,  which 
with  several  others  were  attached  to  New 


circumference    and    has 
The  total  population  is 


Zealand     for     administrative     purposes    in 
June,    1901.      Rarotonga,  the  chief  island, 
is     20    miles     in 
2,060  inhabitants. 
6,324. 

Cook,  Frederick  Albert,  American 
physician  and  explorer,  was  born  at  Cali- 
coon  Depot,  Sullivan  Co.,  New  York,  June 
10  1865.  He  was  graduated  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  New  York  in  1890,  and  received 
his  medical  degree  from  the  same  institu- 
tion. He  was  surgeon  of  the  Peary  Arctic 
expedition,  in  1891-2,  and  surgeon  of  the 
Belgium  Antarctic  expedition  1897-9.  la 
1903-6  he  explored  the  mountain  regions 
of  Alaska  and  claimed  to  have  ascended  Mt. 
McKinley.  He  is  the  author  of  Through  the 
First  Antarctic  Night  and  To  the  Top  of  the 
Continent.  In  July,  1907,116  sailed  north  in 
a  fishing  schooner,  reaching  Smith  Sound 
where  he  wintered.  On  Feb.  19,  1908,  he 
started  with  a  sledge  train  for  the  pole.  In 
Sept.,  1909,  he  returned  to  civilization  and 
announced  that  on  Apr.  21,  1908,  he  had 
reached  the  north  pole,  where  he  spent  two 
days  in  taking  observations.  His  proofs, 
submitted  to  scientists  of  Copenhagen  Uni- 
versity, did  not  stand  the  test  of  examination 
and  his  claim  was  discredited.  See  Polar 
Explorations. 

Cook, 'James,  Captain,  a  great  English 
navigator,  was  born  Oct.  28,  1728,  the  son 
of  a  farm-laborer.  In  1755  he  entered  the 
royal  navy  and  became  a  master-mariner, 
and  at  this  time  surveyed  the  shores  of 
Newfoundland  and  the  St.  Lawrence.  In 
1768,  as  lieutenant  in  command  of  a  ship, 
he  sailed  to  Tahiti  with  an  expedition  to 
observe  the  transit  of  Venus.  On  the 
return  voyage  he  sailed  around  New  Zea- 
land for  the  first  time,  mapped  its  coasts 
and  explored  the  east  side  of  Australia. 

His  second  voyage  was  spent  exploring 
the  lands  of  the  Antarctic  on  the  edge  of 
the  sea  of  ice. 

His  third  voyage  was  made  as  captain 
in  charge  of  two  ships.  After  discovering 
Hawaii,  which  he  named  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  he  followed  the  North  American 
coast,  trying  to  find  a  northwest  passage 
from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic.  He  reached 
Bering  Strait,  but,  forced  to  turn  back,  he 
made  Hawaii  in  1779.  Here  he  was  mur- 
dered by  the  islanders  Feb.  14,  1779- 
Captain  Cook,  perhaps  more  than  anyone 
else,  added  to  our  knowledge  of  the  Pacific 
and  Antarctic  Oceans.  His  surveys  also 
have  stood  later  tests  and  been  found 

Cooley,  Thomas  Mclntyre,  American 
jurist,  was  born  at  Attica,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  6, 
1824;  and  died  at  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  Sept. 
12,  1898.  He  studied  law  and  in  1846 
was  admitted  to  the  bar;  in  1859  be  became 
professor  of  law  in  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan; and,  with  an  interval  of  some  years 
when  he  was  chief-justice  of  the  supreme 


COOPER 


450 


court  of  his  state,  he  returned  to  his  univer- 
sity professorship  as  dean  of  the  school  of 
political  science  and  lecturer  on  constitu- 
tional and  administrative  law.  Between 
1887  and  1891  he  served  as  chairman  of 
the  interstate  commerce  commission.  He 
was  an  able  and  industrious  writer  of  legal 
text-books,  which  have  become  standard 
authorities;  the  chief  of  these  are  The 
Constitutional  Limitations  which  Rest  upon 
the  Legislative  Power  of  the  States  of  the 
American  Union;  The  Law  of  Taxation; 
Wrongs  and  Their  Remedies;  and  The^  Gen- 
eral Principles  of  Constitutional  Law  in  the 
United  States. 

Cooper,  Sir  Astley,  an  English  surgeon, 
was  born  at  Norfolk,  Eng.,  Aug.  23,  1768. 
He  began  the  study  of  surgery  in  London 
when  17.  Appointments  at  hospitals  and 
professorships  followed.  His  books  made 
him  famous.  From  1804  to  1807  was 
published  his  work  on  Hernia;  his  great 
work  on  Dislocation  and  Fractures  appeared 
in  1822.  He  was  the  first  to  attempt  the 
tying  of  the  carotid  artery  and  the  aorta, 
though  he  was  not  successful  in  either. 
He  also  removed  a  tumor  from  the  head 
of  George  IV,  who  thereupon  made  him 
a  baronet.  The  vice-presidency  of  uni- 
versities, degrees,  memberships  and  offices 
in  scientific  societies  were  showered  upon 
him.  Besides  his  fame  as  a  surgeon  and 
as  a  writer  on  surgery,  he  was  very  suc- 
cessful as  a  teacher,  implanting  knowl- 
edge in  an  easy  and  agreeable  manner, 
He  also  made  surgery,  which  before  his 
time  had  in  large  measure  been  dangerous 
guesswork,  a  science.  He  died  Feb.  12, 
1841. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  American  novel- 
ist, was  born  at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  Sept.  15, 
1789.  After  three  years 
at  Yale  he  entered  the 
navy,  rising  to  the  rank 
of  lieutenant.  His  first 
novel  was  a  failure ;  but 
in  1821  The  Spy  made 
him  popular.  Following 
this  came  The  Pioneer s, 
the  first  of  the  famous 
Leather-Stocking  Tales. 
In  1823  appeared  The 
Pilot,  the  earliest  of  his 
sea  -  tales.  Throughout 
his  life  he  was  a  busy 
writer,  now  correcting  the  false  impressions 
of  his  country  which  he  found  current  in 
Europe,  now  writing  a  novel  to  give  expres- 
sion to  his  views  of  politics,  now  ridiculing 
his  countrymen's  faults  and  anon  bringing 
out  sketches  of  travel.  But  his  fame  rests 
on  his  early  novels,  the  best  of  which  have 
been  translated  into  most  of  the  languages 
of  Europe  and  into  some  of  those  of  the 
east.  He,  practically,  was  the  first  Amer- 
ican in  American  literature.  He  died  Sept. 
14,  1851. 


JAMES  F.  COOPER 


PETER  COOPER 


Cooper,    Peter,  was  born  at  New  York, 
Feb,  12,  1791.     His  father,  who  had  been  a 

lieutenant  in  the 
Revolutionary 
War  and  was 
a  h  a  t-m  a  n  u- 
facturer,  was 
not  successful  in 
business,  and 
had  a  large  fam- 
ily to  provide 
for.  So  Peter's 
boyhood  was 
one  of  hard  la- 
bor. He  went 
to  school  half  of 
each  day  for  a 
single  year. 
When  17,  he  was 
apprenticed  to  a 
coachmaker,  and 
pleased  his  employer  so  much  that  he 
offered  to  set  him  up  in  business,  which 
he  declined.  After  trying  different  branch- 
es of  trade,  he  began  the  manufact- 
ure of  glue  and  isinglass,  which  he  car- 
ried on  for  50  years.  Seeing  what  profits 
could  be  made  in  iron,  he  built  several  mills. 
In  1845  ne  erected  at  Trenton,  N.  J.,  the 
largest  rolling-mill  at  that  time  in  the 
country  for  the  manufacture  of  railroad- 
iron.  He  first  succeeded  in  using  an- 
thracite coal  in  puddling  iron;  was  the  first 
to  roll  wrought-iron  beams  for  buildings; 
and  also  designed  and  built  the  first  loco- 
motive made  in  America,  which  was  used  on 
the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad.  In  his 
own  youth  Cooper  had  greatly  felt  the  lack 
of  means  of  study  in  the  line  of  his  trade, 
and  he  determined  that  other  artisans 
should  have  a  better  chance.  So  Cooper 
Union,  to  which  Mr.  Cooper  gave  $800,000 
in  all,  was  built.  It  covers  a  whole  block 
in  the  center  of  New  York  city.  Here 
young  mechanics  and  others  receive  night- 
lessons  in  engineering,  mining,  metallurgy, 
chemistry,  architectural  drawing  and  build- 
ing. There  also 
are  schools  of 
design,  teleg-' 
raphy ,  wood 
engraving, 
photography, 
etc.  The 
Union  is  free 
to  all  who 
choose  to  at- 
tend. Besides 
the  school 
proper  there 
are  free  lec- 
tures, a  free  __ 
library  and  "' 
reading-  room, 
art-galleries, 
models  of  in- 
ventions and  AMERICAN  COOT 


COOT 


451 


COPLEY 


other  facilities  and  equipments.    Cooper  died 
April  4,  1883. 

Coot,  a  water-bird,  also  called  mudhen 
and  crow-duck.  It  differs  from  the  rail 
in  having  lobed  toes,  which  [assist  in  swim- 
ming. It  is  about  14  inches  long,  with  a 
short  tail,  with  a  slaty-black  plumage  and 
some  white  marks  near  the  tail.  The  bill 
is  pointed  and  ivory-white,  distinguishing 
it  from  the  duck.  It  breeds  in  bogs,  and  fre- 
quents quiet  pools  and  rivers,  but  pre- 
fers the  neighborhood  of  small  muddy 
Eonds.  The  food  is  water-insects,  small 
sh,  worms,  seeds,  grass,  etc.  It  lays  from 
eight  to  12  eggs,  yellow-buff  in  color  and 
marked  with  fine  dots  and  spots  of  brown 
and  very  faint  lilac  lines. 

Cope,  Edward  Drinker  (1840-97),  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  of  American  natur- 
alists. He  was  of 
Quaker  descent  and 
was  widely  known 
in  the  field  of  com- 
parative anatomy. 
For  many  years  he 
•was  editor  of  the 
American  Natural- 
ist and  professor  in 
the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  He 
made  extensive  col- 
lections of  the  fos- 
:sil  vertebrates  from 
•  the  rocks  of  the 
western  states,  and 
filled  his  house  in 
Philadelphia  to  over- 
flowing with  them. 
He  prepared  several 
monographs  for  the  United  States  govern- 
ment. He  was  _a  voluminous  writer,  but 
most  of  his  writings  were  technical.  As 
examples  of  his  _many  publications  we 
mention  only  Origin  of  the  Fittest  and  Ter- 
tiary Vertebrates  of  North  America  (1889). 
He  died  at  Philadelphia  on  April  12,  1897. 
Co'penha'gen,  the  capital  of  Denmark, 
is  on  the  island  of  Zealand,  with  outlying 
parts  on  the  island  of  Amager  and  the  main- 
land. The  city  is  defended  by  fortifications 
recently  built  and  by  old  forts,  especially 
by  the  citadel  of  Frederikshavn.  The 
square,  Kongens  Nytory,  is  the  center  of 
the  town's  life.  Its  cathedral  has  a  bap- 
tismal font  by  Thorwaldsen,  and  the  Thor- 
waldsen  museum  has  many  of  that  sculp- 
tor's works.  The  royal  castle,  called  Chns- 
tiansborg,  has  a  fine  art-gallery,  some  of 
the  pictures  in  which  were  burned  in  1884. 
The  university,  founded  in  1479,  has  85 
professors,  400  students  and  a  library  of 
250,000  volumes;  while  the  royal  library 
has  over  500,000  volumes.  Copenhagen 
in  the  middle  of  the  i2th  century  was  a 
mere  fishing- village.  It  was  made  the 
capital  in  1443.  The  town  has  had  three 
fires,  and  has  been  besieged  and  bombarded 


B.  D.  COPE 


many  times.  It  was  in  its  fine  harbor 
that  Nelson,  in  1801,  destroyed  the  Danish 
fleet.  The  annual  trade  of  the  port  amounts 
to  about  $120,000,000.  Its  industries  em- 
brace ship-building,  distilling  and  brewing, 
sugar-refining,  the  manufacture  of  por- 
celain, soda,  machinery  and  textile  fabrics. 
Population,  462,161;  or  with  its  suburbs, 
559,398. 

Copernicus  (kd-per'-m-kus),  Nicolaus, 
the  founder  of  modern  astronomy,  born  at 
Thorn  in  Prussia,  Feb.  19,  1473;  died  at 
Frauenburg,  May  24,  1543.  Previous  to 
the  time  of  Copernicus — or,  roughly  speak- 
ing, previous  to  the  discovery  of  America — 
there  existed  among  scholars  a  great  variety 
of  views  regarding  the  structure  of  the  solar 
system  and  regarding  its  relation  to  the 
fixed  stars.  The  chief  merit  of  Copernicus 
is  that  he  first  solved  in  a  fairly  satisfactory 
manner  the  great  problem  of  the  motion  of 
the  planets.  If  not  the  first  to  propose,  he 
certainly  was  the  first  to  work  put,  in  de- 
tail, an  explanation  which  is  so  simple  as  to 
command  acceptance  from  everyone  who 
clearly  understands  it.  Instead  of  assuming, 
as  the  Egyptians  and  the  Greeks  and  most 
people  after  them  had  done,  that  the  earth  is 
the  center  of  the  solar  system,  Copernicus  as- 
sumed that  the  sun  is  the  center,  that  the 
earth  and  the  other  planets  revolve  about 
the  sun  in  circular  orbits  and  that  the  earth 
rotates  on  its  own  axis.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  details  which  Copernicus  was  unable 
to  explain  because  he  did  not  know  that  the 
orbits  of  the  planets  are  elliptical,  as  was 
proved  later  by  Kepler.  Copernicus  was 
educated  at  the^  University  of  Cracow, 
whither  he  went  in  1491.  Later  he  spent 
some  years  of  study  at  Bologna  and  Padua, 
and  at  the  latter  place  he  took  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  medicine  in  1499.  In  15°3  he 
went  to  Frauenburg,  where  he  practiced 
medicine  and  held  several  important  offices 
in  the  church.  The  years  from  1507  to 
1530  were  spent  in  the  preparationof  his  im- 
mortal book :  The  Revolutions  of  the  Heavenly 
Bodies,  which,  however,  was  not  printed 
until  after  his  death  in  1543.  The  defense 
of  the  Copernican  system  was,  therefore, 
left  largely  to  his  successors,  principally 
among  them  to  Giordano  Bruno  of  Italy 
and  to  Galileo.  The  position  of  Copernicus 
in  history  may  be  more  easily  retained  in 
memory,  if  the  student  will  recall  that  ^ he 
and  Michael  Angelo  were  contemporaries, 
there  being  only  two  years'  difference  in 
their  ages.  On  the  day  that  Michael  Angelo 
died,  Feb.  18,  1564,  Galileo,  the  great  de- 
fender of  Copernicus,  was  born;  while  in  the 
year  that  Galileo  died,  1642,  the_  illustrious 
Newton,  who  was  to  perfect  and  simplify  the 
Copernican  system,  was  born  in  England. 

Copley  (kop'K) ,  John  Singleton,  an  Ameri- 
can painter,  was  born  at  Boston,  Mass., 
July  3,  1737.  When  only  16,  his  portraits 
were  admired.  Washington  sat  to  him  in 


COPPER 


452 


COPTS 


1755,  and  later,  in  London,  he  painted  the 
king  and  queen  (George  III  and  his  consort). 
Here,  also,  he  became  the  friend  of  such 
men  as  West  and  Reynolds.  Some  of  his 
best  works  are  Death  of  Lord  Chatham,  Death 
of  Major  Pierson,  Charles  I  Demanding  the 
Surrender  of  the  Five  Members  and  the  Assas- 
sination of  Buckingham.  His  historical  paint- 
ings are  perhaps  superior  to  those  of  West, 
and  his  portraits  rank  with  those  of  Rey- 
nolds and  Gainsborough.  He  died  at  Lon- 
don, Sept.  9,  1815. 

Cop'per.  This  appears  to  have  been  the 
first  metal  used  by  man,  both  in  war  and 
in  _  the  peaceful  arts.  Like  gold  and  silver, 
it  is  found  native,  sometimes  in  great  masses, 
as  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Superior, 
where  blocks  of  many  tons'  weight  have 
been  obtained.  The  use  of  copper  by  an- 
cient nations  is  well-known,  through  the 
many  collections  in  museums  of  weapons 
and  other  objects  of  bronze,  that  is,  copper 
mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  tin.  The 
ancients  obtained  most  of  their  copper  from 
Cyprus;  hence  the  name.  Copper  has  a 
fine  red  color,  takes  a  brilliant  polish,  and 
is  nine  times  heavier  than  water.  Next  to 
silver  it  is  the  best  conductor  of  heat  and 
electricity.  It  is  moderately  hard  and 
highly  tenacious,  though  not  so  strong  as 
iron.  The  largest  masses  of  native  copper 
are  found  in  the  mines  of  Russia  and  in 
our  own  Lake  Superior  region.  Copper  is 
used  in  many  ways.  With  other  metals  it 
makes  brass,  bronze  and  gun-metal;  alone, 
it  is  used  for  boilers,  cooking-vessels,  pipes, 
wire,  nails,  spikes;  in  thin  plates  it  is  used 
for  engraving  and  etching,  and  in  strong 
rollers  for  calico-printing;  as  an  electro- 
deposit  it  is  used  in  copying  engravings  and 
pages  of  type  for  the  printing-press.  Copper 
is  usually  employed  for  lightning-conductors. 
Yellow  metal,  an  alloy  of  copper,  is  used 
in  sheathing  the  bottom  of  vessels.  The 
United  States  is  now  the  largest  producer 
of  copper.  The  richest  mine  in  the  world 
is  at  Calumet,  Michigan,  on  Lake  Superior. 
Arizona,  Montana,  Utah  and  other  parts 
of  the  Union  also  produce  copper.  The 
world's  production  of  copper,  in  1906,  was 
715,268  tons,  the  chief  countries  pro- 
ducing the  metal,  besides  the  United 
States,  being  Chile,  Japan,  Mexico,  Aus- 
tralasia, Spain,  Portugal,  Germany  and  South 
Africa. 

Copperfield,  David,  published  in  1850,  is 
perhaps  the  greatest  of  the  works  that  have 
come  from  the  pen  of  Charles  Dickens. 
This  book  gives  a  picture,  on  the  one  hand, 
of  a  charming  candor  and  honesty  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  of  the  misery  and  desola- 
tion that  may  be  wrought  by  evil.  In 
many  ways  David  Copperfield  is  an  account 
of  the  experience  of  Dickens  himself,  at 
least  as  regards  his  childhood  and  youth. 
The  hardships,  the  loneliness,  the  uninviting 
tasks  and  even  the  debtor's  prison  were  his 


own.  John  Dickens  and  Mrs.  Dickens 
seem  to  have  furnished  him  with  models 
for  the  Micawbers;  and  their  house  in 
Gower  Street,  London,  was  too  often 
the  scene  of  real  sieges  by  angry 
"duns."  But  the  book  itself  has  all  the 
interest  of  a  great  novel.  Readers  of  David 
Copperfield  never  utterly  forget  the  im- 
pression of  the  happy  home  at  Norfolk, 
the  second  marriage  of  David's  mother 
and  the  difference  which  it  makes  for  the 
child,  the  steady  toil  in  the  London  ware- 
house, the  loves  of  David  with  Dora  and 
Agnes  and  the  darker  pictures  of  the  be- 
trayal of  Emily  and  the  villainy  of  Uriah 
Heep,  whose  schemes  are  in  the  end  de- 
feated by  Micawber. 

Copperhead.  (Ancistrodon  Contortrix) 
This  venomous  snake  belongs  to  the 
rattlesnake  family,  but  it  has  no  rattle 
and  gives  no  warning  of  its  attack.  Its 
head  is  the  color  of  burnished  copper,  its 
body  is  brown  or  sometimes  golden,  with 
dark  blotches,  Y-shaped  on  the  sides  and 
round  on  the  belly.  It  grows  to  over  four 
feet  in  length,  and  is  as  venomous  as  any 
of  our  snakes.  But  the  stories  told  of  its 
ferocity  in  attack  are  probably  untrue.  It 
is  sluggish,  and  the  chief  danger  is  lest,  in 
picking  up  some  object  on  the  ground  or 
in  putting  one's  hand  in  the  brush,  one 
should  touch  it.  In  winter  it  sleeps  in  a 
ground-hole  or  den;  from  spring  to  autumn 
it  seeks  damp  places,  especially  among 
rocky  hills.  In  midsummer  the  young  are 
born,  alive.  Its  favorite  food  is  field-mice. 
It  is  common  among  the  hills  that  border 
the  Hudson  and  Connecticut  valleys;  but 
it  is  also  found  from  Massachusetts  to 
Texas,  though  frequently  called  by  such 
names  as  pilot,  red-eye,  red  adder  and 
copper-belly. 

Copts,  the  Christian  descendants  of  the 
old  Egyptians.  There  were  609,511  of  them 
in  1897,  forming  one  twelfth  of  the  popula- 
tion of  Egypt.  Most  of  them  live  in  Cairo, 
but  there  are  a  number  in  Upper  Egypt. 
They  make  good  clerks  and  handicraftsmen. 
They  are  of  middle  height,  with  black  eyes 
and  curly  hair.  They  dress  like  the  Moham- 
medans; but  can  be  told  by  their  black  or 
blue  turbans.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  a  morose 
people,  but  are  the  best  educated  and  most 
intelligent  of  the  native  Egyptians.  St. 
Mark  is  said  to  have  made  them  Christians. 
The  head  of  the  church  is  the  patriarch  of 
Alexandria;  they  have  bishops,  monks  and 
priests,  the  priests  being  allowed  to  marry 
before  they  take  their  vows;  the  patriarch 
does  not  marry,  and  when  he  sleeps  he  must 
be  awakened  every  quarter  of  an  hour. 
Wednesday  and  Friday  are  fast  days,  and 
the  fast  of  Nineveh  lasts  nearly  two  months. 
The  Coptic  language  goes  back  to  the  old 
Egyptian;  the  boys  learn  to  read  it  at 
school,  but  Arabic  is  everywhere  spoken. 
The  United  Presbyterians  from  the  United 


COPYRIGHT 


453 


COQUELIN 


States  have  for  50  years  had  wonderful 
success  with  them. 

Copyright  is  the  exclusive  right,  under 
given  conditions,  by  which  an  author,  his 
executor,  administrator  or  assignee  is  given 
control,  for  a  definite  period,  of  a  work, 
whether  literary,  dramatic,  artistic  or  musi- 
cal— also  extended  to  translations,  abridge- 
ments, dramatic  adaptations,  patents  and 
reproductions  of  the  same  and  to  maga- 
zine and  newspaper  articles.  In  Great 
Britain  the  act  at  present  in  force  (5  and  6 
Vic.  c.  45)  fixes  copyright  at  42  years,  or 
hhe  period  of  the  author's  life,  with  a  grace 
of  seven  years,  whichever  is  the  longer. 
To  copyright  a  book  or  other  article  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  a  copy,  with  a  fee  of  five 
shillings  ($1.25)  must  be  deposited  with  the 
Registrar,  Stationers'  Hall,  London.  The 
act  provides  that  the  owner  of  a  copyright 
shall  present  one  copy  of  the  article  pro- 
tected, within  three  months  of  the  day  of 
publication,  to  the  library  of  the  British 
Museum  without  demand,  and  one  copy 
each,  if  demanded,  to  the  Bodleian  library, 
Oxford;  the  University  library,  Cambridge; 
the  Advocates'  library,  Edinburgh;  and  the 
library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  In 
Canada  the  same  period  of  copyright  is 
granted  as  is  given  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
but  the  work  must  be  registered  and  two 
copies  deposited  with  the  Minister  of  Agri- 
culture, at  Ottawa,  accompanied  by  a  fee 
of  one  dollar,  fifty  cents  being  required  for 
a  certified  copy  of  the  entry. 

In  the  United  States  the  original  term  of 
copyright  runs  for  28  years.  Within  one 
year  before  the  end  of  that  time,  the  pro- 
prietor of  copyright  may  secure  a  renewal 
tor  the  further  f^rm  of  28  years,  making  56 
years  in  all.  To  secure  copyright  registra- 
tion: i.  Publish  the  work  with  copyright 
notice.  The  notice  may  be  in  the  form  of 

"Copyright,  19 — ,  by ."     The  date  of 

copyright  notice  should  agree  with  the  date 
Df  the  publication.  2.  Promptly  after  pub- 
lication send  to  the  Copyright  Office  two 
copies  of  the  best  edition  of  the  work,  with 
an  application  for  registration  and  a  money 
order  payable  to  the  Register  of  Copyrights 
for  registration  fee  of  $i;  also  an  affidavit, 
under  the  official  seal  of  a  notary  or  other 
authorized  officer,  that  the  typesetting, 
printing  and  binding  of  the  book  have  been 
performed  within  the  United  States.  Forms 
for  this  purpose  are  furnished  by  the  Copy- 
right Office  on  request. 

No  copyright  is  valid,  unless  notice  is 
given  by  inserting  in  every  copy  published, 
on  the  title-page  or  back  thereof  if  it  be  a 
book;  or  if  a  map,  chart,  musical  composi- 
tion, cut,  print,  engraving,  photograph, 
painting,  drawing,  chromo,  statue,  statuary 
or  model  or  design  intended  to  be  per- 
fected as  a  work  of  the  fine  arts,  by  inscrib- 
ing upon  some  portion  thereof,  or  on  the 
substance  on  which  the  same  is  mounted,  — 
the  following:  Entered  according  to  Act  of 


Congress  in  the  year — ,  by ,  in  the  office 

of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington; 
or,  at  the  option  of  the  person  entering  the 
copyright,  the  words:  Copyright,  19 — ,  by 

.      The   copyright   law   of   the   United 

States  secures  to  authors  and  their  assigns 
the  exclusive  right  to  translate  or  to  dram- 
atize any  of  their  works;  no  notice  is  re- 
quired to  enforce  this  right. 

International  copyright  was  secured  in 
the  United  States  by  a  bill  in  Congress, 
passed  in  March,  1891,  which  took  effect 
in  the  following  July.  This  act  is  known 
as  the  Chase  bill.  It  gives  foreign  authors 
a  copyright  in  the  United  States  of  America 
when  the  book  or  production  is  from  type 
set,  or  from  negatives  or  drawings  on  stone 
made,  within  the  United  States.  Musical 
compositions  are  exempted  from  the  second 
condition.  The  act,  however,  applies  to  the 
work  or  production  of  a  citizen  or  subject 
of  a  foreign  state  or  nation  only  when  such 
foreign  state  or  nation  permits  to  citizens 
of  the  United  States  of  America  the  benefit 
of  copyright  on  substantially  the  same  basis 
as  its  own  citizens,  or  when  such  foreign 
state  or  nation  is  party  to  an  international 
agreement  which  provides  for  reciprocity 
in  the  granting  of  copyright,  by  the  terms 
of  which  the  United  States  of  America  may, 
at  its  pleasure,  become  a  party  to  such  an 
agreement.  Th°  United  States  has  entered 
into  agreements  of  reciprocal  copyright  with 
Belgium,  Denmark,  France,  Germany,  Great 
Britain  and  her  possessions,  Italy,  Portugal 
Spain  and  Switzerland.  An  American  may 
secure  copyright  in  Belgium  by  registering 
his  work  at  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Industry  and  Public  Works  in  Brussels. 
In  France  it  is  given  upon  the  deposit  of 
two  copies  of  the  work  with  the  Minister 
of  the  Interior  at  Paris;  in  Switzerland,  by 
the  registration  of  the  work  at  Berne  in 
the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Industry, 
with  a  copy  to  be  there  deposited,  accom- 
panied by  a  fee  of  two  francs. 

Coquelin  (kok-lan'),  Benoit  Constant, 
a  noted  French  comedian  and,  with  his 

brother,  also  an 
actor,  a  writer  on 
stage-art,  was 
born  in  1841  at 
Boulogne,  and 
educated  at  the 
Paris  Conserva- 
toire. He  first 
appeared  at  the 
Theatre  Fran- 
cais  in  1860,  and 
has  met  with 
great  succesr.  in 
France,  England 
and  the  United 
States  in  the 
representation  of 
classic  French 
comedy.  His  chief  successes  have  been  won 
in  Le  Marriage  de  Figaro;  La  Malade  Imagi- 


M.    COQUELIN 


CORAL 


454 


CORAL 


naire;  Fourberies  de  Scapin;  Le  Lion  Amom- 
eux;  and  Cyrano  de  Bergerac.  He  died  Jan. 
27,  1909.  His  son,  Jean  (Coquelin  fils),  born 
in  1865;  made  his  first  appearance  on  the 
stage  in  1890,  and  has,  with  great  acceptance, 
filled  many  of  his  father's  famous  r61es. 

Coral,  the  skeleton  of  sea-animals  called 
polyps,  constructed  like  the  sea-anemone. 
The  coral  is  formed  within  the  fleshy  part 
of  the  animals,  without  effort  on  their  part, 
as  bones  grow  in  the  body.  Each  polyp 
consists  of  a  tubular  body,  fixed  at  one  end. 
The  other  end  is  surmounted  by  a  disc,  in 
the  center  of  which  is  a  mouth,  and  the 
disc  is  surrounded  by  tentacles.  The  coral 
substance  is  carbonate  of  lime,  and  is  laid 
down  within  the  walls  of  the  tubular  body, 
and  within  membranous  partitions  reach- 
ing from  the  body-wall  to  the  stomach-wall. 


CORAL 

It  is  formed  in  the  lower  part  of  the  animal, 
leaving  the  upper  part  soft  and  flexible, 
and  capable  of  being  drawn  in  and  ex- 
panded. 

The  coral-producing  animals  are  some- 
times solitary,  but,  more  frequently,  occur 
as  colonies  of  many  individuals,  united 
together  by  a  common  branching  stalk,  so 
that  the  whole  colony  is  shrub-like.  Their 
general  resemblance  to  plants  is  so  great, 
that  at  one  time  they  were  called  plant- 
animals.  At  intervals,  along  the  trunk 
and  branches  of  the  shrub-like  colony,  are 
found  the  individual  polyps.  These  are  all 
connected  by  an  expanse  of  living  matter. 
The  polyps  take  food  from  the  water  into 
the  mouth-cavity,  which  leads  at  once  into 
the  tubular  stomach,  and  the  arrangement 
is  such  that  the  tubular  canals  of  different 
individuals  communicate,  making  it  possi- 
ble for  the  food  to  be  carried  from  one 
part  to  another  throughout  the  colony. 
Coral  that  is  formed  within  a  colony  of  this 
description  is  of  the  branching  kind.  (See 
illustration.)  The  limy  substance  is  not 
only  laid  down  in  parts  of  the  polyps,  but 
in  the  expanse  of  living  matter  joining  them 
together,  and,  therefore,  the  formation  is 


continuous  and  assumes  the  general  form 
of  the  colony.  In  the  illustration  the  posi- 
tion of  the  polyps  can  be  seen  as  small 
tubular  elevations.  There  is  great  variety 
as  to  the  size  of  different  kinds  of  polyps. 
The  illustration  shows  the  common  branch- 
ing coral  (Madrepora)  of  the  Florida  coast, 
in  which  the  polyps  are  small.  The  colonies 
are  not  always  of  the  branching  form;  some 
are  in  the  shape  of  large  rounded  masses, 
with  the  polyps  arranged  in  rows  or  furrows, 
as  in  the  brain-coral  and  the  star-coral. 
(See  illustration.)  These  masses  grow  to 
be  from  one  to  three  feet  in  diameter. 

Besides  living  corals  there  are  many 
fossil  forms.  Among  the  commonest  are 
those  stony  masses,  often  called  petrified 
honeycomb  and  petrified  wasp's  nests,  to 
be  found  on  beaches,  in  fields  and  im- 
bedded in  rocks.  The  honeycomb-shaped 


masses,  especially,  are  polished  and  known 
locally  as  Mackinac  stones.  They  are  used 
as  paper-weights  and,  to  some  extent,  in 
jewelry.  There  also  are  chain-corals  and 
the  single  horn-shaped  corals. 

Red  coral  is  of  a  different  kind.  Although 
the  colony  which  forms  it  is  tree-like  and 
the  individual  polyps  have  long  tubular 
bodies,  the  coral  substance  is  laid  down  in 
the  base  of  the  polyps — not  in  their  body- 
walls — and,  also,  in  the  sheet-like  expanse 
of  living  material  that  unites  them.  As 
a  consequence,  the  product  is  smooth  and 
not  marked  by  elevations.  The  ordinary 
red  coral  used  in  necklaces  and  scarf-pins 
is  not  expensive,  costing  from  one  to  one 
and  a  half  dollars  an  ounce;  but  large  pieces 
of  the  approved  rose-tint,  which  are  rare, 
bring  several  hundred  dollars  an  ounce. 
In  addition  to  the  kinds  mentioned,  there 
are  others,  known  as  sea-fans,  sea-plumes, 
etc.  The  stalk  secreted  is  horny  or  limy, 
and,  in  the  sea-fans,  is  a  broad,  thin  ex- 
panse of  reddish  or  yellowish  material, 
formed  into  a  fine  network,  with  thickened 
veins  running  through  it  like  the  veins  in 
a  leaf.  These  are  related  to  the  red  corals. 
The  corals  are  one  branch  of  a  subkingdom 
of  animals  (Coelenterata)  that  embraces 
jellyfish,  hydroids  and  fresh-water  hydra. 

The  extent  of  coral-formations  in  tropical 
seas  is  remarkable.  These  animals  thrive 
only  in  warm  (68°  Fahr.  and  above),  clear 


CORD AY 


455 


CORINTH 


water,  and  not  below  a  hundred  and  twenty 
feet  in  depth.  From  that  depth  to  the  sur- 
face they  live  readily  and  form  reefs.  The 
great  barrier  reef  (coral)  of  the  northeastern 
coast  of  Australia  stretches,  with  some 
interruptions,  a  thousand  miles  along  the 
coast,  and  is  in  places  from  one  to  three 
miles  wide  and  from  twenty  to  sixty  miles 
from  the  mainland.  Some  islands  are 
entirely  composed  of  coral-formations,  and 
the  everglades  of  Florida  and  the  keys 
south  of  it  are  mainly  coral-formations. 
There  also  are  atolls  or  circular  coral-reefs 
in  mid-ocean,  and,  although  their  method 
of  formation  is  now  under  dispute,  the  old 
explanation  meets  the  requirement  in  some 
cases.  It  is  supposed  that  they  were  orig- 
inally built  upon  the  sloping  sides  of  a 
volcanic  island  and  that,  by  very  gradual 
sinking,  the  island  disappeared  below  the 
water,  leaving  a  central  lagoon.  The  coral- 
animals,  in  the  meantime,  built  toward  the 
surface  and  kept  pace  with  the  subsidence. 
See  Dana :  Corals  and  Coral  Islands;  Darwin : 
Structure  of  Coral  Reefs;  Verrill  in  American 
Naturalist,  Vol.  II.,  p.  351. 

Corday,  Charlotte.     See  MARAT. 

Cor'dova  or  Cor'doba,  a  city  in  Spain, 
on  Guadalquivir  River.  Its  old  walls  are 
surmounted  by  turrets,  shut-in  gardens, 
vineyards  and  narrow  streets.  Its  cathe- 
dral was  built  as  a  Moorish  mosque  in  the 
8th  century,  and  is  the  finest  Mohammedan 
temple  in  Europe.  Cordova  was  founded 
by  the  Romans  in  132  B.  C.;  was  captured 
by  the  Goths,  and  then  by  the  Moors.  From 
the  gth  to  the  end  of  the  i2th  century  it 
was  one  of  the  leading  Moorish  cities,  famed 
for  its  mosque,  palaces  and  great  university. 
Cordova  is  also  a  province  of^  Spain,  with 
an  area  of  5,299  square  miles  and  a  popu- 
lation of  455,859.  Its  chief  product  is  coal. 
Population  of  the  town,  (1900)  58,275. 

Corea.     See  KOREA. 

Corelli,  Marie,  a  notable  and  prolific 
English  novelist,  the  adopted  daughter  of 
the  Scottish  song-writer,  the  late  Charles 
Mackay,  was  born  of  Italian  parents  and 
educated  partly  in  England  and  partly  in 
a  convent  in  France.  She  was  designed  at 
first  for  a  musical  career;  but  early  in  the 
eighties  she  abandoned  this  for  literature, 
making  a  marked  success  as  a  writer  of 
fiction.  It  is  said  that  a  curious  psychical 
experience,  occurring  to  herself  personally, 
suggested  the  theme  of  her  first  novel, 
which  appeared  in  1886, — A  Romance  of 
Two  Worlds.  This  work,  together  with  her 
novels,  Barabbas  and  The  Mighty  Atom, 
met  with  a  phenomenal  sale,  and  all  have 
been  translated  into  most  of  the  languages 
of  Europe,  as  well  as  into  Persian  and  Hin- 
dustani. Hardly  less  successful  have  been 
her  other  stories:  The  Sorrows  of  Satan; 
The  Soul  of  Lilith;  Thelma;  Wormwood; 
Ardath;  The  Murder  of  Delicia;  The  Master 
Christian',  and  Temporal  Power, 


Corfu  ( kor-foo' ) ,  the  largest  of  the  Ionian 
Islands,  the  possession  of  Greece,  lies  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Adriatic  Sea.  It  is  40  miles 
long  and  two  and  a  half  wide.  The  island 
is  mountainous,  the  highest  point  being 
Pantocrator,  2,997  ^eet  above  the  sea.  The 
main  export  i?  olive-oil.  Corfu  was  first 
named  Corcyra,  and  was  a  colony  of  Corinth. 
It  became  so  powerful  that  it  fought 
with  the  mother-country  the  first  sea- 
battle  of  which  we  know,  in  665  B.  C. 
Area  431  square  miles;  population  (1896), 
124,578.  Population  of  the  town  of  Corfu, 
17,918. 

Cor'inth,  called  the  Star  of  Greece,  lies 
on  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  under  the 
northern  slope  of  the  mountain,  forming 
one  of  the  strongest  fortifications  in  the 
world,  on  which  stood  its  citadel.  With 
Argolis,  Corinth  forms  a  portion  of  the 
kingdom  of  Hellas,  adjoining  the  isthmus 
that  connects  the  Peloponnesus  with  Attica 
and  the  mainland.  Its  area  is  1,442  square 
miles  and  the  population  of  the  province 
is  about  170,000.  The  city  has  three  har- 
bors, and  its  position  midway  between  the 
^Egean  and  Adriatic  Seas  made  it  a  trade 
center.  It  was  much  easier  to  carry  goods 
across  the  narrow  isthmus  than  to  sail 
around  the  Peloponnesus,  and  so  in  its 
western  harbor  lay  ships  from  Italy,  Sicily 
and  Spain,  while  its  two  eastern  harbors 
trafficked  in  the  merchandise  of  Egypt, 
Syria,  Phrygia  and  even  India.  Corinth 
itself  exported  chiefly  statues,  pictures, 
vases  and  bronze  and  earthenware  vessels. 
Corinth  built  the  first  triremes  or  galleys, 
which,  rowed  by  its  numberless  slaves, 
sailed  everywhere,  founding  a  dozen  or 
more  great  colonies  of  the  mother-country, 
the  largest  being  Syracuse.  We  are  told 
that  Corinth  was  founded  in  1350  B.  C. 
by  Sisyphus,  an  ^Eolian.  Later,  it  was 
conquered  by  the  Dorians.  Sometimes  it 
was  under  a  king;  at  others  under  an 
oligarchy  or  the  rule  of  the  few.  Its  fore- 
most king  was  Periander,  who  fostered  the 
city's  growth;  the  greatest  patriot  was 
Timoleon,  whose  love  of  his  native  city 
made  him  overthrow  and  slay  his  own 
brother,  the  tyrant,  Timophanes,  who  had 
made  himself  master  of  Corinth.  Corinth 
was  the  first  city  to  become  jealous  of  the 
rising  power  of  Athens  after  the  Persian 
War,  and  incited  the  other  states  to  begin 
the  great  Peloponnesian  War.  Later,  it 
waged  the  Corinthian  War  with  Athens, 
Thebes  and  Argos  against  Sparta.  Here 
Alexander  was  named  the  leader  of  the 
Greeks  against  Persia.  In  146  B.  C.  the 
Romans  razed  Corinth  to  the  ground.  Just 
a  hundred  years  later  Julius  Cassar  rebuilt 
it,  and  it  soon  became  again  a  great  trad- 
ing-center. St.  Paul  lived  here  a  year  and 
a  half,  founded  a  Christian  church  and 
afterward  wrote  to  the  Corinthians  two  of 
his  letters.  Here  also  were  held  the  famous 


456 


CORMORANT 


Isthmian  games,  tfhe  gods  of  the  sea  and 
of  love  especially  were  worshiped;  it  was 
the  most  vicious  city  of  Greece,  noted  for 
its  luxury  and  art.  Later,  Corinth  was 
overrun  by  Alaric,  the  Slavs,  Franks,  Turks, 
Venetians  and  Turks  again.  When  freed 
from  the  sultan  in  1822,  it  had  a  steady 
growth  until  1858,  when  it  was  devastated 
by  an  earthquake.  It  has  since  been  rebuilt, 
three  miles  northeast  of  the  old  site  and 
near  the  western  mouth  of  the  canal  that 
has  been  cut  through  the  isthmus.  The 
population  of  Corinth  at  the  height  of  its 
fame  was  about  300,000;  population  of 
the  commune  (Gortho)  to-day  is  about 
12.000. 

Corinth,  a  town  in  Alcorn  County,  Miss. 
It  is  a  railroad-junction,  and  so  was  of  great 
importance  during  the  Civil  War.  On  Oct.  3, 
1862,  it  was  held  by  a  Union  force  of  53,000 
under  General  Rosecrans,  and  firmly  in- 
trenched. The  Confederates,  40,000  strong, 
under  Generals  Price  and  Van  Dorn,  tried  to 
carry  the  works  by  storm,  but  were  repulsed 
and  pursued  with  heavy  loss.  The  Federal 
loss  was  2,502;  that  of  the  Confederates, 
3,117.  The  population  of  Corinth  according 
to  the  last  census,  is  5,020. 

Corinth,  Gulf  of.     See  LEPANTO. 

Coriolanus  (kd-rt-d-ld'nus),  Gaius  Mar- 
cius,  so  called  from  his  bravery  at  the  tak- 
ing of  Corioli,  a  Volscian  town,  in  493  B.  C. 
He  was  a  Roman  patrician,  and  so  opposed 
the  plebeians  or  common  people.  The  peo- 
ple refused  to  choose  him  consul,  and  in 
return  he  made  a  speech  in  the  senate 
against  a  free  distribution  of  wheat  to  the 
citizens,  which  had  just  come  from  Sicily. 
Thereupon  he  was  banished;  but  soon,  at 
the  head  of  the  powerful  Volscians,  he  won 
victory  after  victory,  and  now  swooped 
down  upon  Rome.  In  vain  did  the  lead- 
ing men  go  to  his  camp  to  dissuade  him 
from  attacking  the  city.  At  last  the  noblest 
women  of  Rome,  headed  by  Coriolanus's 
aged  mother  and  his  wife  leading  his  two 
sons,  came  to  his  tent.  His  wish  for  venge- 
ance could  not  withstand  their  tears,  and 
he  led  the  Volscians  back  to  their  own 
country.  Shakespeare  founded  his  Cori- 
olanus on  this  story,  as  related  in  North's 
Plutarch. 

Cork,  a  tissue  usually  formed  in  the 
outer  part  of  the  cortex  of  perennial  plants. 
The  tissue  is  characterized  t>y  the  fact  that 
the  cells  are  flat,  with  no  spaces  between 
them,  and  the  walls  are  water-proof.  Cork 
is  the  most  prominent  part  of  bark,  and  the 
commercial  supply  is  obtained  from  the 
bark  of  a  species  of  oak,  Quercus  Ilex,  (often 
called  Q.  suber).  Forests  of  cork-oak  are 
cultivated  in  southwestern  Europe. 

Cork  (meaning  swamp),  a  city  of  Ire- 
land, is  situated  on  the  River  Lee,  in  a 
pretty  valley,  built  partly  on  a  group  of 
little  islands,  joined  by  nine  bridges  to  the 
rest  of  the  town,  which  is  built  on  the  river~ 


banks.  Its  race-course  park  and  Mardyke, 
a  shaded  walk  a  mile  long,  are  its  chief 
features.  The  cathedral,  St.  Ann  de  Shan- 
don's  church  and  Queen's  College,  founded 
in  1849,  are  tne  main  buildings.  The  city 
owes  its  growth  to  the  facilities  afforded  by 
Cork  harbor,  a  basin  ten  miles  square.  It 
is  guarded  by  batteries,  with  three  forts 
fitted  with  the  heaviest  guns.  On  the 
banks  of  the  Lee  are  also  four  miles  of 
wharves.  Cork  is  a  busy  manufacturing 
and  exporting  city.  Its  port  is  Queens- 
town.  In  600  an  abbey  was  erected  on  its 
site,  and  the  Danes  built  its  walls  in  the 
9th  century.  It  was  surrendered  by  its  last 
king  Dermod  MacCarthy,  to  Henry  II  in 
1172.  Cork  also  is  a  county  in  the  province 
of  Munster,  area  2,890  square  miles. 
Population,  391,090.  Population  (1911)  of 
the  city,  76,632. 

Corm,  a  special  form  of  thickened  under- 
ground stem  which  resembles  a  bulb  in 
outline,  but  has  thin  scale-leaves  upon  it, 
instead  of  fleshy  ones.  Indian  turnip  (from 
Jack-in-the-pulpit)  is  a  typical  corm. 

Cormorant,  a  web-footed  bird  related  to 
the  pelican,  that  feeds  like  a  glutton  on  fish, 

which  it 
catches  b  y 
swimming 
and  diving. 
It  has  a 
strong, 
hooked  bill, 
long  neck, 
short  wings 
and  a  rather 
long  round 
tail.  Its 
plumage  is 
blackish.but 
the  face  is 
usually 
naked  and 
brightly  col- 
ored. It  is 
very  widely 
distri  b  uted  ; 


by  rivers  and  lakes,  others  on  the  seacoast 
and  about  islands.  Some  of  the  cormorants 
of  the  United  States  live  in  pairs,  but  more 
often  in  great  flocks,  flying  around  vessels 
at  sea  in  great  numbers.  They  are  also 
called  shags.  The  Chinese  breed  and  train 
them  for  fishing.  A  ring  of  hemp  is  tied 
around  the  neck  to  prevent  them  from 
swallowing  the  fish,  and,  for  two  or  three 
hours  at  a  time,  they  will  dive  and  bring 
up  fish  in  their  bills,  which  are  taken  into 
the  boat  by  the  fishermen.  Fish  too  large 
to  be  managed  by  one  are  attacked  by 
two  or  three  birds  at  a  time.  In  1898  a  very 
large  non-flying  cormorant  was  discovered 
on  one  of  the  Galapagos  Islands.  The  bird 
is  rare. 


CORN 


457 


CORNELIUS 


CORN 


Corn,  Indian,  or  Maize,  the  original 
name  of  corn  or  Zea  Mays,  a  species  of  the 
grass  family.  Corn  is  said  to  nave  become 
the  most  'important 
food-plant,  next  to 
rice.  It  is  now  almost 
unanimously  c  o  n  - 
ceded  that  it  origi- 
nated in  America 
and  is  probably  na- 
tive to  Mexico. 
Corn  was  found  in 
cultivation  by  the 
Indians  upon  the 
discovery  of  Amer- 
I  ica,  and  has  con- 
'  tinued  to  be  called 
Indian  corn ;  in  fact 
the  name  maize  is 
seldom  used  in 
America.  Although 
very  numerous  va- 
rieties have  been  developed,  they  are  all  con- 
sidered to  have  been  derived  from  a  single 
species.  The  common?  v  used  classification  is 
as  follows :  pod-corns,  pop-corns,  flint-corns, 
dent-corns,  soft-corns,  sweet  or  sugar-corns, 
starchy  sweet-corns.  Sweet  corn  is  distin- 
guished from  the  ordinary  field- varieties  by 
its  wrinkled  or  sniveled  kernel  and  its  some- 
what translucent  appearance.  The  pop- 
corn is  characterized  by  the  excessive 
development  of  the  horny  region  of  the 
endosperm  and  by  the  very  small  size  of 
the  kernels  and  ears.  Corn  is  hardly  less 
a  staple  food  than  is  rice  in  tropical  coun- 
tries, while  in  colder  countries  it  is  rapidly 
becoming  popular.  It  is  thought  to  be  more 
nutritious  than  barley,  buckwheat  or  rye. 
It  is  more  generally  used  in  America  than 
in  other  continents.  In  the  United  States 
the  annual  crop  is  over  2,700,000,000 
bushels,  or  about  two  thirds  of  all  the 
grains  grown.  When  coarsely  ground,  corn 
forms  hominy;  when  finely  ground,  corn- 
meal.  Pop-corn  is  a  variety  whose  grains, 
when  roasted,  swell  and  burst,  turning  in- 
side out.  However,  the  greatest  use  ^of 
corn  in  America,  is  as  a  food  for  cattle, 
sheep  and  hogs.  Large  quantities  of  starch 
are  made  from  corn.  This  is  used  for  food 
and  for  laundry-work,  while  a  good  part 
of  it  is  made  into  grape-sugar  or  glucose. 
The  dried  leaves  and  stalks  of  corn  furnish 
a  supply  of  cattle-fodder.  The  husks  are 
used  for  packing  and  for  mattresses;  while 
in  South  America  they  are  also  used  for 
cigarettes.  The  cobs  make  popular  pipe- 
bowls  for  tobacco.  Corn  was  introduced 
into  Europe  by  Columbus;  but  there  is 
good  ground  for  believing  that  the  maize 
plant  was  known  in  Asia  and  Africa  before 
that  time. 

Corn- Harvester.  Among  the  many 
labor-saving  machines  which  have  so  greatly 
aided  modern  agriculture  is  that  known  as 
the  corn-harvester.  One  type  of  these 


machines  cuts  the  corn  and  binds  the 
stalks  in  bundles  ready  for  shocking.  An- 
other type  cuts  and  shocks  the  corn  with- 
out binding  it  into  bundles.  With  the  use 
of  one  of  these  machines  a  single  man  with 
a  team  may  easily  cut  eight  or  ten  acres  of 
corn  in  a  day,  doing  the  work  of  four  to 


CUTTING   MECHANISM    OF    CORN-HARVESTER 

eight  men  by  former  hand-methods.  The 
illustration  shows  the  cutting  mechanism 
of  one  of  these  machines.  The  edges  of 
the  side-knives  are  at  an  angle  to  the  line 
of  draft,  and  as  the  machine  advances  the 
knives  move  with  a  shear-cut  against  the 
corn-stalks,  severing  them.  They  are 
then  carried  away  by  a  conveyor  and 
bound  in  bundles. 

Corneille  (kor'nal'),  Pierre,  the  great- 
est French  tragedian  and  the  founder  of 
French  comedy,  was  born  at  Rouen,  June 
6,  1606.  His  ill-success  as  a  lawyer  sent 
him  to  Paris  in  1629,  where  his  first  comedy 
was  produced  and  acted  in  two  theaters  at 
the  same  time.  In  1636  The  Cid,  his  most 
popular  tragedy,  took  Paris  by  storm,  and 
in  spite  of  Richelieu,  a  personal  enemy  of 
the  author,  and  in  spite  also  of  the  Academy, 
his  creature,  could  not  be  suppressed;  and 
soon  "fine  as  the  Cid"  became  a  common 
saying.  Le  Menteur  showed  the  author 
to  be  great  in  comedy  as  well  as  in  tragedy. 
Polyeucte  and  Rodogune  are  others  of  his 
best  works;  while  the  finest  verses  he  wrote 
occur  in  the  central  love-scene  of  Psyche. 
Horace  and  Cinna  are  also  favorite  produc- 
tions of  Corneille.  Strength  and  sub- 
limity are  his  chief  characteristics. 

Corne'Ha.     See  GRACCHI. 

Corne'lius,  Peter  von,  one  of  the  first 
masters  of  the  modern  German  school  of 
painting,  was  born  at  Dusseldorf,  Sept. 
23,  1783.  When  but  19  years  \>ld,  he 


CORNELL 


455 


CORNWALLIS 


painted  some  fine  frescoes  in  an  old  church. 
In  Munich  he  painted  his  greatest  works — 
a  series  of  frescoes  based  on  the  stories  of 
the  Greek  gods  and  heroes,  and  another 
series  of  New  Testament  scenes  from  the 
Incarnation  to  the  Judgment,  the  latter 
being  the  largest  fresco  m  the  world.  He 
achieved  fame  also  by  his  Four  Riders  of 
the  Apocalypse,  painted  in  Berlin.  More 
important  than  his  paintings,  perhaps,  was 
the  impetus  he  gave  to  wall-decoration. 
He  died  at  Berlin  March  6,  1867. 

Cornell,  Ezra,  American  philanthropist 
and  founder  of  Cornell  University,  was 
born  at  Westchester  Landing,  N.  Y.,  Jan. 
ii,  1807,  and  died  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  Dec. 
9,  1874.  He  settled  in  Ithaca  as  a  me- 
chanic and  miller  in  1828,  and  early  took 
an  active  part  in  the  construction  of  tele- 
graph lines,  in  which,  and  in  connection 
with  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Co.,  of 
which  he  was  the  founder,  he  amassed  a 
fortune.  Early  in  the  sixties  he  was  a 
member  of  the  state  assembly,  and  later 
was  elected  to  the  state  senate.  In  1865 
he  gave  half  a  million  dollars,  afterward 
much  augmented,  to  found  the  university 
at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  which  bears  his  name, 
and  to  which  Congress  made  an  appropria- 
tion of  land.  The  institution  opened  in  1868. 

Cornell  University,  is  located  on  Cay- 
uga  Lake,  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  It  was  char- 
tered in  1865  and  1867,  and  with  ample  en- 
dowment, including  the  income  from  a 
grant  of  nearly  a  million  acres  of  land,  it 
rapidly  took  rank  with  the  first  educational 
institutions  of  the  country.  It  was  named 
after  Ezra  Cornell,  who  gave  a  large  sum 
toward  its  endowment,  and  whose  able 
management  was  largely  instrumental  in 
placing  the  institution  on  a  sound  financial 
basis.  Besides  the  academic  department  it 
has  Colleges  of  Law,  Medicine,  Agriculture, 
Veterinary  Medicine,  Architecture,  Civil  and 
Mechanical  Engineering.  The  teachers  num- 
ber 750,  and  the  students  6,891. 

Cor'net,  a  musical  instrument,  usually 
of  brass  and  originally  curved  like  a  horn. 
The  best  form  is  known  as  the  cornet-a- 
pistons,  because  changes  of  sound  are  made 
by  manipulating  pistons  with  the  fingers. 
It  has  a  compass  of  two  octaves  and  two 
notes.  It  is  not  an  instrument  of  especially 
fine  or  delicate  sound;  but  in  orchestras, 
in  company  with  other  instruments,  its 
effect  is  excellent. 

Corn'ing,  N.  Y.,  a  growing  town  in 
western  central  New  York,  one  of  the 
capitals  of  Steuben  County,  17  miles  west 
of  Elmira.  It  is  situated  on  the  Chemung 
River,  and  has  a  number  of  factories,  in- 
cluding railroad-car-shops,  brick  and  terra- 
cotta works.  The  leading  industry,  glassware 
manufacture,  employs  upwards  of  2,000 
people.  It  has  good  educational  facilities 
and  an  active  civic  life.  It  has  the  service 
of  three  railroads.  Population,  14,666. 


Corn'planter,  a  half-breed  Seneca  In- 
dian and  chief  of  the  Six  Nations.  He  was 
born  about  1732,  and  was  the  son  of  John 
Abeel,  a  white  trader.  He  fought  the 
English  at  Braddock's  defeat,  and  was  a 
deadly  foe  to  the  colonists  during  the  Revo- 
lutionary War;  but  afterward  became  a 
steady  friend  of  the  white  people.  He  was 
an  intelligent,  dignified  and  moral  man. 
He  died  on  Feb.  18,  1836.  Pennsylvania 
erected  a  monument  in  his  honor  in  1867. 

Cornu  (kdr'nu1),  Marie-Alfred,  a  dis- 
tinguished French  physicist,  lately  occupy- 
ing the  chair  of  physics  at  the  Ecole  Poly- 
technique,  the  great  military  school  of  Paris. 
He  was  born  on  March  6,  1841,  and  was 
educated  at  the  institution  where  he  later 
taught.  Cornu's  investigations  cover  a 
large  range  of  optical  and  acoustical  sub- 
jects. Among  the  most  important  of  these 
may  be  mentioned  his  very  accurate  deter- 
mination of  the  speed  of  light  by  the  method 
of  Fizeau;  his  determination  of  the  density 
of  the  earth  by  the  Cavendish  method;  his 
study  of  the  solar  spectrum  and,  the  ultra- 
violet spectra  of  the  metals;  and  his  mathe- 
matical discussion  of  the  diffraction-grat- 
ing. Besides  being  a  member  of  many 
learned  societies,  Cornu  was  a  prominent 
member  of  the  French  Academy,  and  was 
president  of  the  International  Congress  of 
Physicists  which  met  at  Paris  in  1900.  He 
died  in  1902. 

Cornwall  Canal.  This  Canadian  canal 
extends  past  the  Long  Sault  rapids  from 
Cornwall  to  Dickinson's  Landing.  From 
the  head  of  the  Soulanges  to  the  foot  of 
the  Cornwall  Canal  there  is  a  stretch  through 
Lake  St.  Francis  of  32 J  miles,  which  is 
being  made  navigable  for  vessels  drawing 
14  feet.  The  length  of  the  canal  is  eleven 
miles.  It  has  six  locks  270  by  45  feet. 
The  total  rise  or  lockage  is  48  feet.  The 
depth  of  water  on  the  sill  is  14  feet.  It 
is  100  feet  wide  at  the  bottom  and  164  at 
water  surface.  See  LACHINE  and  SOUL- 
ANGES. 

Cornwall,  county-seat  of  Dundas, 
Stormont  and  Glengarry  Counties,  Ont., 
is  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  at  the  foot  of  the  Long 
Sault  rapids,  and  has  a  population  of  6,704 

feople,  largely  engaged  in  manufacturing, 
t  is  on  the  Grand  Trunk  and  Ottawa  & 
New    York    railways.     Its    leading    indus- 
tries are  cotton,  woolens,  paper,  machinery 
and  pottery. 

Corn'wallis,  Charles,  Marquis,  was 
born  at  London,  Dec.  31,  1738.  He  served 
in  the  Seven  Years'  War,  and  accepted  an 
appointment  as  major-general  in  America, 
though  he  disliked  forcing  taxes  on  the 
colonists.  He  was  the  ablest  British  gen- 
eral in  command,  winning  the  battle  of 
Camden  against  General  Gates,  gaining 
a  slight  advantage  over  Greene  at  Guilford, 
but  being  forced  to  surrender  at  Yorktown 


COROLLA 


459 


CORPORATIONS 


in  1781.  He  afterward  was  governor-general 
of  India,  where,  by  his  victories  over  Tippoo 
Sahib,  he  probably  saved  India  to  the  Eng- 
lish Made  lord -lieutenant  of  Ireland,  he 
put  down  the  rebellion  of  1798,  and  gained 
the  good-will  of  the  Irish.  The  ability  of 
Cornwallis  in  India  'and  in  Ireland  shows 
that  his  failure  in  America  was  largely  due 
to  the  poor  general- 
ship of  his  superior 
officers,  Howe  and 
Clinton.  Cornwallis 
died  on  Oct.  5,  1805, 
while  on  his  way  to 
the  Indian  upper 
provinces ,  having 
been  made  governor- 
general  a  second  time. 
Corel' la  (in  plants) , 
the  inner  set  of  the 
two  floral  envelopes, 
which  usually  forms 
the  showy  part 


of  the  flower.  The 
individual  parts  are 
called  petals.  See 
FLOWER. 


a,  a.  Corollas    with  free 

petals. 

b,  b.  Corollas  with  petals 

united. 

Coronado  (da  kd'ro  na'tho),  Francisco 
de,  a  Spaniard,  born  in  Salamanca  proba- 
bly about  A.  D.  1510,  was  the  leader  of  a 
pioneer  force  of  troops  which,  starting  from 
Mexico,  did  much  to  explore  the  unknown 
region  which  now  is  the  southwest  por- 
tion of  the  United  States.  The  expe- 
dition appears  to  have  advanced  as  far  as 
what  now  is  Kansas.  Coronado  saw  the 
possibilities  of  the  land  which  he  visited 
for  agriculture;  but  he  was  disappointed 
in  his  search  for  precious  metals.  His 
papers  give  the  first  reliable  account  of  the 
American  bison  or  buffalo.  The  latter 
part  of  the  life  of  Coronado  was  spent  in 
retirement,  and  the  date  of  his  death  is 
uncertain.  For  the  papers  of  this  expe- 
dition see  The  Coronado  Expedition  (Win- 
ship)  in  Reports  of  the  U.  S.  tiureau  of  Eth- 
nology, No  14. 

Corot  (kd'ro')  t  Jean  Baptiste  Camilla, 
a  French  landscape-painter,  was  born  at 
Paris,  July  28,  1796.  He  was  first  a  clerk 
in  a  dry-goods  store,  but  his  tastes  led  him 
early  to  study  art.  His  paintings  made 
their  way  slowly,  but  wealth  and  fame 
finally  came  to  him.  Corot's  landscapes 
were  true  copies  of  nature.  His  favorite 
subjects  were  misty  lakes,  rivers  smothered 
in  vapor  and  the  quiet  of  moonlight  or 
sunrise,  which  he  painted  as  a  poet  would 
have  written  of  them.  He  had  great  in- 
fluence on  young  French  artists,  who  ad- 
mired and  liked  him  for  his  genius,  kindli- 
ness and  generosity.  At  one  time  they 
gave  him  a  medal  of  their  own  when  the 
Salon  had  passed  him  by,  and  they  always 
called  him  Father  Corot.  Among  his  mas- 
terpieces are  The  Dance  of  Nymphs  and 
Macbeth.  He  died  on  Feb.  22,  1875. 


Corporations.  Corporations  were  known 
to  the  laws  of  ancient  Rome;  but  it  is  only 
of  late,  and  especially  in  the  United  States, 
that  their  value  as  an  instrument  of  com- 
merce as  well  as  their  danger  to  the  pub- 
lic welfare  has  been  fully  realized.  We 
seem  to  be  in  a  fair  way  to  preserve  the 
use  and  to  prevent  the  great  abuse  of  cor- 
porate power.  A  corporation  is  distin- 
guished _  from  the  ordinary  partnership  in 
that  it  is,  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  a  distinct 
person,  created  by  the  act  of  incorporation. 
It  continues,  though  all  the  original  share- 
holders have  died,  its  acts  are  to  be  con- 
sidered quite  distinct  from  those  of  the 
shareholders,  it  may  sue  or  be  sued  in  the 
courts.  In  one  sense  it  is  even  a  citizen, 
for  it  has  in  general  the  privileges  guar- 
anteed by  the  constitution  of  appealing 
to  the  supreme  court  against  any  state 
action  which  the  constitution  forbids. 
But  this  citizenship  it  does  not  possess  in 
one  matter.  It  cannot  claim  the  right  to 
do  business  in  any  state  under  the  same 
conditions  as  those  that  govern  citizens  of 
that  state.  Thus  Texas  may  pass  one 
set  of  laws  for  corporations  incorporated 
within  its  limits,  and  another  for  all  other 
corporations,  and  forbid  their  entrance  to 
the  state  on  any  other  conditions.  How- 
ever, by  the  interstate  commerce  pro- 
vision of  the  constitution,  the  products 
of  a  corporation  of  another  state  may  not 
be  excluded  from  any  state,  except  under 
conditions  that  apply  to  all  persons  alike. 
A  partnership,  on  the  contrary,  is  not  a 
distinct  person,  and  the  several  members 
are  liable  to  suit  for  the  actions  of  their- 
partners  in  whatever  business  they  have 
agreed  to  be  partners.  A  joint-stock 
company,  in  like  manner,  is  not  a  separate 
person,  and  the  members  are  liable  to 
be  sued  for  its  acts,  though  they  are  not 
held  to  be  responsible  for  all  the  acts  of 
the  company's  officers  as  a  partner  is  re- 
sponsible for  his  partner's  acts. 

At  present  the  Federal  government  does 
not  incorporate;  that  is  left  to  the  several 
states.  In  some  states  every  corpora- 
tion must  be  established  by  a  special  act 
of  the  legislature;  but  it  is  now  common 
to  lay  down  by  statute  the  conditions  of 
incorporation  and  then,  whenever  those 
conditions  have  been  fulfilled,  the  corpora- 
tion is  by  that  fact  established.  The  act 
of  incorporation  has  been  held  by  the 
supreme  court  to  be  a  contract  between 
the  state  and  the  corporation,  and  it  can- 
not therefore  be  broken.  The  state  must 
therefore  arrange  for  the  control  that  it 
desires  to  exercise  over  corporations,  be- 
fore the  corporation  conies  into  existence. 
It  is  here  that  we  have  failed.  New  Jer- 
sey, above  all  other  states,  offered  excep- 
tionally favorable  terms  to  corporations 
if  they  would  incorporate  under  her  laws, 
so  as  to  give  her  the  benefit  of  the  taxes 


CORPUS  CHRISTI 


460 


CORRELATION  OF  STUDIES 


that  might  be  imposed  on  them.  New 
York  was  compelled  to  follow  suit,  in  part, 
for  the  same  purpose.  Other  states  have 
joined  in  this  attempt  to  offer  favorable 
terms  with  the  result  that  proper  provisions 
for  control  have  not  been  inserted.  The 
failure  to  insert  proper  provisions  when 
incorporating  many  of  the  railroads  has 
been  especially  injurious.  It  is  largely 
as  a  result  of  these  mistakes  of  the  state 
governments,  and  also  because  of  their 
inability  to  agree  upon  a  single  line  of 
action  toward  corporations,  that  the  Federal 
government  has  been  obliged  to  take  action 
in  the  matter.  Practically  all  great  trad- 
ing corporations  deal  in  interstate  com- 
merce, and  Congress  has  control  over  such 
commerce  and  thus,  indirectly,  over  such 
corporations.  It  has  been  proposed  that 
all  corporations  that  have  interstate  com- 
merce be  required  to  receive  incorpora- 
tion from  the  Federal  government. 

Corporations  may  be  divided  into  sole 
and  aggregate.  A  sole  corporation  exists 
where,  for  example,  the  Secretary  of  War 
in  England  with  his  successors  is  a  corpora- 
tion. Most  corporations  have  many  mem- 
bers and  are  aggregate.  These  are  divided 
into  public  and  private  corporations,  of 
which  the  former  include,  for  example, 
cities  and  villages,  which  are  conducted 
by  the  public  for  the  public  good.  There 
also  are  eleemosynary  corporations  which 
are  run  by  private  individuals  for  the  pub- 
lic good,  as  colleges,  churches.  The  sav- 
ings-banks in  like  manner  are  eleemosynary. 

Corpus  Christ!,  Texas,  a  city  and 
county -seat  of  Nueces  County,  149  miles  from 
San  Antonio.  It  is  located  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Nueces  River,  on  Nueces  and  Corpus 
Christi  Bays.  It  is  the  trading-center  of  a 
fine  agricultural  and  stock-raising  region,  and 
its  fish-packing  business  is  very  large.  The 
city  has  good  public  schools,  a  convent,  sev- 
eral churches,  etc.  It  is  served  by  four  rail- 
roads, and  has  a  regular  freight  steamer  ser- 
vice with  New  Orleans.  Population  at  the 
present  time  is  20,000. 

Correggio  (kor-red'jo} ,  Antonio  Allegri  da, 
was  named  from  his  birthplace,  Cor- 
reggio, near  Modena,  Italy.  He  was  born 
in  1494,  and,  as  his  father  was  well-off 
and  his  uncle  an  artist,  Antonio  seems  to 
have  had  none  of  those  struggles  with  pov- 
erty that  have  hampered  so  many  painters. 
In  1518  he  painted  a  salon  in  the  convent 
of  San  Paolo  in  Parma.  The  groups  of 
goddesses,  graces  and  nymphs  were  painted 
with  a  fullness  of  life,  gaiety  and  grace, 
at  that  time  unknown,  that  at  once  stamped 
him  as  a  genius.  In  1522  he  began  his 
famous  decoration  of  Parma's  cathedral, 
painting  in  the  main  dome  his  Assump- 
tion of  the  Virgin — the  Madonna  borne 
up  to  heaven  by  a  countless  throng  of  re- 
joicing angels,  while  the  Savior  descends 
to  meet  her.  This  is  deemed  the  painter's 


masterpiece,  and  Titian,  when  he  first 
saw  it,  said:  "If  I  were  not  Titian,  I  would 
be  Correggio."  The  Night,  II  Giorno  and 
The  Reading  Magdalene  are  among  his  best- 
known  pictures.  In  Correggio's  art  there 
are  a  wonderful  gaiety  and  a  sunny  charm; 
he  was  a  master  of  light  and  shadow;  and 
hardly  any  artist  equaled  him  in  painting 
human  flesh.  He  died  on  March  5,  1534. 

Cor'rigan,  Michael 
Augustine,  Roman 
Catholic  archbishop 
of  New  York,  was 
born  at  Newark, 
N.  J.,Aug.  13,  1839, 
and  educated  at  St. 
Mary's  College.Wil- 
.mington,  Del.  In 
^1863  he  was  ordain- 
jed  to  the  priesthood 
Sat  Rome,  and,  after 
^holding  the  chair  of 
;  dogmatic  theology 
51  a  n  d  subsequently 
the  presidency  in 
Seton  Hall  College, 
ARCHBISHOP  CORRIGAN  Orange,  N.  J.,  he 
was  appointed  by  Pope  Pius  IX  to  the  see  of 
Newark  in  1873.  Seven  years  later  he  be- 
came coadjutor  to  Cardinal  McCloskey,  and, 
on  the  death  of  the  latter,  was  made  metro- 

gjlitan  of  the  diocese  of  New  York  in  1885. 
e  died  on  May  5th,  1902. 
Correlation  of  Studies.  In  modern 
methods  of  teaching  the  attempt  is  made 
to  relate  together  those  portions  of  the 
subject-matter  of  the  curriculum  which 
appeal  to  the  same  human  interest.  Thus 
it  is  evidently  better,  other  things  being 
equal,  to  teach  the  history  and  geography 
of  a  country  in  close  connection  with  each 
other,  rather  than  independently.  The 
principle  of  relating  portions  of  the  cur- 
riculum to  each  other  or  to  a  common  in- 
terest is  called  the  correlation  of  studies. 
Correlation  is  one  of  the  practical  recom- 
mendations of  the  school  of  Herbart. 
Froebel  also  related  the  activities  of  the 
child  as  far  as  possible  to  a  central  object; 
but  correlation  is  not  the  same  conception 
for  Froebel  as  for  Herbart.  For  Her- 
bart, correlation  is  based  upon  a  theory 
of  association  of  ideas  in  the  individual 
mind.  For,  in  order  that  the  life  of  thought 
may  possess  unity  and  harmony,  it  seemed 
to  Herbart  that  ideas  should  be  associated 
according  to  a  process  to  be  directed  by  the 
teacher  from  without.  In  other  words, 
instruction  needs  to  be  a  deliberate  en- 
deavor to  organize  the  pupil's  ideas,  and 
not  merely  to  present  them  to  him;  since 
otherwise  the  house  of  thought  and,  hence, 
of  will  might  be  so  divided  against  itself 
that  it  could  not  stand.  But  to  Froebel, 
correlation  appears  to  indicate  just  the 
recognition  of  the  fundamental  oneness  of 
the  individual  with  society.  Correlation 


CORRESPONDENCE-SCHOOLS 


461 


CORTELYOU 


is  for  him  the  process  of  carrying  over  the 
inward  unity  of  the  self  to  the  field  of  its 
manifestation  or  liberation.  According  to 
this  view,  which  has  been  expounded  by 
Professor  Dewey,  the  correlation  of  studies 
is  not  so  much  a  process  of  relating  them 
to  each  other  as  of  relating  them  to  life 
and  to  its  needs  and  purposes.  The  child 
or  the  student  will  correlate  subjects  for 
himself.  This,  however,  is  no  reason  why 
the  teacher  should  not  assist  him  in  so 
doing,  as  Herbart  advised.  The  child  will 
correlate  his  manual  training  with  his 
geography  more  readily,  if  the  teacher 
shows  him  on  the  map  from  what  coun- 
tries and  by  what  routes  the  various  species 
of  woods  which  he  uses  are  brought. 

Special  types  of  correlation  are  those 
known  as  concentration,  in  which  the  at- 
tempt is  made  to  relate  all  the  curriculum 
to  one  topic,  and  co-ordination,  in  which 
the  subjects  of  the  curriculum  are  arranged 
in  several  groups.  As  an  example  of  the 
first  type  Ziller  would  make  all  the  in- 
struction of  a  pupil  for  one  year  to  be 
grouped  about  the  story  of  Robinson 
Crusoe.  As  an  example  of  the  second 
type  Dr.  Harris  would  subdivide  the  cur- 
riculum into  five  groups  of  equal  value, 
so  that  the  subjects  in  each  group  should 
be  closely  interrelated. 

See  Report  of  Committee  of  Fifteen  of 
National  Educational  Association;  also  books 
of  the  Herbart  Society. 

Correspondence-Schools.  The  first  regu- 
larly organized  correspondence  -  courses 
appear  to  have  been  given  by  the  Chautau- 
qua  Circles  about  1880.  Since  that  time 
this  means  of  education  has  been  adopted 
to  a  considerable  extent  by  a  number  of 
colleges  and  universities,  and  by  receiving 
credit  for  work  thus  done,  many  worthy 
students  are  enabled  to  earn  university 
degrees  who  would  otherwise  be  unable 
to  do  so.  The  University  of  Chicago  offers 
a  very  large  number  and  variety  of  corre- 
spondence-courses . 

The  greatest  development  of  this  method 
of  instruction  has  been  in  the  hands  of 
private  schools  devoting  their  whole  at- 
tention to  the  work.  They  send  out  in- 
struction-papers especially  designed  for 
home  -  instruction.  They  require  written 
answers  to  questions  upon  the  work  as 
soon  as  it  has  been  mastered  by  the  student, 
and  these  answers  are  sent  to  the  instructor, 
corrected  by  him,  and  returned  to  the 
student.  The  instruction  in  most  cases 
is  satisfactory.  It  cannot  be  denied,  how- 
ever, that  the  successful  pursuit  of  this 
method  of  study  requires  more  than  average 

S:rseverance  on  the  part  of  the  student, 
any  give  up  their  courses  before  they  are 
completed.  It  seems  advisable  in  most 
cases  to  have  the  work  divided  into  courses 
which  can  be  completed  in  a  comparatively 
short  time  and  to  require  a  course  to  be 


finished  within  a  specified  time,  in  order  to 
furnish  a  stimulus  to  regular  systematic  work. 

Some  of  the  schools  have  advertised  largely 
and  gathered  in  students'  fees,  which  were 
incompetent  to  give  in  return  anything 
more  than  nominal  service.  Students  in- 
tending to  enroll  in  correspondence-courses 
should  be  on  their  guard  against  inferior 
or  fraudulent  schools  of  this  kind.  See 
CONTINUATION-SCHOOLS. 

Corsica  (kor'si-ka),  an  island  and  depart- 
ment of  France  in  the  Mediterranean,  lying 
due  south  of  Genoa  and  separated  from 
Sardinia  by  the  Strait  of  Bonifacio.  Corsica 
(Corse  in  French,  from  the  Greek  Cyrnus) 
was  the  birthplace  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 
Its  surface  is  mountainous,  and  the  island 
was  long  noted  for  its  vendettas  and  brig- 
ands. Its  products  besides  timber,  include 
oranges,  lemons  and  grapes, — the  chief  ex- 
ports being  wine  and  olive-oil.  It  has  an 
area  of  3,367  square  miles;  its  length  is 
114  miles,  and  its  breadth  52  miles.  The 
capital  is  Ajaccio  on  the  west  coast;  but 
the  chief  town  is  Bastia  on  the  northeast 
portion  of  the  island.  The  population, 
which  speaks  Italian  mainly,  is  about  295,- 
589.  The  island  was  acquired  by  the 
Romans  at  the  close  of  the  first  Punic 
War,  and  was  for  periods  held  by  Vandals, 
Goths,  Franks,  Saracens,  Pisans  and  Gen- 
oese. France  acquired  it  in  1768, 
but  in  1793  it  came  for  awhile  under 
British  rule;  though  three  years  later  it 
was  regained  by  France,  which  to- 
day maintains  a  torpedo-station  on  the 
island. 

Cor'sica'na,  Texas.,  the  county  seat  of 
Navarro  County,  on  St.  Louis  Southwestern, 
Trinity  &  Brazos  Valley  and  Houston  & 
Texas  Central  Railroads,  50  miles  south- 
southeast  of  Dallas  and  162  miles  northeast 
of  Austin.  It  has  an  Odd  Fellows  widows 
and  orphans'  home  and  a  sta^e  orphan- 
asylum.  Among  its  industries,  besides  plan- 
ing, flour  cotton  and  cottonseed-oil  mills,  are 
foundry  and  machine-shops,  brick-yards  and  a 
grain-elevator.  Population,  15,240. 

Cortelyou,  George  Bruce.  Born  July 
26,  1862,  in  New  York;  was  educated  in 
the  schools  of  Hempstead,  L.  I.  and  in 
the  Institute  and  state  Normal  School, 
Westfield,  Mass.  He  was  a  law-reporter  in 
New  York  City  for  a  time,  and  from  1885 
to  1889  he  taught  school  in  that  city.  He 
entered  public  service  as  a  private  secretary 
in  1889,  and  in  1895  was  appointed  sten- 
ographer to  President  Cleveland.  He  acted 
as  private  secretary  to  President  McKinley 
and  President  Roosevelt;  and,  when  the 
Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor  was 
organized  in  1903,  he  was  appointed  secre- 
tary of  that  department.  In  1905  he  be- 
came Postmaster-General,  and  in  1907  he 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
During  the  presidential  campaign  of  1904 


CORTES 


462 


CORTLAND 


Mr.  Cortelyou  was  chairman  of  the  Republi- 
can National  Committee. 

Cortes  (kdr'tez"),  Hernando,  the  con- 
queror of  Mexico,  was  born  in  Medellin, 
Spain,  in  1485.  At  19  his  longing  for 
adventure  sent  him  on  a  voyage  to  San 
Domingo,  and  soon  after  he  joined  Velas- 
quez in  the  conquest  of  Cuba.  Alvarado's 
glowing  description  of  Mexico  induced 
Velasquez  to  place  Cortes  at  the  head  of 
a  new  expedition.  On  Nov.  18,  1518,  Carte's 
sailed  on  one  of  the  most  daring  adventures 
of  history.  He  had  550  Spaniards,  two  or 
three  hundred  Indians,  twelve  or  fifteen 
horses,  ten  brass  guns  and  a  few  small 
cannon.  At  Trinidad  he  was  astounded  by 
orders  from  Velasquez  to  give  up  the  com- 
mand. Corte"s  refused  to  do  this,  and  so 
cut  himself  from  all  hope,  save  in  success. 
Landing,  he  fought  his  first  battle  at  To- 
basco,  where  he  captured  the  beautiful  and 
faithful  Donna  Marina,  who  became  his 
interpreter.  Soon  messengers  came  from 
the  king,  Moctezuma,  bringing  rich  presents 
but  forbidding  him  to  visit  the  capital. 
Here  some  of  his  men,  who  were  friendly 
to  Velasquez,  wanted  to  turn  back,  but, 
taking  them  into  his  confidence,  the  com- 
mander told  them  that  conquest,  not  mere 
trade,  was  what  he  was  after,  and  so  won 
them  over.  Founding  Vera  Cruz  and  burn- 
ing his  ships  behind  him,  he  marched  to 
Tlascala,  and  after  hard  fighting  subdued 
the  country.  Soon  after,  with  some  thous- 
ands of  Tlascalans,  now  his  allies,  he  set 
set  out  for  Mexico.  On  Nov.  8,  1519, 
Corte"s  reached  the  capital,  which  seemed 
to  the  Spaniards  like  a  dream  or  an  en- 
chanted castle.  They  saw  before  them  a 
city  of  300,000  people,  in  the  middle  of  a 
great  salt  lake,  approached  by  three  cause- 
ways of  solid  masonry,  from  three  to  six 
miles  long,  with  many  wooden  drawbridges. 
He  had  hardly  been  a  week  in  the  city, 
when,  on  the  ground  that  Vera  Cruz  had 
been  attacked,  Moctezuma  was  carried  to 
the  Spanish  quarters  and  put  in  irons. 
At  first  the  Mexicans  were  stricken  with 
fear  of  these  strange  men,  with  horses  and 
cannon;  but  they  soon  saw  that  they  were 
only  men  after  all,  and  very  few  at  that; 
so  when  Moctezuma  had  been  imprisoned 
some  five  months,  he  begged  the  Spaniards 
to  leave.  Corte"s  asked  for  time,  and  learn- 
ing that  1 8  ships  had  landed,  sent  by 
Velasquez,  he  left  Alvarado  in  command, 
and  with  a  handful  of  men  set  out  for  the 
•coast.  At  Cholula,  by  a  night-attack  in 
a  blinding  storm,  he  defeated  800  fresh 
Spaniards,  who  gladly  joined  his  troops. 
Two  weeks  later  came  the  news  that  the 
Spanish  quarter  was  besieged.  On  reach- 
ing the  city,  Cortes  found  himself  face  to 
face  with  the  whole  nation,  led  by  Mocte- 
Zuma's  brother.  After  driving  back  with 
difficulty  a  fierce  attack,  he  saw  that  he 
must  leave  the  city.  At  midnight  began 


the  retreat  over  the  causeway.  Its  three 
bridges  had  been  destroyed  by  the  Mex- 
icans; the  first  was  crossed  by  a  pontoon, 
but  at  once  the  lake  was  covered  with 
canoes,  and  so  hot  was  the  attack  that  at 
the  second  bridge  the  pontoon  could  not 
be  raised.  Soon  the  water  was  choked 
with  struggling  horses  and  men,  and  the 
retreat  became  a  hopeless  rout.  Out  of 
that  fearful  night  a  handful  escaped  to 
land,  only  to  find  themselves  surrounded 
by  a  countless  host.  Yet  they  cut  their 
way  through,  every  man  fighting  as  ten 
men  would  fight,  and  reached  their  friends, 
the  Tlascalans.  Six  months  later  Cort6s, 
with  10,000  Tlascalans,  marched  on  Mexico 
again.  Brigantines  were  built,  attacks 
along  the  causeway  were  made  and  a 
regular  siege  begun;  50,000  Mexicans  died 
from  famine  and  pestilence;  yet  the  city 
had  to  be  destroyed  before  it  was  taken. 
At  last  it  fell,  after  75  days'  siege,  which 
for  bravery  ranks  with  any  in  the  annals 
of  war.  The  Spaniards  entered,  but  found 
only  ruined  houses  filled  with  heaps  of 
dead.  In  1528  Cortes  visited  Spain  and 
was  highly  honored,  but,  though  appointed 
captain-general,  he  was  not  made  governor 
of  New  Spain,  as  Mexico  was  now  called. 
The  next  ten  years  he  was  forced  to  stand 
fey  and  see  another's  bungling  government 
of  the  rich  empire  he  had  won.  Meanwhile 
he  discovered  Lower  California  (1533). 
Disappointed,  poor  and  in  ill-health,  he 
went  back  to  Spain  in  1540.  He  accom- 
panied Charles  V  on  his  disastrous  Algerian 
expedition,  and,  touched  to  the  heart  by 
the  emperor's  refusal  to  allow  him  to 
capture  Algiers,  answered:  "I  am  a  man 
who  has  given  you  more  provinces  than 
your  ancestors  left  you  cities."  Cortes  was 
no  common  adventurer,  but  a  captain  of 
great  military  genius  and,  withal,  a  states- 
man of  deep  foresight.  He  was  cruel  some- 
times, and  passionate,  but  patient,  religious, 
simple  in  life,  and  worshiped  by  his  soldiers 
and  Indian  allies.  He  died  near  Seville, 
Dec.  2,  1547. 

Cor'tex  (in  plants).  The  tissues  of  stems 
and  roots  are  arranged  in  three  general 
regions.  In  the  center  is  the  woody  cylinder, 
sometimes  solid  and  sometimes  containing 
a  pith.  Outside  of  the  woody  cylinder  is 
the  region  of  the  cortex,  containing  the 
active  cells;  and  about  the  cortex  is  the 
epidermis.  In  perennial  plants,  where  bark 
is  formed,  the  cork  is  developed  in  the 
cortex,  and  the  epidermis  disappears. 

Cort'land,  N.  V.,  a  city,  the  county 
seat  of  Cortland  County,  on  the  Delaware, 
Lackawanna  &  Western  and  Lehigh  Valley 
railroads,  35  miles  south  of  Syracuse. 
Settled  in  the  latter  part  of  the  i8th  century, 
the  city  was  in  1829  set  off  as  Cortland- 
ville.  It  has  a  state  normal  school  and  other 
educational  institutions,  together  with  the 
Hatch  Public  Library.  Its  manufactures 


CORWIN 


463 


COTES 


embrace  carriage  and  wagom-shops,  door 
and  window-screen  factories,  besides  wire 
and  wire-cloth,  wall-paper,  drop-forgings 
and  carriage-trimmings  establishments.  It 
is  a  shipping  point  also  for  agricultural  and 
dairy  produce.  Population,  12,259. 

Cor'win,  Thomas,  was  born  in  Bourbon 
Co.,  Ky.  in  1794,  but  was  brought  up  in 

Ohio.  He  be- 
came a  lawyer, 
and  was  noted 
both  as  a  speaker 
at  the  bar  and 
for  his  keenness 
in  sifting  and 
massing  evidence. 
He  was  chosen 
state  representa- 
tive, member  of 
Congress  and 
later,  senator, 
acting  with  the 
Whigs.  He  was 
opposed  to  the 
Mexican  War  as 
unjust.  He  was 
elected  governor 

THOMAS  CORWIN  of  Ohio  after  a 

thorough  canvass,  speaking  in  every  county 
and  delivering  a  brilliant  speech  in  support 
of  General  Harrison,  then  Whig  candidate 
for  president.  In  1850  he  became  secretary 
of  the  treasury  under  Fillmore.  A  member 
of  Congress  again,  in  1858,  and  supporter 
»f  Lincoln  in  1860,  he  was  in  favor  of  a 
compromise  on  the  slavery  question,  wtich, 
he  hoped,  would  avoid  war.  He  became 
minister  to  Mexico  in  1861,  and  died  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  Dec.  18,  1865. 

Corymb  (kor'imV),  a  flat-topped  flower 
cluster,  in  which  the  pedicels  of  the 
flowers  are  of  different  lengths,  arising 
from  the  axis  at  different  levels.  The  outer 
flowers  bloom  first.  See  INFLORESCENCE. 
Coshec'ton,  Ohio,  a  city,  the  seat  of 
Coshocton  County,  on  the  Muskingum 
River  and  on  the  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago  &  St.  Louis  and  Wheeling  & 
Lake  Erie  railways,  about  70  miles  east- 
northeast  of  Columbus.  It  was  settled  early 
in  the  last  century  and  incorporated  in 
1833.  Its  manufactures  include  novelty- 
advertising  establishments,  wooden-novelty 
works,  machine-shops,  glass-factory  and 
other  "plants."  It  has  a  public  library, 
churches  and  schools,  and  owns  its  own 
water- works.  Population,  9,603. 

Cos' sacks,  a  race  first  known  in  the  xoth 
century  in  the  region  south  of  Poland  and 
Muscovy.  Their  name  has  been  said  to 
mean  an  armed  man,  a  coat,  a  saber,  a 
goat,  etc.  Their  race-stock  is  just  as  un- 
certain; probably  they  sprang  from  mixed 
Slavonic,  Tartar  and  Circassian  tribes, 
though  some  hold  them  to  be  Tartars,  and 
others  almost  purely  Russians.  They 
fought  against  the  Turks  and  Tartars,  and 


were  very  powerful  in  the  isth  century. 
Poland  and  Muscovy  employed  them  to 
guard  their  boundaries;  while  Cossacks  are 
to  be  met  with  in  the  outposts  of  Russia 
in  Siberia,  Central  Asia  and  the  Caucasus. 
Sometimes  living  near  hostile  peoples,  they 
formed  a  cordon  of  settlements  along  the 
borders  of  territory  they  held;  sometimes 
living  in  the  midst  of  enemies,  they  gathered 
in  separate  camps,  ever  ready  for  attack 
or  defense.  They  are  a  democratic  people, 
choosing  all  their  officers  for  one  year  only. 
Every  Cossack,  too,  might  be  elected  to 
any  post,  even  the  highest,  that  of  hetman. 
There  were  two  branches:  the  Little 
Russian  and  the  Don  Cossacks.  Descend- 
ants of  the  Don  Cossacks  now  form  part  of 
the  cavalry  of  the  Russian  army,  and  stand 
fatigue,  hunger,  thirst  and  cold  with  the 
greatest  patience.  Though  for  a  long  time 
thought  to  be  fierce  savages,  late  travelers 
say  that  in  ability,  cleanliness  and  enter- 
prise they  are  above  the  average  Russians, 
and  in  the  i8th  century  an  Englishman 
who  had  lived  with  them  affirmed  that 
they  were  "a  civilized  and  very  gallant  as 
well  as  sober  people." 

Costa  Rica  (kos'td  re'kd)  (meaning  rich 
coast),  a  republic  of  Central  America, 
reaching  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific, 
with  Nicaragua  on  the  north  and  Panama 
on  the  south.  It  has  an  area  of  18,400 
square  miles.  Aside  from  the  few  Indians, 
the  people  are  sprung  from  the  Spanish 
settlers.  The  country  is  rich  in  gold,  silver 
and  copper,  but  its  chief  trade  is  in  coffee, 
bananas  and  bar-gold,  and  it  has  been 
called  the  Coffee  Republic.  Costa  Rica 
was  discovered  by  Columbus,  and  a  settle- 
ment was  founded,  probably  in  1502,  on 
his  fourth  voyage.  It  became  free  from 
Spain  in  1821,  and  has  had  several  consti- 
tutions, with  a  president  and  congress 
chosen  every  four  years.  It  is  held  to  be 
the  best  governed  republic  in  Central 
America,  though  it  is  in  default  in  meet- 
ing the  principal  and  interest  of  its  public 
debt.  Costa  Rica  has  an  army  of  1,000 
men  (infantry  and  artillery)  besides  5,000 
militia ;  though  on  a  war-footing  the  republic 
can  command  about  150,000  militia.  The 
state  also  has  one  gunboat  and  one  torpedo- 
boat.  In  1909  the  value  of  its  exports 
was  $8,176,257;  while  its  imports  amounted 
to  $6,109,938.  There  are  75  post-offices. 
The  railways  extend  about  300  miles.  The 
bulk  of  the  trade  is  with  the  United  States 
the  latter  supplying  Costa  Rica  with  bread- 
stuffs  and  ironwork.  The  state-church  is 
Roman  Catholic.  The  capital  is  San  Jose' 
(population,  26,682).  The  other  chief 
towns  are  Cartago,  Alajuela,  Limon,  Pun- 
tarenas  and  Heredia.  Population,  351,176 
and  about  3,500  aborigines. 

Cotes,  Mrs.  Everard  (nee  Sara  Jean- 
ette  Duncan),  Canadian  and,  latterly,  an 
Anglo-Indian,  novelist,  was  born  at  Brant- 


COTOPAXI 


464 


COTTON 


ford,  Ontario,  in  1861,  and  educated  at  its 
Collegiate  Institute.  Early  in  the  eighties 
she  began  to  write  for  Canadian  magazines 
and  to  act  as  staff-correspondent  for  Toronto 
and  Montreal  newspapers.  Her  cleverness, 
fine  perception  of  the  weaknesses  and 
eccentricities  of  human  nature  and  her  per- 
vasive humor  obtained  a  connection  with 
the  English  press  and  the  appointment  to 
act  for  a  literary  syndicate  in  making  a 
tour  of  the  world.  The  result  of  the  tour 
appeared  in  A  Social  Departure  and  subse- 
quently in  An  American  Girl  in  London. 
Her  later  works  include  The  Simple  Ad- 
ventures of  a  Mem-Sahib;  Vernon's  Aunt; 
A  DaugMer  of  To-day;  His  Honor  and  a 
Lady;  A  Voyage  of  Consolation  and  a  delight- 
ful book  on  the  author's  Indian  garden. 
In  1890  she  married  the  editor  of  a  Calcutta 
newspaper,  a  scientist,  and  has  since  made 
India  her  home. 

Cotopaxi  (kd'to-paks'e),  the  highest  vol- 
cano in  the  world,  is  a  peak  of  the  Andes, 
in  Ecuador,  33  miles  from  Quito.  The 
earliest  volcanic  outburst  of  which  we 
know  took  place  in  1532  and  1533.  Many 
others  have  happened  since.  In  1744  its 
thunderings  could  be  heard  500  miles  away; 
in  1768  occurred  the  worst  eruption,  when 
ashes  were  carried  130  miles.  The  moun- 
tain is  a  perfect  snow-crowned  cone.  Smoke 
can  be  seen  issuing  from  the  crater,  sounds 
like  explosions  are  sometimes  heard,  and 
at  night  a  glow  is  noticed  on  the  sky  above 
the  volcano.  There  is  little  lava,  but  dur- 
ing an  outburst^fiame,  smok  and  great 
quantities  of  ashes  are  thrown  out.  Coto- 
paxi was  first  climbed  in  1872  by  Wilhelm 
Keiss,  who  gives  the  height  of  the  north- 
west peak  as  19,498  feet  and  the  southwest 
peak  as  19,429  feet.  The  last  eruptions 
were  in  1877. 

Cotton.  As  early  as  1500  B.  C.  the  people 
of  India — and  by  1200  B.  C.  the  Greeks, 

Phoenicians  and 
Egyptian  s — 
with  primitive 
appliances,  were 
making  cotton 
cloth  of  a  qual- 
ity which  has 
been  surpassed 
only  by  the 
most  skillful 
manufacturers 
during  the  last 
half  century. 
Cotton  either  in 
its  wild  or  culti- 
vated state  was 
used  at  the  date 
of  the  discovery 
of  America  in 
COTTON  PLANT  practically 

every  country  within  the  4oth  parallels  of 
north  and  south  latitude,  except  in  what  is 
now  the  United  States. 


Cotton  is  now  cultivated  in  the  United 
States  on  nearly  all  kinds  of  soils,  south  of 
latitude  37,  artificial  fertilizers  being  used  to 
increase  the  yield,  or  hasten  ripening  on  soils 
not  naturally  adapted  to  it. 

THE  COTTON  QUEEN  AND  HER  DRESSES 

The  plant  belongs  to  the  Malvaceae,  or 
Mallow  family,  and  is  known  by  the  generic 
name  Gossipium.  It  is  a  perennial,  but  under 
cultivation  usually  becomes  an  annual  or 
biennial.  Culture  in  the  United  States  is 
practically  confined  to  two  species,  the  silky, 
long-staple  Sea  Island  cotton — G.  barba- 
dence — grown  in  the  lowland  coasts  and  coastal 
islands  of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina;  and 
Upland  cotton — G.  hirsutum — which  is  of 
two  sorts,  short  cotton  and  Upland  long-staple 
cotton.  The  flowers  somewhat  resemble 
single  holly-hock  blooms  and  continue  to 
form  until  frost,  opening  their  pale  creamy 
petals  one  morning  in  full  maturity  for  insect 
pollination,  fading  to  pink  by  noon,  dark  pink 
the  second  day,  and  by  night  are  shrivelled 
ready  to  be  pushed  off  in  a  few  days  by  the 
swelling  fruit  or  boll.  Bolls  vary  from  almost 
spherical  to  long  narrow  pointed  capsules 
and  are  divided  into  3,  4  or  5  segments.  When 
the  bolls  split  and  the  fibres  fluff  into  a  twisted 
mass,  the  cotton  is  ready  for  picking. 

ON  THE   PLANTATION 

Cotton  requires  six  or  seven  months  of 
favorable  growing  weather  between  spring  and 
fall  frost  to  mature,  but  picking  may  extend 
far  into  the  winter.  It  thrives  in  a  very  warm 
or  even  hot  temperature,  provided  the  atmos- 
phere is  moist,  but  it  will  mature  a  crop  on 
less  water  than  any  other  crop  plant.  Any 
sudden  change  in  temperature,  moisture  or 
cultural  methods  is  apt  to  cause  an  abortion 
of  the  young  fruit  and  flowers. 

Usually  cotton  is  planted  on  ridges  or 
"beds."  Fertilizers,  when  used,  are  generally 
drilled  into  the  beds  just  before  planting.  The 
seed  are  usually  drilled  in — about  one  bushel 
per  acre.  When  the  plants  are  three  or  four 
inches  high  they  are  hoed  or  "chopped"  out, 
single  plants  being  left  standing  trom  12  to  24 
inches  apart,  distance  depending  upon  luxur- 
iance of  growth  and  type  of  cotton 

Generally  speaking  the  best  concentrated 
fertilizer  to  be  used  is  one  containing  soluble 
phosphoric  acid,  available  potash  and  avail- 
able nitrogen,  although  the  nitrogen  may  be 
omitted  if  it  has  been  previously  supplied  with 
green  manure,  legumes  or  barnyard  manure. 

COTTON   PICKING    AND   GINNING 

Mechanical  pickers  have  been  devised,  but 
do  not  show  the  discrimination  of  the  human 
being  in  avoiding  immature  cotton,  nor  adapta- 
bility to  the  irregularities  of  the  average  cotton 
field.  After  picking,  the  cotton  is  hauled  in 
large  boxed  wagons  to  the  gin  (see  ELI  WHIT- 
NEY). It  is  sucked  from  the  wagon  through  long 
tubes  and  distributed  directly  to  the  several 
gins  in  the  gin  house.  A  continuation  of  this 
sucking  or  blowing  apparatus  collects  the 
ginned  cotton  and  passes  it  to  the  compress 


COTTONBOLL- WEEVIL 


465 


COUES 


where  it  is  compressed  in  large  boxes.  From 
the  box  it  is  swung  around  to  the  baler,  further 
compressed,  covered  with  coarse  burlap  and 
bound  with  metal  straps.  Each  bale  weighing 
about  500  Ibs.  is  marked  for  identification  and 
with  its  actual  weight. 

HOW   COTTON    IS   BOUGHT 

Cotton,  the  fibers  of  which  are  not  over 
i  Y%  inches  long  is  known  as  short  cotton  and 
is  sold  by  grade  from  samples  taken  from  each 
bale.  Grading  is  based  on  color  and  relative 
amount  of  trash  and  stained  fibers  present. 
Short  cotton  constitutes  the  great  bulk  of  that 
produced  in  this  country  and  is  used  in  making 
the  cheaper  grades  of  goods.  Additional 
factors  of  length,  strength  and  uniformity 
of  fiber  enter  into  the  value  of  long  staple  cot- 
tons, premiums  generally  being  given  for  each 
•fa  inch  in  length.  The  finer  fabrics,  including 
muslins  and  laces  (g.  r.)  are  made  from  long 
staple  cotton. 

The  linters  or  fuzz  remaining  on  the  seed  of 
Upland  cotton  after  ginning  yields  batting, 
wadding,  stuffing  for  pads,  etc.,  and  "lambs 
wool"  for  fleece-lined  underwear.  The  hulls 
are  used  in  cattle  feed,  fertilizers  and  paper 
stock.  From  the  seed  oil  is  made,  which  is 
used  in  lard  compounds,  cooking  and  salad 
oils  and  soap  stocks,  while  the  "cake"  (residue 
after  pressing  the  oil  from  the  kernels)  is 
used  in  fertilizers,  dye  stuffs,  cattle  and  poultry 
feed,  confectionery  and  flour. 

ENEMIES    OF    COTTON 

Cotton  is  subject  to  diseases,  such  as  leaf 
blight,  shedding  of  bolls,  root,  and  boll  rot 
and  root  galls. 

The  principal  insect  enemies  are  the  cotton 
worm,  the  boll  worm,  and  the  Mexican  boll 
weevil.  Of  these,  the  weevil  is  the  worst,  but 
by  community  effort  the  number  of  early 
weevils  may  generally  be  so  reduced  that  a 
crop  may  be  well  advanced  before  the  insects 
become  hopelessly  abundant. 

G.  S.  MELOY 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Cotton,  John  (1585-1652),  an  eminent 
Puritan  minister,  was  for  20  years  pastor 
of  Boston  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  and 
for  almost  as  long  in  Boston,  New  Eng- 
land. Cotton,  whose  Puritan  leanings 
made  him  an  object  of  suspicion  under  the 
primacy  of  Laud,  was  to  have  been  brought 
before  the  Court  of  High  Commission  for 
trial.  He  escaped,  however,  to  London  and, 
later,  to  Boston,  New  England.  Both  in  Eng- 
land and  in  New  England,  the  reputation  of 
Cotton  for  learning  was  of  the  highest.  He  had 
an  absolute  command  of  Latin,  Greek  and 
Hebrew;  and  loved  "to  sweeten  his  mouth 
with  a  piece  of  Calvin"  at  the  close  of 
his  day  of  twelve  hours'  study.  Cotton 
opposed  Anne  Hutchinson,  whom  he  had 
at  first  been  disposed  to  favor;  and  disputed 
also  with  Roger  Williams.  Among  his  many 
works  was  the  catechism  Milk  for  Babes. 

Cottonworm,  the  larva  of  a  moth  doing 
great  damage  to  the  cotton-plant  by  eat- 


ing the  foliage.  It  is  estimated  by  officials 
of  the  United  States  government  that  the 
loss  occasioned  by  this  insect  in  a  year  of 
great  abundance  of  cotton-plants  amounts 
to  30  million  dollars.  The  average  loss  is 
placed  at  15  million  dollars.  The  perfect 
insect  is  a  small,  brownish  moth,  which 
flies  at  night  and  deposits  eggs  on  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves  of  the  cotton-plant. 
These  eggs  hatch  in  mid-summer  within 
three  days,  and  at  once  is  begun  the  de- 
struction of  the  leaves.  The  larva,  when 
full-grown,  is  about  an  inch  and  three 
fourths  in  length,  of  a  light-green  color, 
striped  with  white  and  black  and  spotted 
with  black  and  yellow.  When  through 
feeding,  the  caterpillar  folds  a  leaf  about 
itself,  spins  a  cocoon  and  pupates;  shortly 
after  emerging,  the  moth  lays  her  eggs. 
There  may  be  seven  broods  in  a  single 
season.  A  related  species  destroys  cotton 
in  the  ball.  See  Riley:  Entomological  Com- 
mission's 4th  Report  (Washington,  1885) ;  Bul- 
letin No.  1 8,  New  Series  (Washington,  1898). 
Cotyledon  ( kot'i-le'  don ) ,  the  first  leaf  or 
leaves  developed  by  an  embryo.  In  seed- 
plants  the  cotyledons  are  developed  in 
the  seed,  and  are  more  or  less  different 
from  the  usual  leaf-form,  often  being  fleshy 
from,  containing  stored  food,  as  in  the 
bean  and  acorn.  Generally  the  cotyledons 
escape  from  the  seed  during  its  germina- 
tion, but  in  some  cases,  as  in  the  acorn, 
they  never  leave  the  seed.  See  EMBRYO. 

Couch,  Darius  Nash,  an  American 
general,  was  born  on  July  23,  1822,  in 
Putnam  County,  New  York;  and  died  at 
Norwalk,  Conn.,  Feb.  12,  1897.  After 
graduating  at  West  Point,  he  served  in 
the  Mexican  War  as  lieutenant  of  artillery. 
He  entered  the  Civil  War  as  colonel  of 
the  yth  Massachusetts.  He  took  part  in 
the  battles  of  Yorktown,  Williamsburg, 
Fair  Oaks,  Malvern  Hill,  Fredericksburg 
and  Chancellors ville.  He  was  made  major- 
general  in  1862,  and  was  in  command  of 
a  division  in  the  battle  of  Nashville. 

Coues  ( kouz ) , 
Elliott,  a  notable 
American  ornithol- 
ogist, was  born  at 
Portsmouth,  N.H., 
Sept,  9,  1842;  and 
died  at  Baltimore, 
Md.,Dec.  25,  1899. 
After  graduating 
at  Columbian 
University,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  in 
1 86 1,  he  entered 
the  military  medi- 
cal service ,  and  was 
for  a  time  surgeon 
and  naturalist  on 
the  U.  S.  northern- 
boundary  commis- 
ELLIOTT  COUES  sion.  He  was 


COULTER 


466 


COURTS  OF  JUSTICE 


subsequently  collaborator  at  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  and  secretary  and  nat- 
uralist to  the  U.  S.  geological  and  geo- 
graphical survey  of  the  territories;  was 
chairman  of  committee  at  the  Psychical 
Science  congress  in  1893;  and  edited  a 
number  of  works  in  biology  and  on  com- 
parative anatomy  and  zoology.  His  writ- 
ings embrace  a  number  of  works  on  his 
specialty  of  ornithology,  among  which  are 
a  Key  to  North  American  Birds;  Birds  of  the 
Northwest  and  of  the  Colorado  Valley;  New 
England  Bird  Life;  Fur-Bearing  Animals. 

Coul'ter,  John  Merlef  a  great  author- 
ity on  American  botany  and  head-pro- 
fessor of  botany  at  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago, was  born  at  Ningpo,  China,  of  Ameri- 
can parentage,  Nov.  20,  1851.  After  gradu- 
ating at  Hanover  College,  Indiana,  he 
spent  a  year  as  botanist  on  the  U.  S.  geo- 
logical survey  in  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
He  was  afterward  successively  professor 
of  natural  sciences  in  his  alma  mater;  pro- 
fessor of  biology  at  Wabash  College;  presi- 
dent of  the  University  of  Indiana;  and 
president  (1893-96)  of  Lake  Forest  Uni- 
versity. Since  1896  he  has  been  attached 
to  the  University  of  Chicago,  in  charge  of 
his  special  department.  His  published 
works  include  a  Synopsis  of  the  Flora  of 
Colorado;  a  Manual  of  Rocky  Mountain 
Botany;  Handbook  of  Plant  Dissection; 
Manual  of  the  Botany  of  Western  Texas; 
and  an  edition,  as  editor,  of  Gray's  Manual 
of  Botany. 

Coun'cil  Bluffs,  a  city  of  Pottawat- 
tomie  County,  Iowa,  lies  not  far  from  the 
old  meeting-point  of  the  Indian  tribes. 
Here  the  Mormons  tarried  from  1846  to 
1849,  while  on  their  way  to  Utah.  For 
many  years  it  was  the  last  village  in  civ- 
ilized America,  and  here  California  emi- 
grants and  trappers  got  their  outfits  before 
entering  the  Indian  country.  It  lies  across 
the  Missouri  from  Omaha,  Neb.  Six  rail- 
roads, running  west  from  Chicago,  here 
meet  the  Union  Pacific  line,  and  others 
turn  to  the  north  and  south.  The  city's 
industries  include  manufactures  of  paper, 
iron,  carriages  and  agricultural  machines. 
Population,  32,000. 

Courthope  (kort'op),  William  John,  an 
English  critic  and  man-of -letters,  was  born 
in  Sussex,  England,  July  17,  1842,  and 
educated  at  Harrow  and  Oxford.  At  the 
latter  he  won  the  chancellor's  gold  medal 
for  verse,  and  also  was  Newdigate  prize- 
man. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
English  National  Review  and  a  staff  mem- 
ber of  the  Quarterly  Review;  subsequently 
he  was  appointed  civil-service  examiner 
in  the  government  education  department, 
and  was  made  a  Companion  of  the  Bath. 
From  1895  to  1901  he  was  professor  of  poetry 
in  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  has 
edited  an  elaborate  edition  of  Pope's  Works, 
with  Life;  a  Life  of  Addison  (in  the  English 


Men  of  Letters  Series);  a  History  of  Eng- 
lish Poetry;  and  a  burlesque  in  allegory, 
entitled  The  Paradise  of  Birds. 

Courtney,  The  Right  Reverend  Fred- 
erick, Bishop.  Rector,  St.  James  Church,  New 
York.  Born  at  Plymouth,  England,  in  1837. 
Graduated  from  Kings  College,  London,  1863. 
Came  to  New  York  in  1876  as  assistant  at 
St.  Thomas'  Church.  Was  made  Rector  of  St. 
Paul's,  Boston,  in  1882,  and  bishop  of  Nova 
Scotia,  1888  to  1904,  attended  the  Lambeth 
Conference  in  1888.  He  holds  honorary  degrees 
from  several  universities,  and  is  much  ad- 
mired as  preacher  and  bishop. 

Courts  of  Justice.  Courts  of  justice 
in  primitive  times  either  were  the  people 
assembled  or  the  king  and  his  advisers. 
Their  activity  has  always  been  of  two 
kinds:  either  to  punish  or  to  arbitrate. 
Criminal  cases  are  those  in  which  the  com- 
munity punishes  the  offender;  civil  cases, 
those  in  which  the  community  decides  a 
dispute.  In  early  days  the  court  was  all 
important;  but  when  the  community  en- 
trusted justice  to  a  few  specially  selected 
men,  it  laid  down  laws  by  which  they  should 
be  in  part  guided;  and  those  selected 
men  laid  down  further  rules  to  guide  their 
successors.  So  that  now  a  court  of  justice 
is  always  subordinate  to  a  system  of  law 
and  precedents,  which  it  may  not  alter, 
but  which  it  must  interpret  to  fit  the  case 
before  it.  In  the  early  Roman  republic 
the  people's  assembly,  the  comitia,  tried 
all  important  cases.  In  the  Roman  em- 
pire there  was  established  a  regular  sys- 
tem of  courts,  in  which  we  may  distinguish 
courts  of  original  jurisdiction  and  courts  of 
appeal.  The  former  try  cases  at  first 
hand.  An  appeal  may  be  taken  only  from 
an  inferior  to  a  superior  court.  The  Ro- 
mans also  established  a  distinction  still 
preserved  between  common  law  and  equity; 
the  former  being  the  laws  and  customs 
current  in  the  community,  and  the  latter 
principles  of  justice  laid  down  by  judges 
at  various  times  and  finally  brought  to- 
gether in  a  system. 

Our  Teutonic  ancestors  preserved  through 
the  middle  ages  the  right  of  being  tried, 
not  indeed  by  the  whole  people,  but  by 
some  of  them,  usually  six  or  more,  of  about 
the  same  rank  as  the  accused.  That  is, 
they  were  his  peers.  This  trial  by  jury 
Englishmen  especially  held  precious,  and 
we  in  America  still  regard  it  as  necessary 
to  securing  justice.  (See  the  Constitution, 
Article  III,  Section  2,  and  Amendments 
V,  VI  and  VII).  On  the  continent  of 
Europe,  except  in  the  cities,  the  model 
generally  followed  was  that  of  the  courts 
of  the  church,  in  which  the  essential  thing 
was  a  trained  judge.  Since  the  French 
Revolution,  however,  the  jury-system  has 
become  common  on  the  continent. 

As  our  system  of  courts  is  largely  de- 
rived from  that  of  England,  we  may  note 


COURTS  OF  JUSTICE 


467 


COURTS  OF  JUSTICE 


that  in  that  country  the  lowest  court  is 
everywhere  the  justice  of  the  peace,  who 
in  the  cities  is  called  a  police-magistrate. 
He  deals  chiefly  with  minor  offenses  and 
also  settles  many  civil  disputes  in  small 
matters.  But  disputes  concerning  mat- 
ters that  must  be  entered  on  the  public 
and  permanent  records,  such  as  the  right 
to  real  estate,  wills,  divorces,  etc.,  are  re- 
ferred at  once  to  local  courts  of  record,  the 
borough  or  county  courts.  These  are 
called  inferior  courts.  These  courts  also 
deal  with  offenses  of  greater  importance. 

Since  1873  the  superior  courts  include 
the  Supreme  Court.  This  includes  "His 
Majesty  s  High  Court  of  Justice,"  which 
has  such  divisions  as  the  Chancery  division 
(dealing  chiefly  with  cases  of  equity},  the 
Kings  Bench  (or  common  law  division),  the 
probate  (wills)  and  the  admiralty  (naviga- 
tion) divisions.  All  these  courts  have 
original  jurisdiction.  The  Court  of  Ap- 
peals includes  several  divisional  courts, 
and  also  a  final  Court  of  Appeals,  the  highest 
regular  court  in  the  Kingdom.  But  in 
some  cases  the  matter  may  be  appealed  to 
the  House  of  Lords,  and  in  cases  affecting 
India,  the  colonies  and  foreign  countries 
the  Privy  Council  is  the  final  court. 

In  England  all  judges  are  appointed, 
and  appointed  for  life.  The  English  be- 
lieve with  some  reason  that  they  have 
thereby  secured  a  more  honest  and  a  more 
able  administration  of  justice. 

The  United  States  courts  either  are  Fed- 
eral or  state  courts.  In  state  courts,  ex- 
cept that  the  judges  or  justices  are  elected 
by  the  people,  in  most  cases  for  a  term  of 
years,  the  lower  courts  are  very  like  those 
of  England,  both  in  name  and  in  powers. 
In  some  states,  the  county-judges  receive 
such  names  as  judge  of  quarter-sessions. 
But  the  essential  point  is  that  he  is  a  judge 
of  record  and  that  he  tries  more  important 
cases  but  not,  as  a  rule,  the  most  important 
cases. 

In  some  states  these  county-courts  have, 
besides  the  above  powers,  those  of  a  circuit 
or  superior  court.  Commonly,  however, 
the  superior  or  circuit-courts  are  distinct. 
They  are  elected  by  a  larger  division  of 
the  state,  containing  several  counties, 
and  for  longer  terms.  They  have  original 
iurisdiction  in  the  most  important  cases, 
there  is  finally  a  system  of  courts  of  appeal, 
including  two  or  more  divisional  courts, 
and  then  a  final  court  of  impeachment 
for  the  trial  of  judges  and  of  the  executive. 
The  distinction  between  courts  of  law  and 
courts  of  equity  is  preserved  only  in  a  few 
states.  Most  states  have  a  special  county- 
judge  for  dealing  with  the  property  of  per- 
sons deceased.  His  court  has  various 
names,  as  surrogate's,  prerogative  or  or- 
phan's court.  In  general,  the  higher  judges 
are  elected  or  appointed  for  longer  terms. 
In  many  states  they  hold  office  for  life 


and  during  good  behavior.  In  a  few  cases 
they  are  elected,  not  by  the  people,  but  by 
the  legislature.  In  a  few  others  the  gov- 
ernor appoints  them. 

Federal  courts  include  the  senate  as  a 
court  of  impeachment  (see  CONGRESS),  the 
Supreme  Court,  the  Court  of  Claims,  Com- 
merce -  Court  and  District  -  Courts.  The 
Supreme  Court  consists  of  nine  judges,  the 
Chief- Justice  and  eight  associates;  but  the 
number  may  be  increased  at  the  will  of 
Congress;  which  also  may,  on  the  death 
or  retirement  of  a  justice,  refuse  to  provide 
for  a  successor.  The  justices  are  nominated 
by  the  president  and  confirmed  by  the 
senate.  They  are  appointed  for  life,  but 
may  be  removed  by  impeachment.  All 
federal  judges  are  thus  appointed.  The 
supreme  court  was  established  by  the 
constitution,  and  cannot  be  abolished  by 
Congress;  but  the  circuit  and  district-courts 
as  well  as  the  court  of  claims  may  be 
so  abolished.  The  supreme  court  sits  at 
Washington  from  October,  to  July  each 
year.  There  are  nine  circuit-courts,  to 
each  of  which  a  supreme-court  justice  is 
assigned.  There  are  25  circuit-judges  (1903). 
Each  circuit  has  two  kinds  of  courts :  (i) 
a  court  of  orginal  jurisdiction,  which  may 
consist  of  the  supreme-court  justice  of  the 
circuit,  or  a  circuit-judge,  or  a  district- 
judge  of  the  circuit  or  any  two  of  them; 
(2)  a  circuit-court  of  appeals,  to  which 
cases  from  the  first  class  or  from  district- 
courts  may  be  appealed.  This  consists 
of  three  judges  of  the  circuit,  but  must  not 
include  the  judge  who  tried  the  case. 
There  are  69  district-courts,  with  a  judge, 
clerk,  marshal  and  attorney.  Appeals  may 
be  made  from  the  district-court  to  the 
circuit-court  of  appeal;  and  in  important 
cases  from  that  court  to  the  supreme  court. 
The  court  of  claims  deals  with  claims  of 
private  persons  against  the  Federal  gov- 
ernment; appeals  from  its  decisions  are 
direct  to  the  supreme  court.  The  courts 
in  the  territories  and  in  the  District 
of  Columbia  are  established  by  Congress, 
but  are  not  Federal  courts.  The  judges 
serve  for  four  years;  whereas  all  Federal 
judges  are  appointed  for  life.  The  Federal 
courts  may  only  try  cases  which  are  directly 
removed  by  the  constitution  from  the  de- 
cision of  the  state-courts.  Wherever  a 
state-court  faces  the  question  of  whether 
a  Federal  treaty  or  statute  or  act  of  au- 
thority is  valid  or  applicacable  to  a  case  in 
dispute,  and  decides  that  it  is  not  valid 
or  is  not  applicable,  then  the  person  who 
claims  that  it  is,  has  the  right  of  appeal 
to  the  Federal  court,  as  a  state  is  not  com- 
petent to  decide  on  such  a  matter.  How- 
ever, no  person  has  the  right  to  force  a 
state  into  the  courts  (Eleventh  Amend- 
ment). In  all  criminal  cases  and  suits  at 
common  law  before  a  Federal  court,  a 
Federal  jury  must  be  summoned  to  try  the 


COURTS-MARTIAL 


468 


COVENANTERS 


case.  The  supreme  court  tries  all  cases 
concerning  ambassadors  and  other  ministers 
from  foreign  countries  and  all  cases  where 
a  state  brings  action  against  another  state 
or  the  citizens  of  another  state  or  a  foreign 
country.  In  these  cases  the  suit  is  at  once 
brought  before  the  supreme  court;  but  in 
other  cases — which  include,  besides  those 
mentioned  already,  cases  that  involve 
laws  of  navigation  and  controversies  wherein 
the  United  States  is  a  party — in  all  such 
cases  the  state-courts  or  lower  Federal  courts 
must  try  the  matter  first,  and  appeal  may 
then  be  made  according  to  the  principles 
already  mentioned. 

The  Federal  courts  do  not  create  laws, 
and  are  bound  even  more  strictly  than 
state-courts  to  interpreting  the  law,  viz., 
the  constitution  and  the  enactments  of 
Congress,  always  preserving  the  sovereignty 
of  the  constitution.  It  is  wrong  to  speak 
of  the  supreme  court  as  superior  to  Con- 
gress, in  contrast  with  the  British  courts, 
which  are  subordinate  to  Parliament. 
The  difference  is  that  in  England  the  Par- 
liament is  superior  to  all  authority  what- 
soever, there  being  no  constitution  to  over- 
rule it,  while  in  America,  Congress  and  the 
supreme  court  alike  are  subject  to  the  con- 
stitution. Of  course  the  will  of  the  peo- 
ple is  the  final  judge  in  both  countries. 
At  the  same  time,  because  the  supreme 
court  has  the  duty  of  interpreting  the  con- 
stitution, which  needs  a  great  deal  of  in- 
terpreting to  apply  it  to  all  the  changes 
of  modern  life,  it  has  in  fact  a  great  deal 
to  say  as  to  what  regulations  shall  govern 
us.  For  example,  the  constitution  does 
not  forbid,  explicitly,  a  graduated  income- 
tax;  but  the  supreme  court  forbids  it  by 
its  interpretation  of  the  constitution.  The 
constitution  being  difficult  to  amend,  that 
interpretation,  and  nothing  else,  prevented 
at  one  time  the  collecting  of  such  a  tax. 

In  like  manner  the  state-courts  of  every 
state  have  the  power  of  interpreting  the 
constitution  of  the  state  and  of  deciding 
whether  the  acts  of  the  legislature  and  ex- 
ecutive are  in  accordance  with  it.  When- 
ever Federal  or  state-courts  decide  against 
the  constitutionality  of  an  act,  it  is  void, 
as  if  it  had  never  been  passed  or  done. 
But  it  is  the  rule  that  where  there  is  doubt 
in  the  matter,  the  benefit  of  the  doubt  is  to 
be  given  to  the  act  or  statute. 

PERCY  HUGHES. 

Courts-Martial,  in  their  modern  form, 
as  regular  tribunals  set  up  by  Congress  or 
in  minor  cases  by  a  military  or  naval  com- 
mander, for  the  trial  of  offences  against 
martial  law  or  discipline  in  the  army,  navy 
or  marines,  date  from  an  ordinance  of 
Charles  I,  and  are  referred  to  in  the  first 
mutiny-act  of  William  and  Mary.  Both 
in  America  and  England  there  are  several 
grades  of  courts-martial.  In  the  highest 
or  general  courts,  ih»  more  serious  offences 


and  also  all  charges  against  commissione-A 
officers  are  tried.  Often,  when  evidence 
is  to  be  gathered,  courts  of  inquiry  are 
set  up  for  this  purpose.  These  courts  in 
America  may  summon  witnesses  upon 
oath;  but  in  England  they  have  no  such 
legal  powers.  When  sentence  of  death 
is  decreed,  it  is  usually  by  shooting.  The 
old-fashioned  drumhead  courts-martial,  held 
upon  the  field  before  passion  had  time  to 
cool  and  before  full  evidence  could  be 
gathered,  are  no  longer  held.  Summary 
courts  may,  however,  be  held,  in  America 
in  the  place  of  regimental  and  garrison 
courts,  and  in  the  British  army  chiefly 
to  try  offences  committed  upon  active 
service  abroad,  when  it  is  difficult  to  have 
the  offenders  tried  in  the  ordinary  courts. 
The  more  serious  offences  are  never  tried 
by  such  courts,  which  in  the  United  States 
consist  of  but  a  single  officer.  Courts- 
martial  have  the  defect  that  their  members 
belong  to  one  and  the  same  class,  and 
may  have  a  special  army  or  navy  senti- 
ment. In  1757  Admiral  Byng  was  sac- 
rificed by  an  English  court-martial  to 
popular  clamor,  and  shot,  having  perhaps 
made  an  error  of  judgment  in  avoiding 
battle  with  a  vastly  superior  fleet.  Great 
public  interest  has  recently  been  shown 
(1907)  in  the  sentence  of  a  company  of 
negro  troops  to  disbandment  under  martial 
law  by  President  Roosevelt.  In  a  court- 
martial  the  prisoner  at  present  has  much 
the  same  privileges  of  having  an  advocate, 
a  right  to  reply,  etc.  as  in  the  ordinary 
criminal  courts.  The  judges  are  of  equal 
or  superior  rank  to  the  prisoner. 

Cousin  (koo'zan'),  Victor,  founder  of  a 
school  of  philosophy,  was  born  at  Paris, 
Nov.  28,  1792.  After  finishing  his  studies 
he  was  appointed  professor  at  the  Sor- 
bonne.  He  early  began  to  write,  and  one 
of  his  first  books,  his  translation  of  Plato, 
met  with  immediate  success.  His  lectures 
drew  crowds;  his  ideas,  for  the  most  part, 
were  new  to  his  hearers,  bold,  clear  and 
beautiful  in  style;  he  also  had  a  wonderful 
power  in  bringing  together  facts  of  history 
and  philosophy  so  as  to  throw  light  on  each 
other.  He  also  took  part  in  politics,  and 
was  one  of  the  leaders  of  thought  in  Paris. 
So  when  his  friend  Guizot,  in  1830,  became 
prime  minister,  Cousin  was  made  a  member 
of  the  council  of  public  instruction  and 
also  a  peer  of  France.  He  also  held  other 
offices,  and  was  a  public  man  until  1849. 
His  teachings  have  had  great  influence  in 
Germany,  England  and  America  as  well 
as  in  France.  Among  the  best-known  of 
his  books  are  The  True,  the  Beautiful  and 
the  Good  and  The  History  of  Philosophy. 
He  died  at  Cannes,  France,  Jan.  13,  1867. 

Covenanters,  a  body  of  the  Scottish 
people,  including  the  greater  part  of  the 
nation,  who  during  the  i6th  and  the  i7th 
centuries  bound  themselves  by  Covenants 


COVENTRY 


469 


COWLET 


«o  make  and  keep  the  Presbyterian  church 
as  the  only  religion  of  Scotland.  The 
first  was  drawn  up  by  John  Craig  in  1581 
and  signed  by  James  I.  Others  like  it 
followed,  and  in  1638  was  drawn  up  the 
Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  a  bond  be- 
tween those  opposed  to  the  Catholic  and 
Episcopal  churches  in  Scotland,  England 
and  Ireland.  It  was  adopted  by  the  Eng- 
lish Parliament.  But  in  Charles  II's  reign, 
the  covenant-oaths  were  declared  unlaw- 
ful and,  later,  treasonable;  yet  many  of 
the  Covenanters  kept  on  taking  these  oaths 
until  the  Revolution  of  1688  made  it  no 
longer  necessary  for  the  Scots  to  band  to- 
gether for  the  liberty  of  their  church. 

Cov'entry  ( kui/en-trt ) ,  a  city  of  War- 
wickshire, England,  about  the  middle  of 
the  kingdom,  between  the  four  English 

Forts,  London,  Bristol,  Liverpool  and  Hull, 
ts  chief  manufactures  are  ribbons,  watches, 
bicycles  and  cloth.  St.  Michael's  Church, 
built  between  the  years  1230  and  1395,  is 
the  largest  parish-church  in  England,  its 
spire  200  feet  in  height.  St.  Mary's  Hall, 
built  in  the  i4th  century,  with  its  carved- 
oak  roof  and  large  painted  window,  is  a  fine 
example  of  ornamental  work.  In  1043 
Earl  Leofric  and  his  wife.  Lady  Godiva, 
founded  here  a  monastery.  In  Tenny- 
son's Godiva  is  told  the  story  of  this  lady's 
famous  ride,  clothed  only  by  her  long  hair, 
through  the  streets  of  Coventry,  while  the 
people  reverently  kept  within  their  houses 
behind  closed  blinds.  This  was  the  barbarous 
condition  made  by  her  husband,  the  lord 
of  the  town,  when  she  pleaded  that  the 
citizens  might  be  treed  from  harsh  taxes. 
In  memory  of  her  there  used  to  be  splendid 
processions  in  Coventry.  Here  also  Rich- 
ard II  stopped  the  trial  by  battle  between 
the  Dukes  of  Norfolk  and  Hereford,  of 
which  Shakespeare  has  so  well  told  us  in 
his  Richard  II.  Here  for  a  time  Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots  was  imprisoned,  and  near 
the  town  was  one  of  George  Eliot's  homes. 
Population  69,978. 

Cov'erdale,  Miles,  editor  of  English 
versions  of  the  Bible,  was  born  in  York- 
shire, England,  in  1488.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge,  became  a  priest,  and  soon  left 
the  country.  His  edition  of  Tindale's  and 
other  men's  translations  of  the  Bible  came 
out  in  1535.  The  Psalms  of  this  transla- 
tion are  still  used  in  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  and  many  of  the  most  beautiful 
phrases  in  the  famous  King  James'  version 
are  due  to  Coverdale.  It  was  printed  in 
German  black-letter,  in  double  columns, 
with  wood-cuts.  In  1538  Cromwell  sent 
him  to  Paris  to  take  charge  of  another 
translation,  but  the  work  was  stopped  and 
many  of  the  sheets  burned.  However, 
the  presses  and  type  were  smuggled  into 
England,  and  the  translation  was  brought 
out;  it  is  known  as  the  Great  Bible.  Coyer- 
dale  was  also  editor  of  Cranmer's  Bible. 


He  was  made  bishop  of  Exeter,  but  was 
forced  to  leave  England  when  Mary  I  came 
to  the  throne.  He  died  in  1568. 

Coverty,  Sir  Roger  de,  a  fictitious 
character  in  Addison's  paper,  The  Spectator, 
who  has  charmed  lovers  of  literature  for 
two  centuries. 

Covington  (kutf ing-tun),  the  capital  of 
Kenton  County,  northern  Kentucky,  on 
the  Ohio  River,  opposite  Cincinnati,  to 
which  it  is  joined  by  two  fine  suspension- 
bridges.  Many  of  its  people  are  Cincinnati 
business  men;  but  it  is  more  than  a  mere 
suburb  of  that  city,  having  large  distilleries 
and  manufactures  of  glassware,  nails  and 
tobacco.  It  also  has  large  industries  in 
rolling-mills  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
stoves,  etc.  The  Licking  River  separates 
it  from  Newport,  Ky.  Covington  is  the 
seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishopric,  and 
possesses  good  schools,  churches,  a  hos- 
pital, orphan- asylum  and  public  library. 
Population  53  270. 

Cowbird,  a  bird  found  in  fields  feeding 
near  cattle,  picking  up  the  insects  the  ani- 
mals disturb  in  their 
grazing.  It  some- 
times rides  on  the 
back  of  a  cow,  and 
often  may  be  seen 

1'ust  in  front  of  one. 
t  makes  no  nest, 
but,  like  the  Euro- 
pean cuckoos,  lays 
its  eggs  in  the  nests 
of  other  birds — usu- 
ally in  the  nest  of  a 
smaller  bird.  The 
young  cowbird  is 
larger  than  the  other 
nestlings,  but  the  deception  does  not  seem 
to  be  noticed  by  the  foster-mother.  The 
male  cowbird  is  glossy,  greenish-black,  with 
head  and  neck  dark  coffee-brown.  The 
female  is  dirty  brownish-gray,  with  whitish 
throat.  They  live  in  small  flocks. 
Cowboy.  See  RANCHING. 
Cow'Iey,  Abraham,  an  English  poet, 
was  born  at  London  in  1618.  His  father 
died  before  his  birth,  and  it  was  through  his 
mother's  struggles  that  he  got  a  university 
education.  It  was  by  reading  a  copy  of 
Spenser's  Faerie  Queene,  when  hardly  more 
than  a  child,  that  he  came  to  write  poetry. 
When  ten  years  old,  he  wrote  good  verses, 
and  brought  out  a  book  of  poems  when 
15.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War, 
he  followed  the  queen  in  her  flight  to  Paris, 
and  wrote  letters  in  cipher  for  her  to  King 
Charles.  Cowley's  best  known  works  are 
Pindarique  Odes  and  The  Mistress.  Dur- 
ing his  lifetime  he  was  held  to  be  the  great- 
est of  English  poets,  but  now  he  is  little 
read.  This  is  probably  because  he  wrote 
for  the  court  and  for  the  taste  of  the  peo- 
ple of  his  own  time.  Nevertheless,  some  few 
passages  of  his  are  powerful.  He  also 


COWBIRD 


COW-PEAS 


470 


COWSLIP 


wrote  essays,  which  are  much  better  known 
than  his  poetry  and  rank  with  those  of 
Goldsmith  and  Addison.  He  died  on  July 
28,  1667. 

Cow-=Peas,  a  very  important  leguminous 
crop  for  forage  and  for  adding  fertility  to 
the  soil.  They  can  be  grown  on  soil  too 
poor  to  support  clover.  (See  NITROGEN- 
GATHERING  CROPS).  Its  hay  yields  more 
dry  matter  and  digestible  protein  than 
clover.  (See  BALANCED  RATION.)  Being 
susceptible  to  frost,  the  cultivation  of  most 
varieties  is  confined  to  the  southern  states. 
The  soy-bean  is  another  leguminous  plant 
much  grown  for  similar  purposes.  The 
seeds  of  both  form  a  valuable  concentrated 
food. 

Cow'pens,  a  village  of  South  Carolina, 
near  which  the  British  under  Colonel  Tar- 
leton  were  defeated  by  the  Americans  under 
General  Morgan,  Jan.  17,  1781.  Corn- 
wallis  dispatched  Tarleton  with  1,100  choice 
troops  to  drive  Morgan  into  North  Carolina. 
The  forces  met  in  an  open  wood  known  as 
Hannah's  Cowpens.  The  Americans,  who 
numbered  about  1,000,  were  drawn  up  in 
two  lines,  with  an  advance  corps  of  rifle- 
men and  a  small  cavalry  reserve.  The 
British  charged,  driving  the  riflemen  back 
to  the  first  line;  when  within  bayonet  thrust, 
the  first  line  fell  back  on  the  second.  A 
misunderstood  order  threw  the  Americans 
into  confusion,  and  Morgan  ordered  a  re- 
treat to  a  slight  rise  where  the  cavalry  were 
posted.  On  came  the  British,  but  just 
then  the  dragoons  charged,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  rear  line  faced  about,  poured  in 
a  volley  at  close  range,  and  charged  bayo- 
nets. The  British  line  was  broken  and  put 
to  flight.  The  British  loss  was  800  or  900; 
the  Americans  lost  72. 

Cowper  (kffo'per  or  kou'per),  William, 
a  celebrated  English  poet,  was  born  in 
1731  in  Hertfordshire,  England.  When 
very  young  he  was  sent  to  Westminster 
School,  where,  he  complains  afterward, 
"  he  learned  the  infernal  art  of  lying." 
One  of  his  school-fellows  was  Thurlow, 
who  jokingly  promised  him  an  appoint- 
ment when  he  should  be  lord-chancellor, 
but  failed  to  keep  the  promise.  Cowper 
studied  law  and  was  offered  by  a  cousin 
a  clerkship  in  the  house  of  lords.  But  the 
candidate  would  have  to  appear  before  the 
bar  of  the  house,  and  this  thought  unmanned 
the  poet.  A  fixed  idea  that  every  one  was 
his  enemy,  the  forerunner  of  madness,  took 
possession  of  him.  He  tried  to  kill  himself 
on  several  occasions,  and  for  a  time  was 
confined  in  an  asylum.  After  recovering 
his  health,  he  met  his  good  angel,  Mrs. 
Unwin,  in  whose  family,  at  Olney,  he  lived 
for  some  time;  but  his  madness  burst  out 
again  suddenly  while  he  was  making  a 
call  at  the  house  of  his  friend,  John  New- 
ton. He  stayed  there  a  year,  refusing  to 
j?o  back  to  his  own  house,  though  it  was  but 


next  door.  In  1779,  though  he  never  fully 
recovered,  began  the  brightest  period  of 
his  life.  As  yet  he  had  not  written  a  line, 
but  he  followed  Mrs.  Unwin's  counsels  like 
a  child,  and  when,  to  occupy  his  mind,  she 
asked  him  to  write  poetry,  poetry  he  wrote. 
He  had  also  made  the  acquaintance  of  Lady 
Austen,  another  angel  whose  smiles  put  life 
into  his  brain,  and  her  playful  request  that 
he  write  her  a  poem  on  something  or  other, 
"this  sofa,  for  instance,"  resulted  in  The 
Task,  Cowper's  greatest  work.  One  morn- 
ing he  also  read  her  the  famous  ballad 
John  Gilpin,  the  story  of  which  she  had 
told  him  the  night  before.  In  1787  came 
on  another  attack  of  his  old  trouble,  and 
again  he  made  an  attempt  upon  his  life. 
Yet  in  these  last  gloomy  years  he  wrote 
two  of  his  most  beautiful  poems,  one  Ad- 
dressed to  My  Mother's  Picture  and  another 
to  My  Mary.  See  his  biography,  by  Prof. 
.Goldwin  Smith,  in  the  English  Men  of  Let- 
ters Series.  He  died  on  April  25, 1800.  Mrs. 
Browning  was  inspired  by  the  pathos  of 
his  life  to  write  one  of  her  most  poignant 
and  appealing  poems. 

Cow'slip,  a  common  native  flower  of 
English  pastures,  to  be  met  with  also  in 
many  other  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  a  deli- 


COWSLIP 

cate,  modest  little  flower,  a  great  favorite 
both  for  its  beauty  and  fragrance.  It  differs 
from  the  common  primrose,  in  having 
umbels  or  spreading  flower-clusters.  These 
clusters  or  bells  were  long  thought  to  be 
the  haunts  of  fairies,  and  are  still  sometimes 
called  fairy-cups.  The  flower  commonly 
called  Cowslip  in  America  is  a  quite  diff- 
erent blossom,  a  member  of  the  Crowfoot 
family.  It  also  is  known  as  the  Marsh 
Marigold,  but  is  neither  true  Marigold  nor 
true  Cowslip.  In  appearance  it  closely 


cox 


471 


CRAB 


resembles  the  buttercup.  By  whatever 
name  called,  the  yellow  of  the  blossom 
is  purest  gold,  the  glossy  leaves  are  of 
richest  green,  the  familiar  cowslip  a  glad- 
some blossom  of  the  spring.  It  grows  in 
marshes,  often  quite  deep  in  water,  and  is 
found  north  of  Carolina  and  west  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  Its  stem  is  hollow,  its 
branches  bearing  both  leaves  and  flowers. 
The  upper  leaves  grow  on  very  short  stems, 
thereby  not  shading  the  lower  leaves,  all 
spreading  out  broadly  to  the  light.  The 
young  plants  are  sometimes  used  for 
"greens.  The  season  of  flowering  is  quite 
long,  from  April  to  June. 

Cox,  Sir  George  William,  an  English 
cleric  and  historian,  was  born  in  1827,  and 
educated  at  Rugby  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Oxford.  He  held  several  curacies,  and 
became  rector  of  Scrayingham  in  York- 
shire. He  wrote  largely  on  Grecian  his- 
tory and  mythology.  His  chief  works 
are  A  Manual  of  Mythology;  Mythology  of 
the  Aryan  Nations;  a  History  of  Greece; 
Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Comparative 
Mythology  and  Folk-Lore;  and  a  Life  of 
Bishop  Colenso.  With  Dr.  Brande  he 
edited  a  Dictionary  of  Science  and  Litera- 
ture. His  death  occurred  in  1902. 

Cox,  Jacob  Dolson,  an  American  sol- 
dier and  statesman,  was  born  at  Montreal, 
Oct.  27,  1828.  He  studied  law  and  began 
practice  in  Warren,  O.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  state  senate  when  the  Civil  War 
began  in  1861,  and  also  was  a  brigadier- 
general  of  militia.  He  at  once  entered  the 
Federal  army  and  rendered  conspicuous 
service  throughout  the  war,  taking  part  in 
many  of  the  important  battles  and  ad- 
vancing to  the  rank  of  major-general. 
He  was  elected  governor  of  Ohio,  in  1866; 
was  secretary  of  the  interior  in  President 
Grant's  cabinet  in  1869;  member  of  Con- 
gress from  1877  to  1879;  and  in  1885  be- 
came president  of  Cincinnati  University. 
General  Cox's  qualities  as  a  student  and 
scholar,  as  well  as  a  brave  and  capable 
general,  gave  value  to  his  contributions 
to  history  of  the  great  struggle,  which  in- 
clude Atlanta  (1882);  The  March  to  the  Sea 
(1882);  and  Military  Reminiscences,  the 
latter  being  published  after  his  death 
(Aug.  4,  1900). 

Cox,  Kenyon,  American  painter,  was 
born  at  Warren,  O.,  Oct.  27,  1856,  and 
studied  art  in  Cincinnati,  Philadelphia 
and  Paris.  In  the  latter  city  he  was  a 
pupil  of  GeYome.  In  1882  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  American  Artists, 
and  settled  in  New  York  to  pursue  his 
profession.  His  pictures  are  chiefly  por- 
traits and  figure-pieces,  together  with 
designs  for  book-illustration.  Among  the 
latter  is  his  work  done  on  Rossetti's  The 
Blessed  Damozel;  he  has  also  painted  decora- 
tions in  the  Library  of  Congress  and  in  the 
Walker  Art-Gallery  of  Bowdoin  College, 


Cox,  Palmer,  American  artist  and  author, 
was  born  at  Granby,  Quebec,  April  28,  1840, 
and  was  educated  at  the  academy  of  hi* 
native  town.  In  early  manhood  he  drifted 
to  California,  where  he  developed  his  native 
taste  for  drawing  and  sketching,  while  at 
the  same  time  contributing  to  periodicals. 
He  afterward  returned  east  and  settled  in 
New  York,  where  he  contributed  and  illus- 
trated a  series  of  popular  papers  for  the 
young,  later  published  as  The  Brownie 
Stories,  The  Brownies  at  Home,  The  Brownies 
thrmigh  the  Union,  The  Brownies  in  Fairy- 
land, etc.  He  also  issued  Queer  People  with 
Claws  and  Paws;  How  Columbus  Found 
America,  etc. 

Cox,  Samuel  Sullivan,  American  poli- 
tician and  diplomat,  was  born  at  Zanes- 
ville,  O.,  in  1824,  and  died  at  New  York  on 
Sept.  10,  1889.  After  graduating  at  Brown 
University  he  became  editor  of  The  States- 
man, a  Columbus,  Ohio,  journal,  in  which 
appeared  a  flowery  description  of  a  sunset, 
which  earned  him  the  sobriquet  of  Sunset 
Cox.  For  over  30  years  he  was  a  member 
of  Congress,  where  his  humor  and  debating 
power  earned  him  influence.  In  1885-86 
he  was  United  States  minister  to  Turkey. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  works,  among 
which  are  A  Buckeye  Abroad;  Eight  Years 
in  Congress;  Why  We  Laugh;  and  Three 
Decades  of  Federal  Legislation. 

Coyote  (ki-ot?  orkl-o'te).  See  WOLF. 

Crab,  a  short-tailed  relative  of  the  lob- 
ster and  fresh-water  crayfish.  The  lob- 
ster and  crayfish  each  have  a  long  tail,  and 
so  has  the  crab  during  its  early  life;  the 
reduction  of  the  tail  is  a  case  of  modifica- 
tion. The  crab  is  the  highest  member  of 
the  class  of  animals  (Crustacea)  which  con- 
tains the  shrimps,  prawns,  lobsters  and 
crayfish.  It  has  five  pairs  of  legs  and  on 
this  account  is  often  called  a  Decapod  or 
ten-footed  animal.  The  first  pair  of  legs 
ends  in  large  claws,  somewhat  like  those 
of  the  lobster,  but  smaller;  the  other  four 
pairs  are  walking  legs.  The  head-end  is 
covered  oy  a  broadly  expanded  buckler  or 


CRAB 


shield.     (See   illustration.)     This   is   an   out- 
growth of  the  horney  covering  of  the  body, 


CRABBE 


47* 


CRAIK 


and  it  covers  the  segments  or  rings  of  the 
body  that  are  closely  crowded  under  it, 
and  serves  to  conceal  the  fact  that  the  en- 
tire body  of  the  crab  is  really  composed 
of  a  number  of  segments.  Those  in  the 
tail,  or  abdomen,  are  clearly  separate 
joints,  but  those  in  front  are  much  modified, 
crowded  together,  and  covered  by  the  be- 
fore-mentioned buckler.  This  is  technically 
named  the  carapace.  It  serves  also  to 
cover  two  gill-chambers  on  each  side  of 
the  body.  The  gills  are  feather-like  ex- 
pansions of  a  membrane  that  is  richly  pro- 
vided with  blood-vessels.  Within  each  gill- 
chamber  is  a  water-scoop,  the  movement 
of  which  throws  the  water  out  in  front 
and  keeps  a  current  of  water  running  over 
the  gills.  On  the  head  are  short  antennae 
and  eyes  on  stalks;  the  stalks  are  short 
in  the  common  crab,  but  in  some  of  its 
relatives  are  of  considerable  length.  The 
horny  outer  covering  is  the  same  kind 
of  substance  (chitin)  that  forms  the  wing- 
covers  and  hard  parts  of  insects,  but  in 
the  case  of  the  crabs  it  also  contains 
a  limy  or  earthy  substance.  As  the  ani- 
mals grow,  the  outer  covering  becomes 
too  small,  and  moulting  is  necessary.  The 
hard  shell  is  cracked  and  thrown  off,  through 
great  exertions  on  the  part  of  the  animal. 
The  moulting  process  takes  away,  also, 
the  lining  of  the  mouth  and  stomach  and 
the  outer  covering  of  the  eyes.  The  de- 
serted shells  are  often  to  be  picked  up. 
The  new  shell  is  at  first  thin  and  flexible; 
it  begins  to  form  under  the  old  one  before 
the  latter  is  cast  off.  Directly  after  moult- 
ing, while  the  shell  is  still  soft,  the  animals 
are  shy  and  conceal  themselves.  The  eggs 
of  the  common  sea-crabs  are  attached,  un- 
derneath the  tail,  to  the  swimming  ap- 
pendages, and  the  young  hatch  there. 
The  young  of  the  crabs  pass  through  several 
stages  after  hatching,  before  they  come 
to  look  like  their  parents.  In  all  of  these 
early  stages  they  have  long  tails,  and,  in 
one  of  them,  they  resemble  the  lobster. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  crabs:  The 
fiddler-crab  has  one  large  claw  and  one 
small  one;  the  large  claw  is  held  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  suggest  a  violin,  and  the 
small  one  in  such  a  position  as  to  represent 


FIDDLER-CRAB 


the  bow.  The  spider-crab  resembles  in  a 
general  way  a  large  spider.  Some  are 
good  swimmers  and  others  live  upon  the 


land-  Some  kinds  are  eaten.  The  largest 
known  crab  is  a  marine  form  of  Japan, 
which  is  22  inches  between  the  biting  claws. 
Some  of  the  land-crabs  are  swift  runners 
and  live  in  holes.  In  the  island  of  Ceylon 
one  of  the  latter  catches  young  birds,  and 
even  young  rabbits  are  drawn  by  them 
from  their  holes  and  eaten. 

Crabbe  (krab),  George,  an  English  poet, 
was  born  on  Christmas  Eve,  1754,  at  Aide- 
burgh,  England.  He  served  as  a  sur- 
geon's apprentice,  where  he  had  to  help 
the  plowboy,  and  also  picked  up  a  little 
surgery  at  odd  hours  while  working  in  his 
uncle's  warehouse  in  London.  But  after 
a  three  years'  struggling  practice  at  home, 
he  went  to  London  with  $15  in  his  pocket 
to  try  his  fortune  as  a  writer.  He  fought 
poverty  bravely,  having  at  times  of  stress 
to  pawn  his  clothes  and  surgical  instruments. 
At  last,  threatened  with  arrest  for  debt, 
he  timidly  left  a  letter  at  Burke's  door  and 
paced  Westminster  bridge  all  night  till 
daybreak.  But  the  great  Burke  was  gen- 
erous, and  from  that  hour  Crabbe  was  a 
made  man.  He  became  a  clergyman  and 
a  busy  writer.  The  Village,  The  Parish 
Register  and  Tales  of  the  Hall  are  some 
of  his  poems.  Many  he  never  published, 
but  burned  yearly  in  a  grand  bonfire. 
Jane  Austen  is  stated  to  have  said  that  the 
poet  was  the  only  man  she  would  care  to 
marry.  Byron,  Wordsworth,  Scott,  Jeff- 
rey, Cardinal  Newman  and  other  writers 
have  praised  his  life-like  painting  of  the 
scenery,  fisherfolk  and  peasantry  of  his 
neighborhood.  He  died  on  Feb.  3,  1832. 

Craigie,  Mrs.  Pearl  Mary  ("John 
Oliver  Hobbes"),  Anglo-American  novelist, 
was  born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  3,  1867, 
and  was  the  daughter  of  J.  Morgan  Richards. 
She  was  privately  educated,  and  studied 
music  in  Paris  and  the  classics  at  Univer- 
sity College,  London.  In  1887  she  married 
Reginald  Walpole  Craigie,  and  after  a  sepa- 
ration obtained  a  divorce  in  1895  and  the 
custody  of  her  child.  Meanwhile  she  had 
been  received  into  the  Roman  communion. 
Her  literary  career  began  in  1891  with  the 
publication  of  Some  Emotions  and  a  Moral, 
which  was  followed  by  The  Sinner's  Comedy, 
A  Sttidy  in  Temptations  and  The  Gods, 
Some  Mortals  ana  Lord  Wickenham.  In 
these  clever  stories  she  showed  herself  a 
brilliant  writer  and  a  master  of  epigram. 
Her  later  work,  besides  the  novel,  The 
School  for  Saints,  consisted  chiefly  ofplays,  of 
which  the  most  successful  was  The  Am- 
bassador and  a  drama  entitled  Repentance. 
She  died  on  Aug.  13,  1906. 

Craik  (krdk),  Mrs.  Dinah  Maria  Mu- 
lock,  was  born  at  Stoke-upon-Trent  in 
1826.  When  but  a  girl  she  supported  her 
invalid  mother  and  ten  younger  brothers 
by  writing  stories  for  fashion-magazines.  In 
1849  her  first  novel,  The  Ogilvies,  came  out, 
and  she  afterward  brought  out  some  50 


CRANBERRY 


473 


CRANMER 


works — novels,  poetry  and  essays.  Her 
fame  rests  chiefly  on  John  Halifax,  Gen- 
tleman, published  in  1857,  one  of  the  most 
popular  books  of  the  ceitury,  and  trans- 
lated into  French,  Genr  in,  Italian,  Greek 
and  Russian.  She  died  *n  Kent  in  1887. 

Cran' berry,  the  general  name  of  the 
trailing  species  of  Vaccinunt,  a  genus  be- 
longing to  the  heath  family.  In  North 
America  there  are  two  species  of  true  cran- 
berry, the  small  (V.  o:  ycoccus)  and  the 
large  (V.  macrocarpon) .  They  <*row  in 
swamps,  and  the  red  berries,  ripening  late, 
are  familiar  in  the  markets.  The  large 
cranberry  is  more  extensively  cultivated 
in  the  United  States,  the  three  centers 
of  cultivation  being  Cape  Cod,  New  Jersey 
and  Wisconsin. 

Crane,  a  large,  long-legged  bird  with  long 
neck  and  large  compressed  bill.  It  is  re- 
lated to  the 
rail  and  not- 
far  removed 
from  the 
herons, 
though  it  is 
wrong  to 
call  any  of 
the  herons 
a  crane  as 
is  done  in 
the  case  of 
the  blue 
heron.  The 
cranes  live 
mostly  in 

marshes  and  swamps, 
and  are  mainly  vege- 
table feeders.  They  are 
migratory.  There  are 
about  17  varieties 
known,  two  of  which  be- 
long to  America:  the 
white  whooping  crane 
and  the  brown  sand-bill 
crane.  The  deep  reso- 
nant  sound  made  by 
the  whooping  crane  is  WHOOPING  CRANE 
produced  by  a  coil  of  the  windpipe,  in 
the  breastbone.  The  windpipe  of  this 
species  is  four  or  five  feet  long,  and  28 
inches  of  it  are  coiled  in  the  front  part  of 
the  breastbone. 

Crane,  in  mechanics,  steam-driven  or 
run  by  electricity,  used  for  hoisting  girders, 
large  stones  or  other  heavy  weights,  and 
depositing  such  on  trucks  to  be  moved 
elsewhere.  Traveling  cranes  are  in  use 
also  on  docks  and  wharves,  where  they 
load  and  unload  machinery,  general  cargo 
and  heavy  merchandize  from  ship's  holds, 
and  also  raise  anchors  and  perform  simi- 
lar services.  The  common  type  of  crane 
consists  of  an  upright  post  or  revolving 
shaft,  with  a  projecting  jib  or  arm,  at 
the  upper  end  of  which  is  a  fixed  pulley, 
with  winding  gear,  and  the  windlass  on 


STEPHEN  CRANE 

in     fiction,     besides     his 


which  the  tackling  is  wound.  Cranes  are 
commonly  constructed  of  cast-iron  and 
steel,  and  are  fitted  with  brakes  and  stop- 
ping gear,  like  other  hoisting  machinery. 
Other  varieties  in  6rdinary  use  include 
derrick,  pillar,  bridge,  walking,  traveling 
and  locomotive-cranes  severally  in  use 
for  specific  purposes. 

Crane,  Stephen,  American  author,  jour- 
nalist and  war-correspondent,  was  born  at 
Newark,  N.  J.,  Nov.  i,  1871,  and  died  near 
Baden,  Germany, 
June  5,  1900.  He 
began  newspaper 
work  at  the  age  of 
17,  and  was  a 
correspondent  for 
the  Westminster 
Gazette  and  the  N. 
Y.  Journal  in  the 
Greco-Turkish 
and  the  Spanish- 
American  war. 
He  shortened  his 
life,  however,  by 
overwork,  for  be- 
tween 1892  and 
1900  he  produced 
some  14  works 

labors  as  a  war-correspondent.  His  style 
is  wonderfully  graphic  and  powerful.  His 
best-known  works  are  The  Red  Badge  of 
Courage;  The  Black  Riders  and  The  Eternal 
Patience. 

Crane,  Walter,  English  decorative  artist 
and  painter,  was  born  at  Liverpool,  England, 
Aug.  15,  1845,  studied  under  W.  G.  Linton, 
the  eminent  wood-engraver,  and  was  ap- 
pointed on  the  committee  of  the  general 
exhibition  of  water-color  drawings  in  1879. 
He  was  a  knight-commander  of  the  Order  of 
the  Royal  Crown  of  Italy.  He  also  for  a 
time  was  member  of  the  Institute  of  Painters 
in  water-colors  and  oils,  and  was  first  presi- 
dent of  the  arts  and  crafts  exhibition 
founded  by  him  in  1888.  He  was  perhaps 
most  widely  known  by  his  work  as  a  book- 
illustrator  and  designer  of  children's  picture- 
books.  The  Walter  Crane  toy-books  have 
found  their  way,  it  may  be  said,  round  the 
world.  His  chief  canvases  include  The 
Renaissance  of  Venus  and  The  World's 
Conquerors.  In  1892  he  issued  The  Claims 
of  Decorative  Art;  in  1896  The  Decorative 
Illustration  of  Books;  and  in  1898  The 
Basis  of  Design.  He  died  March  15,  19*5- 

Cran'mer,  Thomas,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, was  born  at  Aslacton,  England, 
July  2,  1489.  As  a  boy  he  could  ride  the 
roughest  horse  in  the  shire,  and  was  a  keen 
hunter.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  gained  a 
fellowship,  and  stayed  26  years.  In  the 
summer  of  1529  he  met  two  officers  of 
Henry  VIII,  and,  the  talk  turning  on  the 
king's  divorce,  Cranmer  said  that  Henry 
could  satisfy  his  conscience  in  that  matter 
by  appealing  to  the  universities  of  Christen- 


CRANSTON 


474 


CRAWFORD 


dom.  This  pleased  Henry  much;  and  the 
king  asked:  "Who  is  this  Dr  Cranmer? 
Marry,  I  trow,  he  has  got  the  right  sow 
by  the  ear."  So  Cranmer  became  royal 
chaplain,  was  sent  6n  embassies  to  Italy 
and  Germany,  and  made  archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  The  king  found  in  Cranmer 
a  pliable  tool;  the  servant  divorced  the 
master  from  Catherine,  Anne  Boleyn  and 
Anne  of  Cleves.  He  pleaded  timidly  in 
behalf  of  Anne  Boleyn  and  on  behalf  also 
of  Henry  VIII's  vicar-general,  Thomas 
Cromwell;  still,  if  Henry  said  they  were 
guilty,  guilty  they  were  in  Cranmer's  eyes. 
Cranmer  was  instrumental  in  having  the 
Bible  translated,  and  drifted  toward  Prot- 
estantism. The  dying  Edward  VI  won 
him  over  to  signing  the  paper  that  was  to 
make  Lady  Jane  Grey  queen  instead  of 
Mary.  Under  Queen  Mary  the  persecut- 
ing statutes  against  heretics  were  revived, 
and  one  of  the  chief  men  of  the  time  to 
suffer  was  Cranmer,  who  was  condemned 
for  treason,  then  retried  as  a  heretic.  From 
Oxford  gaol  he  saw  the  reformers  Latimer 
and  Ridley  die  at  the  stake,  and  panic- 
stricken  wrote  seven  recantations,  the  last 
on  the  morning  of  March  21,  1556.  At 
once  he  was  taken  to  church,  where  he 
listened  to  a  grim  sermon  in  which  he  learned 
that  he  must  burn;  but  when  he  was  to 
read  his  recantation,  he  instead  took  back 
all  he  had  said  "from  fear  of  death." 
He  went  to  the  stake  cheerfully,  and, 
thrusting  his  right  hand  into  the  flame, 
kept  it  there  saying:  "This  hath  offended; 
O  this  unworthy  hand!"  See  Tennyson's 
Queen  Mary  for  an  appreciative  view  of 
Cranmer's  character. 

Cran'ston,  Rhode  Island,  a  town  in 
Providence  County,  made  up  of  several  vil- 
lages, with  many  attractive  residences,  on  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad, 
and  on  the  western  shore  of  Narraganset 
Bay  about  nine  miles  southwest  of  Provi- 
dence. A  state-prison,  insane  asylum,  re- 
form-schools, almshouse  and  workhouse  have 
their  seat  here.  The  town  was  settled  early 
in  the  i7th  century,  and  incorporated  in 
1754.  Besides  its  extensive  cotton  manu- 
factures, it  has  wire-works,  a  large  brewery 
and  considerable  market-gardening.  Popu- 
ation,  25,201. 

Crawfish  or  Crayfish,  a  fresh-water 
animal  like  the  lobster,  but  of  smaller  size. 
The  front  part  of  the  body  is  covered  by  a 
shield-like  expansion  of  the  outer  shell.  This 
takes  in  the  head  and  what  corresponds  to 
the  chest  or  thorax;  it  is  an  expanse  of  the 
horny  covering  of  the  body,  which  is  made 
of  chitin  and  hardened  by  deposits  of  lime 
therein.  The  expansion  covers  two  gill- 
chambers — one  on  each  side.  There  are 
from  1 8  to  20  pairs  of  feather-like  gills, 
which  are  membranous  and  richly  provided 
with  blood-vessels.  A  gill-bailer  lies  in  the 
front  of  each  gill-chamber,  the  movement  of 


which  throws  the  water  out  of  the  chamber 
in  little  jets  and  keeps  a  current  of  water 
flowing  over  the  gills.  The  crayfish  is  com- 
posed of  a  series  of  body-rings,  but  those  in 
front  are  so  crowded  together  and  modified, 
that  it  is  difficult,  at  first,  to  appreciate  this 
fact.  If  the  shield-like  expanse  (carapace) 
is  removed,  the  furrows  separating  the  seg- 
ments can  be  seen.  The  tail  (or  abdomen)  is 
composed  of  six  similar  rings,  and  each  ring 
bears  a  pair  of  appendages — called  in  this 
position  o\vimmerets.  The  fact  that  every 
ring  bears  one  pair  of  appendages  is  the  key 
to  determining  the  number  of  segments  in 
the  entire  body.  If  we  count  the  append- 
ages in  that  region  covered  by  the  carapace, 
we  shall  find,  in  all,  14  pairs,  and,  since 
each  pair  represents  a  ring  or  segment, 
we  know  that  there  are  14  segments 


CRAWFISH 

crowded  together  in  the  front  end  of  the 
body.  The  14  pairs  of  appendages  are  the 
eyes,  the  small  and  the  large  antennae,  the 
jaws,  surrounded  by  five  pairs  of  modified 
mouth-parts;  and,  finally,  the  five  pairs 
of  limbs.  The  first  pair  of,  these  ends  in 
large  claws,  and  the  next  two  pairs  in 
small  claws.  The  crayfishes  live  abundantly 
in  streams,  and  often  make  holes  in  the  bank. 
They  are  omnivorous  eaters,  dead  fish,  wa- 
ter-snails, tadpoles,  frogs,  larvae  of  insects, 
vegetable  matter  in  the  water  and  the  like 
being  all  devoured.  The  eggs  are  attached 
to  the  swimmerets,  and,  for  some  time  after 
hatching,  the  young  cling  by  their  claws  to 
the  swimmerets  of  the  mother.  They  moult 
or  cast  off  the  outer  shell,  including  also  the 
lining  of  the  mouth  and  stomach,  which  is 
horny  in  nature.  The  processes  of  life  in  the 
crayfish  duplicate  those  of  higher  animals, 
and  Huxley  showed  how  a  study  of  the  struc- 
ture, development,  distribution  and  physi- 
ology of  this  one  animal  introduces  us  to 
the  general  facts  of  zoology.  See  Huxley : 
The  Crayfish.  See  CRAB. 

Crawford,  Francis  Marlon,  cosmopoli- 
tan American  novelist  and  son  of  a  sculptor, 
was  born  at  Bagni  di  Lucca,  Italy,  Aug.  2, 
1854,  and  was  educated  partly  in  the  United 
States  and  partly  in  Italy,  and  had  a  pri- 
vate tutor  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge 


CRAWFORD 


475 


CREATION 


England.  He  afterward  prosecuted  his 
studies  at  Karlsruhe  and  at  Heidelberg; 
studied  Sanskrit 
at  Rome;  and  in 
1879  proceeded  to 
India  to  edit  a 
newspaper,  The  In- 
dian Herald,  at 
Allahabad.  From 
1881  to  1883  he 
was  in  America, 
'  but  after  that  time 
for  the  most  part 
resided  at  Sorren- 
to in  Italy.  He 
published  more 

P.  MARION  CRAWFORD       fr^  j£f     Tsaa^g  fa 

1882  to  The  White  Sister,  1909.  His  fertility  as 
an  author  was  no  less  extraordinary  than  was 
the  wonderful  variety  and  rich  interest  of  his 
romances.  He  was  one  of  the  most  cultured 
of  modern  writers  of  fiction,  and  his  novels, 
though  rarely  realistic  and  hardly  ever  de- 
pendent upon  dialect,  invariably  interest  and 
instruct.  The  following  are  others  of  his 
novels:  Saracinesca;  Marzio's  Crucifix;  Sant' 
Jlario;  Don  Orsino;  Casa  Braccio;  Zoroaster; 
A  Rose  of  Yesterday;  Corleone;  and  Ave  Roma 
Immortalis.  He  died  April  9,  1909. 

Crawford,  Thomas,  an  American  sculp- 
tor, was  born  at  New  York  in  1814.  In  1834 
he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  worked  under  the 
guidance  of  Thorwaldsen,  the  great  sculptor. 
His  finest  works  are  the  Washington  Monu- 
ttient  at  Richmond  and  the  bronze  statue  of 
Liberty  on  the  dome  of  the  Capitol  at  Wash- 
ington. He  died  at  London  on  Oct.  1 6, 1857. 

Crawfordsville,  Ind.,  a  city,  the  coun- 
ty-seat of  Montgomery  County,  on  the  Cleve., 
Cin.,  Chic.  &  St.  Louis,  Vandalia  and  Monon 
railways  and  T.  H.,  I.  &  E.  traction  line,  43 
miles  northwest  of  Indianapolis.  Platted  in 
1823,  it  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1865. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Wabash  College  (Presb.),  and 
is  famous  for  the  number  of  distinguished 
writers  it  has  produced.  Its  manufactures 
consist  of  wire-fence  works,  wagon,  spoke  and 
curb  factories  and  foundry-products,  in  addi- 
tion to  lumber-mills,  carriage-works,  etc. 
Population,  9,371- 

Crayfish.     See  CRAWFISH. 

Creamery*  a  dairy-factory  enterprise  for 
making  butter,  cheese  and  condensed  milk, 
familiar  in  the  chief  eastern  and  middle-west- 
orn  states  of  the  Union  in  the  past  20 
years.  They  are  conducted  usually  by  stock 
or  co-operative  companies,  or  by  private  in- 
dividuals having  experienced  and  skilled  men 
to  conduct  and  manage  them.  Recent  re- 
turns show  that  close  upon  6,000  creameries 
are  in  operation  over  the  country ;  and  in  the 
best  of  them,  which  now  produce  a  high- 
grade  output,  they  confine  themselves  either 
to  butter  or  to  cheese-making,  rarely  making 
both  in  one  factory.  The  states  which  to- 
day have  the  largest  number  of  creameries 


are  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin,  Illi- 
nois and  Minnesota,  their  seat  being  in  th» 
principal  dairy-regions.  When  the  milk  ra 
delivered  by  the  farmer  to  the  factory,  it  is 
weighed,  tested  as  to  quality,  and  its  value 
credited  to  the  owner-producer;  the  cream  is 
then  separated  by  power  (if  it  has  not  pre- 
viously been  separated  before  being  brought 
to  the  factory) ,  the  farmer  usually  receiving 
the  skim-milk  for  feeding.  The  more  gen- 
eral plan  followed  to-day  by  the  producer  is 
to  use  the  local  separator-factory  or  skim- 
ming-station, only  the  cream  being  taken  to 
the  creamery,  thus  reducing  the  cost  and 
trouble  of  hauling. 

Cream  -  Separator,  a  machine  for  taking 
cream  from  milk,  which  depends  on  the  phys- 
ical principle  that  the  heavier  a  whirling 
body  is,  the  greater  its  tendency  to  fly  from 
the  center.  The  milk  is  passed  into  a  vessel 
revolving  at  a  high  rate  of  speed  on  its  own 
center.  The  cream,  composed  largely  of 
butter-fat,  being  lighter,  stays  in  the  center 
and  escapes  by  a  tube.  The  heavier  skim- 
milk,  flying  to  the  outer  sides  of  the 
vessel,  escapes  through  perforations  into  an 
outer  jacket  and  is  carried  away  by  another 
tube.  The  machine  can  be  adjusted  to 
separate  cream  of  any  desired  thickness 
between  certain  limits.  This  thickness  can 
be  accurately  measured  in  terms  of  per- 
centage of  butter-fat.  98%  of  butter-fat  can 
be  thus  separated  as  against  75  %  by  the  old- 
fashioned  shallow-pan  skimming,  or  85%  by 
the  better  deep-setting  method,  in  which 
cans  about  20  inches  deep  are  set  in  cold  water 
over  night  and  the  skim-milk  drawn  off  from 
below  by  a  faucet.  The  separator  has  the 
advantage  of  acting  quickly,  and  so  making 
it  possible  to  market  the  cream  with  much 
shorter  exposure  to  the  air.  Separators  will 
handle  from  a  few  pounds  of  milk  per  hour 
up  to  4,000  pounds.  The  smaller  ones  are 
usually  operated  by  hand-power.  The  sepa- 
rator works  best  at  a  temperature  of  between 
85  and  100  degrees  Fahr.  Separator-cream 
is  much  purer  than  that  obtained  by  the 
gravity -methods,  because  the  impurities, 
being  heavy,  fly  from  the  center  along  with 
the  skim-milk.  The  separator  has  made 
possible  the  rapid  growth  of  creameries  as  an 
organized  industry,  there  being  over  5,000  in 
United  States  in  1905.  These  can  make  but- 
ter more  economically  and  of  more  uniform 
grade  than  can  be  done  on  the  farms.  Hand- 
separators  enable  the  owner  of  a  small  num- 
ber of  cows  to  handle  less  bulk  than  he  would 
in  hauling  milk  to  a  creamery.  See,  also, 
BABCOCK  TEST. 

Creation,  The,  an  oratorio  by  Joseph 
Haydn,  composed  during  the  years  1^796-8. 
The  words  are  selected  from  Genesis  and 
Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  with  modifications  by 
Baron  von  Swieten.  The  oratorio  was  first 
produced  at  Vienna,  April  29,  1798,  and 
ranked  next  to  The  Messiah  in  popularity 
until  the  appearance  of  Mendelssohn's  Elijah. 


CRECY 


476 


CRESTON 


Haydn  placed  a  higher  estimate  upon  The 
Creation  than  he  did  upon  his  second 
oratorio,  The  Seasons,  written  during  1798- 
1800. 

Cre"cy  (krafs&) ,  a  town  of  France,  where, 
on  Aug.  26,  1346,  Edward  III  of  England, 
with  about  30,000  men,  won  a  brilliant  vic- 
tory over  100,000  French  under  the  Count  of 
Alengon.  The  flower  of  French  chivalry,  to- 
gether with  the  blind  king  of  Bohemia,  who 
was  fighting  on  the  side  of  France,  fell  in 
this  battle.  In  all,  fully  30,000  French  bit 
the  dust.  Here  the  Black  Prince  gained  his 
spurs  and  adopted  the  threefold  feather- 
crest  of  the  fallen  Bohemian  king,  with  the 
motto  Ich  dien  (I  serve),  still  worn  by  the 
Princes  of  Wales.  The  battle  was  one  of  the 
earliest  in  which  cannon  were  used  by  the 
English. 

Creeks,  an  Indian  tribe,  living,  when 
first  seen  by  De  Soto  in  1540,  on  the  Flint, 
Chattahoocnee,  Coosa  and  Alabama  Rivers 
in  Florida.  Their  own  account  of  them- 
selves is  that  they  came  out  of  the  earth, 
and  marched  from  the  northwest  to  the 
lands  then  held  by  them.  From  their 
language,  they  probably  are  of  the  same 
race  as  the  Choctaws  and  Chickasaws. 
Their  alliance  was  courted  by  the  Spaniards 
in  Florida,  by  the  French  in  Louisiana 
and  by  the  English  in  Carolina.  During 
the  Revolutionary  War  they  attacked 
Wayne's  army,  and  at  its  close  many  Tories 
joined  them.  Washington  got  some  of 
their  chiefs  to  come  to  New  York  and  sign 
a  treaty;  but  they  continued  still  hostile. 
In  the  War  of  1812  they  surprised  Fort 
Mimms,  killing  400  men,  women  and  chil- 
dren. They  were  at  once  attacked  by 
United  States  troops  and  defeated  seven 
times,  the  last  time  being  utterly  crushed 
by  General  Jackson  at  Horseshoe  Bend. 
When  hopeless,  having  lost  2,000  warriors, 
their  country  ravaged  and  their  towns 
laid  in  ashes,  they  submitted.  Neverthe- 
less, the  government  treated  with  them  for 
years  before  it  succeeded  in  getting  them 
across  the  Mississippi.  One  chief,  General 
William  Mclntosh,  who  signed  a  treaty  in 
1825,  was  put  to  death  by  his  enraged 
countrymen.  But  when,  in  1836,  some  of 
the  Creeks  had  attacked  the  frontier  towns 
of  Georgia  and  Alabama  and  had  been 
defeated  by  General  Scott,  about  25,000, 
who  were  still  left  on  their  old  grounds, 
were  at  once  sent  to  join  the  rest  of  their 
nation,  between  the  Arkansas  and  Canadian 
Rivers.  In  the  Civil  War  some  joined  the 
north  and  some  the  south.  Schools  and 
churches  were  late  in  obtaining  a  footing 
with  the  Creeks,  as  their  only  idea  of 
Christianity  was  what  they  learned  from 
the  negroes,  and  the  proud  warriors  would 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  slaves'  religion. 
Their  government  was  peculiar.  Each  town 
had  nothing  to  do  with  the  others,  but  was 
oiled  by  its  own  micco  or  king,  who  was 


chosen  as  a  ruler.  Next  to  him  was  the 
war-chief.  Every  town  had  a  square  in 
its  center,  shut  in  by  houses,  the  micco 
and  war-chief  having  special  houses.  On 
this  square  was  held  their  great  feast. 

Creeper,  Brown,  a  little,  brown,  mottled 
bird  that  creeps — or  rather  flashes — round 
and  round  a  tree  in  search  of  larvae.  It 
is  our  one  member  of  the  family  of  Creepers. 
It  is  a  little  smaller  than  the  English 
sparrow;  is  grayish-white  beneath; 
brown  and  gray  above  very  like  in 


BROWN    CREEPER 


to  the  bark  of  a  tree ;  it  has  a  slender,  curving 
bill.  It  is  a  most  diligent  bird;  it  starts 
from  the  bottom  of  a  tree  and  in  a  sort  of 
spiral  climb  picks  out  with  utmost  care  the 
larvae  in  the  bark.  In  climbing  it  some- 
times uses  its  tail  like  the  woodpecker, 
the  tail  being  stiff  and  sharp  at  the  points. 
The  breeding-range  is  in  the  northern  states 
and  northward;  from  September  to  April 
it  may  be  found  from  Massachusetts  to 
Florida. 

Cre'ole.     See  NEW  ORLEANS. 

Cress,  name  of  various  plants  whose 
leaves  are  an  agreeable  relish,  much  favored 
in  salads.  Garden-cress  often  called  pep- 
pergrass,  is  gaining  ground  in  American 
gardens.  In  winter  it  may  be  grown  in 
flower-pots  or  boxes,  the  seed  sprouting 
very  quickly;  for  a  supply  of  tender  leaves 
seed  should  be  sown  very  frequently. 
Water-cress  is  an  important  market-crop. 
It  can  be  grown  in  almost  any  pool  or 
shallow  water  course  with  sand  or  gravel 
bottom,  being  introduced  by  scattering 
seeds  or  some  freshly  cut  branches.  It  is 
a  hardy  perennial. 

Creston,  Iowa,  a  city,  the  seat  of  Union 
County,  in  the  south  of  the  state,  on  the 
Chic.,  Burl,  and  Quincy  Railroad,  60  miles 
southwest  of  Des  Moines.  Besides  its  ship- 
ment of  live-stock  it  has  extensive  railway- 
car  works,  machine-shops  and  wagon-fac- 
tories. The  city,  which  was  settled  so 
recently  as  1868,  is  growing  rapidly,  and 
it  has  a  fair  showing  of  public  buildings, 
besides  schools  and  churches.  Population 
7,852. 


CRETE 


477 


CRICKET 


Crete  (kret),  a  Turkish  island  in  the 
Mediterranean.  It  is  the  southernmost  por- 
tion of  Europe,  160  miles  in  length  and 
from  7  to  35  broad.  The  climate  is  fine, 
and  the  air  fresh  and  bracing.  Crete  is 
quite  mountainous,  and  its  highest  peak, 
Mount  Ida,  is  8,060  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  There  are  many  harbors  on 
the  island:  Suda  Bay  on  the  north  is  one 
of  the  best  in  the  Mediterranean;  and 
Fair  Havens,  in  the  south,  is  spoken  of 
in  Acts.  Wheat  and  fruit,  especially  oranges 
and  lemons,  are  mainly  raised.  Olive-oil, 
soap,  nuts  and  the  like  are  exported. 
Sponges  are  found  on  the  coast.  There 
are  a  few  wild  animals,  but  not  a  snake 
on  the  island.  There  are  now  only  three 
towns  of  any  size,  though  Vergil  told  of  its 
"  hundred  cities."  During  the  past  quarter- 
century  the, remains  of  a  great  civilization 
have  been  discovered  that  equalled  those 
of  Egypt  and  Babylonia,  and  dates  back 
2,000  if  not  3,000  years  before  Christ. 
Crete  is  now  an  autonomous  Greek  province, 
under  Turkish  suzerainty,  though  paying 
no  taxes  to  Turkey;  and  its  viceroy  is 
always  a  native  Greek  Christian.  The  early- 
Cretans  were  seafaring  Greeks,  the  rivals 
of  the  Phoenicians.  Its  laws  and  its  great 
lawgiver,  Minos,  were  famous,  as  were  also 
its  bowmen;  while  a  Cretan  came  every- 
where to  mean  a  liar.  Rome,  the  Saracens, 
the  Greek  emperors,  Venice  and  the  Turks 
have  in  their  day  owned  the  island.  Its 
area  is  3,365  square  miles;  and  its  popu- 
lation is  estimated  at  310,815.  Canea  is 
the  capital  (population,  24,537). 

Crichton  (krl'ttiri),  James,  called  the 
Admirable  Crichton  was  born  Aug.  19,  1560, 
in  Perthshire  Scotland,  and  was  educated 
at  St.  Andrews.  After  leaving  the  uni- 
versity he  went  to  France.  His  swordplay 
and  power  as  a  debater  on  any  subject 
with  the  professors  of  the  Sorbonne  are 
said  to  have  astonished  all  Paris.  At  Ven- 
ice the  great  printer  Aldus  was  his  friend. 
Here  he  spoke  before  the  doge  and  senate, 
and  is  said  to  have  astounded  them  with 
his  eloquence  and  grace.  Other  encounters 
took  place,  in  which,  it  is  said,  he  made 
Latin  poems  on  the  spot,  offered  to  carry 
on  the  debate  in  poetry,  and  performed 
like  prodigies.  Moreover,  according  to  the 
story,  he  became  tutor  to  the  heir  of  the 
duke  of  Mantua.  Here  he  killed  a  skillful 
duelist,  and  became  so  renowned  that  he 
was  attacked  one  night  by  three  masked 
men  out  of  jealousy.  Crichton's  swords- 
manship gave  him  the  best  of  it,  and  to 
save  his  fife  the  leader  of  the  masks  was 
forced  to  tell  who  he  was.  It  was  Crichton's 
prince-pupil.  The  tutor  fell  on  his  knee, 
and,  presenting  his  sword,  asked  his  pardon; 
but  the  prince  basely  ran  him  through  the 
body.  Crichton  had  a  fine  memory,  is 
said  to  have  been  familiar  with  12 
languages,  and  was  a  good  debater,  but 


many  of  the  stories  of  his  prowess  are  prob- 
ably fictitious.  He  perhaps  fell  in  a  night- 
brawl,  but  that  it  was  his  own  pupil  who 
dispatched  him  is  unlikely.  He  died  at 
Mantua,  in  1583,  or,  according  to  others 
some  time  between  1585  and  1591. 

Cricket,  an  insect  related  to  grasshoppers 
and  locusts.  There  are  three  kinds — mole- 
crickets,  true  crickets  and  tree-crickets. 
The  mole-crickets  have  their  front  limbs 
expanded  and  especially  fitted  for  digging; 
they  make  burrows  and  lay  their  eggs  in 
underground  chambers.  The  true  crickets 
are  very  abundant  in  the  fields;  they  are 
black,  sometimes  with  brownish  wings. 
They  usually  feed  on  plants  and  lay  their 
eggs  in  the  ground  in  the  autumn,  the  broods 
hatching  out  in  the  spring.  To  this  division 


CRICKETS 

belong,  also,  the  house-crickets.  The  chirp- 
ing sound  is  produced  by  the  males  rubbing 
the  file-like  edges  of  the  principal  vein  of 
their  wing-covers  upon  a  scraper  located 
on  the  margin  of  the  opposite  wing-cover 
The  true  wings  are  not  involved  in  making 
the  sound.  The  tree-crickets  are  delicate 
whitish-green.  They  live  on1  trees  and 
shrubs,  and  often  do  damage  by  boring  to 
deposit  their  eggs.  One  kind  lays  its  eggs 
in  stems  of  the  raspberry  The  katydid 
is  not  a  cricket. 

Cricket  (krik-et),  the  Englishman's  na- 
tional game  the  world  over,  is  an  outdoor 
game  with  balls,  bats  and  wickets,  It  is 
played  by  1 1  men  on  a  side.  Two 
wickets,  each  consisting  of  three  uprights 
or  stumps  rising  27  inches  above  the 
ground  and  with  two  small  pieces  or  bails 
on  top  of  the  uprights,  are  placed  opposite 
each  other,  22  yards  apart.  One  eleven 
takes  position  in  the  field,  the  other  goes 
to  bat.  The  bowler  of  the  first  eleven 
stands  almost  behind  one  wicket,  the  wicket- 
keeper  directly  behind  the  other.  Two 
players  from  the  second  eleven  stand  at 
the  wickets,  the  first  batsman  in  front  of 
one,  the  second  beside  the  other  The 
bowler  rolls  his  ball  at  the  opposite  wicket, 
to  knock  it  down  or  make  the  batter  hit 


CRICKET  ON  THE  HEARTH 


478 


CRISPI 


the  ball  so  that  it  will  be  caught  on  the  fly 
and  the  batsman  put  out.  The  batter 
prevents  the  wicket  from  being  hit.  drives 
the  ball  far  enough  to  give  time  for  changing 
places  with  the  other  oatter,  and  so  makes 
runs.  These  continue  so  long  as  there 
is  no  risk  of  the  stumps  being  hit  while 
the  batsmen  are  away  from  the  wickets. 
If,  however,  the  batter  let  the  ball  carry 
a  bail  or  a  stump  away;  or  knock 
either  down  himself;  or  stop  the  ball  with 
his  body ;  or  has  the  ball  caught  in  the  air — 
he  is  out.  After  five  balls  have  been  bowled, 
(sometimes  four  or  six  by  arrangement), 
the  eleven  in  the  field  changes  to  the  same 
positions  for  the  second  wicket  that  it  had 
for  the  first.  Bowling  at  the  second  wicket 
continues  for  five  balls,  but  by  another 
bowler,  and  so  it  goes  until  ten  men  have 
batted.  The  eleventh  is  not  out.  This 
makes  an  inning,  but,  as  a  large  number 
of  runs  may  be  made  by  a  single  batsman, 
it  usually  lasts  more  than  a  day.  Then  the 
other  eleven  comes  to  bat,  and  the  first  goes 
to  the  field.  Two  whole  days  at  least  are 
required  for  a  first-class  two-innings  match. 
The  game  generally  ends  with  a  fourth 
inning,  the  eleven  with  the  most  runs 
being  the  winner.  The  rules  of  the  Maryle- 
bone  club  (founded  1744)  govern  the  game 
everywhere. 

Cricket  on  the  Hearth,  The,  is  one  of 
Dickens'  Christmas-Books,  and  like  the 
others  is  characterized  by  a  whimsical, 
almost  fantastic  humor,  while  it  presents 
in  the  most  edifying  fashion  the  contrast 
between  greed,  selfishness  and  cunning  on 
the  one  hand  and  simple  goodness  of  heart 
on  the  other.  It  is  distinguished  by  a  truly 
dramatic  climax.  A  good  husband,  believ- 
ing that  his  young  wife  loves  another  and 
blaming  himself  for  the  loss  of  her  affection, 
is  about  to  sacrifice  his  home  for  her  sake, 
when,  to  the  reader's  great  relief,  the  burden 
of  sorrow  is  suddenly  transferred  to  a  des- 
picable old  fellow,  who  had  hoped  to  win 
a  pretty  young  bride  by  the  power  of  his 
money.  He  loses  his  bride,  but  is  so  moved 
by  the  unselfish  love  of  all  around^  him  that 
his  own  heart  is  renewed,  and  he  joins  hap- 
pily in  the  marriage-festivities.  ^  The  merry 
chirping  of  a  cricket  mingles  with  the  song 
of  the  kettle  to  soften  with  its  music  the 
passions  that  at  times  threaten  to  destroy 
the  peace  of  home. 

Crime'a  (the  ancient  Chersonesus  Tau- 
rica),  a  peninsula  of  southern  Russia,  be- 
tween the  Black  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Azov. 
It  is  about  125  miles  from  north  to  south 
and  200  from  east  to  west,  and  has  an  area 
of  about  10,000  square  miles.  It  is  joined 
to  the  mainland  by  the  isthmus  of  Perekop. 
Balaklava  and  Sevastopol  are  its  two  chief 
harbors.  The  Crimea  was  once  famous 
for  its  wheat,  but  of  recent  years  the  penin- 
sula has  suffered  much  from  drought. 
Porphyry  and  coal  are  found.  The  Crimea's 


situation  in  the  Black  Sea,  between  Europe 
and  Asia,  has  made  it  a  tempting  prize 
alike  to  Greek,  Tartar,  Turk  and  Russian. 
The  Crimean  War  (1853-56),  fought  in 
the  peninsula,  was  caused  by  Russia's 
attempt  to  establish  its  protection  and  that 
of  the  Greek  church  over  the  Christian 
subjects  of  Turkey,  who,  like  the  Russians, 
are  of  the  Greek  church.  Turkey  was  aided 
by  France,  England  and  Sardinia.  The 
battles  of  the  Alma,  Tchernaya,  Balaklava 
and  Inkerman  were  fought,  and  the  fall 
of  the  strongest  fortress  of  the  Russians, 
Sebastopol,  brought  an  end  to  the  war. 
By  the  treaty  of  peace  Russia  gave  up  all 
she  had  gained  during  the  war.  Population 
of  the  Crimea  about  250,000  (80,000  Tar- 
tars, 130,000  Russians,  40,000  Greeks,  Jews, 
Bulgarians  and  Germans). 

Cripple  Creek,  Col.,  a  mining  town, 
situated  on  the  foothills  of  Pike's  Peak, 
in  El  Paso  County,  Colorado.  Gold  was 
discovered  in  its  vicinity  about  1885,  but 
it  was  not  until  1891  or  later  that  its  rich 
mining-wealth  attracted  experts  and  the 
town  began  to  develop.  Its  annual  pro- 
duction of  gold  is  estimated  at  about  $10,- 
000,000.  The  town  in  1894  was  the  scene 
of  a  miner's  strike,  and  in  1896  it  was  visited 
by  a  destructive  fire;  but  in  spite  of  these 
drawbacks  it  has  grown  apace.  Population, 
6,206. 

Crisp,  Charles  Frederick,  an  American 
politician,  and  speaker  of  52d  and  53d 

Congress,  was 
born  at  Shef- 
field, England, 
Jan.  29,  1845; 
and  died  at  At- 
lanta, Ga.,  Oct. 
23,  1896.  I  n 
early  life  he 
settled  with  his 
parents  in 
Georgia,  and  in 
1861  entered 
the  Confeder- 
ate service,  in 
which  he  rose 
to  the  rank  of 
CHARLES  P.  CRISP  lieutenant  and 

was  captured  by  the  Federal  forces.  After 
the  war  he  studied  law,  and  in  1872  was 
elected  attorney-general  of  a  judicial  dis- 
trict of  Georgia,  and  subsequently  became 
judge  of  the  superior  court  of  the  state. 
In  1882  he  was  returned  as  a  member  of 
Congress,  and  in  1892  and  1893  was  speaker 
of  the  house.  In  politics  he  was  a  Demo- 
crat. 

Crispi  (krts'pd),  Francesco,  an  Italian 
statesman,  was  born  Oct.  4,  1819,  at  Ribera, 
Sicily,  and  became  a  lawyer  at  Naples.  In 
1848  he  was  one  of  the  heads  of  the  rising  at 
Palermo,  and  for  two  years  a  leader  of  the 
Sicilians  against  Ferdinand  I.  In  1859  and 
1860  he  acted  with  Garibaldi  in  driving  out 


CRITTENDEN 


479- 


CROCODILE 


the  Bourbons  from  Sicily.  In  1877  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  national  cabinet,  and 
afterward  was  premier  of  the  Italy  he  had 
helped  to  make.  Here  he  took  high  rank 
among  the  statesmen  of  Europe.  It  is 
due  to  Crispi  that  Italy  entered  the  Triple 
Alliance  with  Germany  and  Austria;  and 
the  policy  of  keeping  up  the  army  on  a 
footing  with  other  European  states  of  the 
first  rank  and  of  building  up  a  war-navy 
was  mainly  his.  He  died  at  Naples,  Aug. 
u,  1901. 

Crit'tenden,  John  Jordan,  was  born  in 
Woodford  County,  Ky.,  Sept.  10,  1787. 
He  graduated  at  William  and  Mary  College, 
Virginia,  studied  law,  and  became  famous 
as  a  criminal  lawyer.  He  served  many 
times  in  the  Kentucky  legislature,  was  six 
times  chosen  senator  of  the  United  States, 
and  served  one  term  as  representative  in 
Congress  and  one  term  as  governor  of 
Kentucky.  He  also  was  attorney-general 
under  Presidents  Harrison  and  Fillmore. 
He  was  most  prominent  just  before  and 
during  the  Civil  War.  He  opposed  the 
repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise;  in 
the  Kansas  troubles  he  sided  against  the 
course  of  Presidents  Pierce  and  Buchanan; 
when  Lincoln  was  elected  he  took  firm 
ground  for  the  Union;  and  in  1860  he  pro- 
posed amendments  to  the  constitution 
which,  he  thought,  would  allay  strife.  He 
strenuously  sought  to  keep  Kentucky  in 
the  Union,  but  was  unwilling  that  slaves 
should  be  used  as  soldiers.  He  remained 
in  public  life  to  the  close  of  his  career, 
being  in  the  midst  of  a  campaign  for  re- 
election to  Congress  when  he  died  near 
Frankfort,  Ky.,  July  26,  1863. 

Crittenden,  Thomas  Leonidas,  son  of 
the  above,  an  American  general,  was  born 
in  Kentucky  in  1819,  and  died  on  Staten 
Island,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  23,  1893.  After  studying 
law  he  became  attorney-general  in  Ken- 
tucky in  1842,  and  from  1849  *°  J^53  was 
United  States  consul  at  Liverpool,  Eng- 
land. Previous  to  this,  he  had  served  under 
Taylor  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  on  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War  he  entered 
the  Union  army,  and  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  major-general  and  given  command 
of  a  division  of  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee. 
Later,  he  served  under  Buell  and  Rosecrans, 
and  at  Chickamauga  commanded  one  of 
the  two  corps  that  were  routed.  Resigning 
his  commission  in  1864,  he  entered  the 
regular  army  two  years  later  as  colonel  of 
the  32d  infantry,  and  was  brevetted  briga- 
dier-general in  1867.  In  1869  he  was 
transferred  to  the  command  01  the  i7th 
infantry  and  served  on  the  frontier  till 
1876,  and  was  in  command  of  Governor's 
Island  until  he  retired  in  1881. 

Crock'ett,  David,  was  born  at  Lime- 
stone, Tenn.,  Aug.  17,  1786.  Davy,  as  he 
was  always  called,  was  sent  to  school,  but 
on  the  fourth  day  he  quarreled  with  the 


DAVID   CROCKETT 


schoolmaster,  and,  in  fear  of  a  thrashing 
both  from  his  father  and  from  his 
teacher,  he  ran 
away  from  home, 
Spending  his  time 
roaming  about 
with  drovers  and 
carriers.  When  18, 
he  came  home, 
and  for  the  first 
time  learned  his 
letters.  In  1813 
he  served  in  the 
kCreek  War  under 
Jackson.  After 
serving  in  the  leg- 
islature, he  was 
sent  to  Congress 
for  three  terms. 
But,  though  at  first  a  follower  of  Jackson,  he 
had  now  become  opposed  to  him,  and, 
foreseeing  defeat,  he  thought  of  starting 
upon  a  new  career  in  Te>  s,  which  was 
then  in  revolt  against  Mexico.  He  had  all 
his  life  been  noted  as  a  crack  shot,  a  great 
hunter  and  a  brave  fighter.  Here  also, 
in  Texas,  he  became  famous  for  his  exploits. 
He  met  his  death  after  defending  Fort 
Alamo  against  a  large  Mexican  force.  When 
only  six  men  were  left,  the  fort  was  cap- 
tured, and  the  six,  including  Crockett, 
were  shot  by  order  of  Santa  Anna,  March 
6,  1836. 

Crockett,  Samuel  Rutherford,  Scottish 
novelist,  was  born  at  Duchrae,  Gallo- 
way, Sept.  24,  1860;  and  was  educated  at 
Edinburgh,  Heidelberg  and  Oxford  for  the 
Scottish  Free-Church  ministry,  which  he 
entered  in  1886,  but  afterward  abandoned 
for  literature.  For  a  time  he  held  a  travel- 
ing tutorship  at  Oxford,  and  this  enabled 
him  to  see  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa.  His 
stories,  however,  deal  chiefly  with  the 
homely  characters  and  scenes  of  his  native 
land.  Scottish  peasant-life  has  hardly  ever, 
since  the  days  of  Scott  and  Gait,  had  so 
realistic  and  delightful  a  portrayer  and 
delineator.  He,  moreover,  draws  much  of 
his  inspiration  from  his  love  of  Scotland 
and  of  Scottish  romantic  and  religious 
history.  His  novels,  The  Raiders  and  The 
Men  of  the  Moss-Hags,  admirably  recreate 
the  era  of  the  Covenanters  and  their  mar- 
tyrdom for  their  stern  faith.  The  first 
novel  to  bring  Mr.  Crockett  fame  was  The 
Stickit  Minister,  published  in  1893.  Since 
then  he  has  issued,  among  other  works, 
Sweetheart  Travelers,  Cleg  Kelly  and  The 
White  Plume  of  Navarre.  He  died  in  1915. 

Crocodile,  a  large,  well-known  water-rep- 
tile covered  with  bony  scales.  The  tail  is 
long  and  crested.  The  name  is  properly 
applied  to  a  number  of  animals  living  in 
Asia,  Africa,  Australia  and  America.  The 
crocodile  of  the  Nile  is  the  most  famotts. 
It  occurs  in  nearly  all  the  rivers  of  Africa. 
It  is  said  that,  owing  to  the  persecutions 


CROCUS 


480 


CROMER 


CROCODILE 


of  travelers,  it  is  greatly  reduced  in  num- 
bers in  the  lower  Nile,  but  it  still  is  very 
abundant  above  the  first  cataract.  This 
reptile  is  ordinarily  12  or  13  feet  long; 

exceptio  nal 
sizes  are  18 
|and  20  feet  in 
jlength.  It 
seizes  cattle 
SCJand  antelopes 
by  the  nose 
•  while  drink- 
-ing,  and  draws 
them  into  the 
water.  Croc- 
odiles devour 
dogs  when 
they  can  catch  them,  and  occasionally  a  child 
falls  victim  to  the  crocodile,  but  they 
rarely  attack  adults.  On  the  whole  they 
seem  to  prefer  putrid  flesh.  They  leave 
the  water  to  bask  on  t?  e  mud-banks  of 
rivers  and  m  rshes,  and  here  they  lay 
their  eggs.  F  »m  20  to  60  eggs  are  inclosed 
in  holes  in  the  sand  or  mud,  and  left  to  be 
hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  Associated 
with  the  crocodile  is  a  bird,  called  the 
Nile-bird,  that  enters  the  mouth  of  the 
reptile  while  it  is  held  open,  and  picks  the 
leeches  from  the  tongue  and  walls  of  the 
mouth-cavity.  The  gavials  of  India  with 
long  slender  snouts  belong  to  the  crocodile 
group.  The  American  crocodiles,  living 
principally  in  South  America  and  the  West 
Indies,  are  now  occasionally  captured  in 
Central  America  and  the  marshes  of  southern 
Florida.  See  ALLIGATOR. 

Cro'cus.  A  genus  of  the  iris  family, 
some  of  which  are  the  earliest  spring-flowers, 
but  some  bloom  in  the  fall.  The  genus 
contains  about  70  lecognized  species,  and 
is  native  to  southern  Europe  and  south- 
western Asia.  The  grass-like  leaves  and 
long  tubular  showy  flowers  rise  directly 
from  a  subterranean  corm.  Numerous  va- 
rieties are  in  cultivation. 

Croesus  (kre'sus),  king  of  Lydia,  in  Asia 
Minor,  came  to  the  throne  about  568  B.  C., 
when  he  was  about  35  years  old.  The 
Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor  fell  before 
his  armies.  He  became  wealthier  than 
any  ruler  whom  the  Greeks  knew,  and 
"as  rich  as  Croesus"  became  a  common 
saying.  Solon,  the  Greek  sage,  once  visited 
him.  The  king  displayed  all  his  treasures, 
and  then  asked  the  wise  Greek  who  was 
the  happiest  man  he  had  ever  known. 
"TeUus  of  Athens,"  was  the  answer;  "for 
he  lived  while  his  country  was  prosperous; 
he  was  surrounded  with  children  and  chil- 
dren's children,  who  were  both  beautiful 
and  good;  and  he  died  upon  the  field  of 
battle  after  having  gained  a  gallant  victory 
over  the  enemy."  "And  further,"  said 
Solon,  "no  man  can  be  fully  happy  until  a 
happy  death  has  closed  a  happy  life."  And, 
in  truth,  Croesus'  wealth  did  not  save  him 


from  misfortune.  A  son  of  whom  he  was 
very  fond  was  accidentally  killed  in  a  boar- 
hunt.  News  came,  too,  that  the  Persian 
Cyrus,  who  had  conquered  right  and  left, 
had  cast  a  longing  eye  on  Lydia.  Not  know- 
ing what  to  do,  Croesus  asked  advice  of  the 
famous  oracle  of  Delphi.  Said  the  oracle: 
"  If  Croesus  goes  to  war,  he  will  destroy  a 
mighty  empire."  What  could  be  plainer? 
So  off  goes  Croesus,  to  be  badly  whipped  by 
Cyrus,  and  to  find  that  the  empire  he  was  to 
destroy  was  his  own.  When  Sardis,  his  capi- 
tal, was  stormed,  the  king,  careless  of  life, 
was  about  to  be  slain,  when  another  son,  who 
had  been  born  dumb,  scared  into  speech,  told 
the  Persian  soldiers  that  it  was  the  king,  and 
he  was  kept  for  a  worse  death.  Placed  on  a 
huge  funeral-pyre,  he  watched  the  flames 
licking  their  way  upward  to  their  victim,  and, 
thinking  of  what  Solon  had  said  about  a 
happy  death,  he  kept  crying  out :  "  O  Solon ! 
Solon!"  Cyrus  chanced  to  hear  him,  and, 
asking  what  he  meant,  was  told  the  sage's 
warning,  which  made  such  an  impression  on 
him  that  Croesus  was  rescued  from  the  pyre, 
and  became  the  conqueror's  friend  and 
guardian  of  his  son  and  heir,  Cambyses. 

Croly,  Jane  Cunningham,  American 
writer,  known  better  by  her  pen-name  of 
Jennie  June,  was  born  in  Leicestershire, 
England,  in  1831,  and  settled  with  her  fam- 
ily, ten  years  later,  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. 
In  1857  she  married  D.  G.  Croly,  a  journalist, 
who  died  in  1889.  From  1860  to  1887  she 
was  editor  of  Demorest's  Magazine,  founded 
the  Sorosis  society,  and  took  part  in  pro- 
gressive movements  on  behalf  of  women. 
Subsequently  she  was  elected  to  the  chair  of 
literature  and  journalism  in  Rutgers  College 
and  president  of  the  New  York  City  Women's 
Press  club.  Her  books  consist  of  a  History 
of  Sorosis  and  of  the  woman's  club  movement 
in  America;  Talks  on  Women's  Topics;  For 
Better  or  Worse;  Thrown  upon  Her  Own  Re- 
sources, etc.  She  died  on  Dec.  23,  1901. 

Cromer,  Evelyn  Baring,  first  Earl  of,  was 
born  in  Cromer  Hall,  Norfolk,  on  Feb.  26, 
1841,  and  educated  at  the  Royal  Military 
Academy  at  Woolwich.  He  entered  the 
Royal  Artillery  in  1858,  and  became  captain 
in  1870  and  major  in  1876.  After  service  in 
the  colonies  he  was  made  private  secretary 
to  Lord  Northbrook,  while  he  was  viceroy  of 
India,  from  1872  to  1876.  He  was  commis- 
sioner of  the  Egyptian  public  debt  in  1877-9, 
controller-general  in  Egypt,  1879,  financial 
member  of  council  of  governor-general  of 
India,  1880,  and  minister  plenipotentiary, 
agent  and  consul-general  in  Egypt,  1883- 
1906.  He  was  created  baron  in  1892,  vis- 
count in  1898  and  earl  in  1901,  and  was  a 
privy  councillor  and  a  member  of  many  orders 
of  merit.  He  wrote  several  military  works, 
paraphrases  and  translations  from  the  Greek 
and  a  history  of  his  Egyptian  proconsulship. 
He  virtually  was  king  of  Egypt,  and  his 
work  there  was  constructive  statesmanship 


CROMPTON 


48l 


CROOK 


of  the  highest  order.     Egypt  under  him  al- 
most became  another  land.     He  died  in  1917. 

Cromp'ton,  Samuel,  was  born  at  Firwood, 
Lancashire,  England,  Dec.  3,  1753,  of  poor 
parents.  He  educated  himself,  at  the  same 
time  working  as  a  cotton-spinner  and  playing 
the  violin  at  the  theater  in  the  next  town. 
In  1779  his  spinning-mule  was  finished,  after 
five  years'  labor,  working  at  it  even  late  at 
night.  It  spun  yarn  so  wonderfully  fine  that 
his  house  was  beset  by  persons  eager  to 
know  the  secret.  Ladders  were  placed  at 
the  windows,  and  in  almost  every  way  the 
inquisitive  tried  to  see  it.  He  could  not  leave 
the  house  for  fear  his  discovery  would  be 
stolen.  All  his  savings  had  gone  into 
the  machine,  and  he  had  not  a  farthing 
left  to  secure  a  patent.  In  his  misery  he 
made  known  the  working  of  the  invention  to 
a  few  manufacturers ;  from  some  he  never  got 
a  cent,  and  in  all  he  received  but  a  beggarly 
$300.  He  managed,  however,  to  start  in 
business  with  the  aid  of  friends,  at  first  em- 
ploying his  own  family  as  hands;  but  he  was 
60  years  old  before  he  received  any  return, 
when  Parliament  granted  him $2 5,000.  His 
mule  came  into  use  at  once,  and  in  1811 
there  were  in  England  4,600,000  of  them. 
He  died  near  Bolton,  England,  June  26,  1827. 

Cromwell  (kr&m'w2l),  Oliver,  Lord- Pro- 
tector of  the  English  Commonwealth  and  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  characters  in  English 
history,  was  born  at  Huntingdon,  England, 
April  25,  1599.  Little  is  known  of  his  early 
life,  except  that  he  went  to  Cambridge.  He 
had,  however,  but  a  short  time  for  study,  his 
father  dying  soon  after  he  entered  college, 
and  he  returned  home  to  manage  the  family 
affairs.  In  1628  he  entered  Parliament. 
When  all  hope  of  a  reconciliation  between 
Charles  I  and  Parliament  failed,  Cromwell 
was  among  the  first  to  offer  to  aid  the  state 
in  defending  its  rights.  He  moved  in  Par- 
liament for  permission  to  raise  two  com- 
panies of  volunteers,  having  been  careful  to 
supply  the  necessary  arms  beforehand  at  his 
own  cost.  He  soon  snowed  his  wonderfurmili- 
tary  genius.  He  commanded  the  right-wing 
of  the  Parliamentary  army  at  Naseby  (June, 
1645),  where  the  king's  forces  were  utterly 
routed.  Charles,  in  May,  1646,  escaped  in 
disguise,  and  surrendered  himself  to  the 
Scottish  army  at  Newark,  by  whom  he  was 
handed  to  the  commissioners  of  Parliament. 
In  January,  1649,  the  king  was  tried,  con- 
demned and  executed.  Cromwell  was  a 
prominent  member  of  the  new  council  of 
state.  He  crushed  the  rebellion  in  Ireland 
and  in  Scotland,  and  soon  became  the  leading 
man  in  England.  He  dissolved  the  Long 
Parliament  in  1653,  and  summoned  a  new 
one.  The  work  of  this  parliament,  which 
was  dissolved  in  five  months,  gave  Cromwell 
supreme  power  and  the  title  of  lord-protector. 
Cromwell  repeatedly  called  and  dismissed 
parliaments  because  he  wanted  the  people 
themselves  to  govern  and  also  wanted  his 


government  to  be  strictly  constitutional,  but 
his  government  was  just  and  liberal  toward 
the  people  and  the  country  prospered  under 
his  rule.  He  died  at  Whitehall  London, 
Sept.  3,  1658. 

Cron  je  ( kron'ye ) ,  Piet,  a  Boer  commander 
in  the  war  with  Britain  (1899-1901),  was 
born  in  South  Africa  about  1835.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Transvaal  executive  council, 
under  President  Paul  Kruger,  and  in  the  raid 
of  Jameson  and  his  UitlsnHers.  in  January, 
1896,  he  brought  about  their  surrender.  He 
defeated  Lord  Methuen  at  Magersfontein, 
but  afterward  surrendered  to  Lord  Roberts 
at  Paardeberg,  and  was  exiled  to  St.  Helena. 
He  has  the  reputation  of  being  a  fierce 
fighter  and  a  resourceful  commander. 

Cronstadt  ( krdn'stdt ) ,  a  strongly  fortified 
seaport  of  Russia,  is  situated  on  the  island  of 
Koblan,  near  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland 
and  20  miles  west  of  St.  Petersburg.  The 
island  separates  the  approach  to  St.  Peters- 
burg into  two  channels,  only  one  of  which  is 
navigable.  This  is  narrow  and  strongly 
guarded  by  batteries.  There  are  seven  gran- 
ite forts  armed  with  heavy  guns,  and  during 
the  Crimean  War  Cronstadt  was  held  to  be 
impregnable.  There  are  three  harbors:  the 
merchant  harbor,  which  will  hold  i  ,000  ships; 
the  middle  harbor,  used  for  fitting  vessels; 
and  the  war  harbor,  the  regular  anchorage 
for  the  Baltic-fleet  section  of  the  Russian 
navy.  A  large  number  of  the  people  are 
sailors  or  workmen  in  the  dock-yards.  Cron- 
stadt was  founded  by  Peter  the  Great.  Popu- 
lation, 59,939. 

Crook,  George,  an  American  general,  was 
born  Sept.  8,  1828,.  near  Dayton,  Ohio.  He 
graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1852,  and 
served  on  the  fron- 
tier till  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  Civil 
War,  in  which  he 
served  with  dis- 
tinction, com- 
manding a  corps 
of  Sheridan's 
army  at  the  bat- 
tles of  Winchester, 
Opequan  Creek 
and  Cedar  Creek. 
After  the  war  he 
GENERAL  CROOK  commanded  in  the 
west,  becoming  brigadier-general  in  1873. 
His  campaigns  against  the  Pi  Utes  in  1872 
and  the  Apaches  in  1875  were  ably  fought. 
In  1882  he  drove  the  Mormons  and  squatters 
from  Indian  lands,  and  brought  the  hostile 
Chiricahuas  to  terms.  He  was  also  con- 
cerned for  the  welfare  of  his  Indian  charges, 
among  other  reforms  forcing  the  contractors 
to  pay  the  Indians  in  cash  for  supplies  instead 
of  with  store-orders.  Under  his  manage- 
ment the  tribes  quickly  became  self-sup- 
porting. He  died  at  Chicago  on  March  21, 
1890. 


CROOKES 


.482 


CRUIKSHANK 


Crookes,  Sir  William,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish chemist  and  electrician,  was  born  at 
London  in  1832,  and  educated  at  the  Royal 
College  of  Chemistry.  In  1855  he  became 
professor  of  chemistry  at  the  Science  Train- 
ing College  at  Chester;  in  1859  founded  The 
Chemical  News;  and  in  1864  became  editor 
of  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Science.  Sub- 
sequently he  became  a  member  of  the  coun- 
cil of  the  Royal  Society,  vice-president  of 
the  Chemical  Society  and  prize-winner  and 
gold-medalist  of  the  French  Academie  des 
Sciences.  His  researches  in  physics  and 
chemistry  led  in  1861  to  his  discovery  of  the 
metal  thallium ;  of  the  sodium  amalgam  proc- 
ess for  separating  gold  and  silver  from  their 
ores;  of  other  important  discoveries  in  mo- 
lecular physics  and  radiant  matter ;  and  to  the 
invention  of  the  radiometer  and  the  otheo- 
scope.  In  1871  he  published  Select  Methods 
in  Chemical  Analysis;  subsequently  The 
Manufacture  of  Beet-Root  Sugar  in  England; 
Handbook  of  Dyeing  and  Calico-Printing; 
Treatise  on  Metallurgy;  Wagner's  Chem- 
ical Technology;  Auerbach's  Anthracen  and 
Its  Derivatives;  Ville's  Artificial  Manures; 
with  The  Profitable  Disposal  of  Sewage  and 
The  Wheat  Problem.  The  latter  consisted 
of  an  address  delivered  before  the  British 
Association  in  1898.  Dealing  with  physical 
research  and  the  wheat  problem,  it  created 
much  interest  and  discussion.  He  is  a.n  au- 
thority on  sanitation,  and  has  studied  spirit- 
ualism scientifically. 

Croquet,  a  popular  outdoor  game,  played 
on  a  grass  lawn  or  levelled  dirt-court  under 
given  rules.  These  rules,  if  adhered  to  and 
followed,  and  where  the  player  is  skilled  in 
checkmating  his  own  and  his  party's  oppo- 
nent, make  a  match  well-nigh  as  interesting 
as  a  game  of  billiards,  especially  if.  all  the 
players,  who  may  be  two  or  eight  in  number, 
are  experts.  The  players,  who  are  each 
furnished  with  a  mallet  and  ball,  are 
divided  into  pairs  of  partners,  each  playing 
alternately,  the  contest  or  feature  of  the 
game  being  to  get  one's  ball  from  the  start- 
ing point  (the  near  stake) ,  first  through  the 
various  hoops  (usually  from  6  to  10  in  num- 
ber) placed  upright  in  the  ground  in  a  de- 
fined order,  to  the  farthest  stake  or  goal,  and 
back  again. 

Cross,  Mrs.  (Marian  Evans).  See  ELIOT, 
GEORGE. 

Cross,  Mrs.  George  Frederick  (Ada 
Cambridge),  the  novelist,  was  born  at  St. 
Germains,  Norfolk,  Nov.  21,  1844.  Upon 
her  marriage  to  the  Rev.  Mr.  Cross  in  1870 
she  sailed  for  Victoria,  her  home,  with  a  so- 
journ in  various  bush-districts,  until  she 
settled  at  Williamstown  in  1893.  Mrs. 
Cross's  published  works  include  15  or  more 
volumes,  from  My  Guardian  (1877)  to 
Thirty  Years  in  Australia.  (1903) 

Cross-Pollina'tion  (in  plants),  the 
transfer  of  pollen  from  the  stamen  to  the 
stigma  of  another  flower.  See  POLLINATION. 


Cross,  Southern,  one  of  the  star-groups 
in  the  southern  heavens.  Its  right  ascen- 
sion is  approximately  12  hours:  its  declina- 
tion 60°  south.  The  four  main  stars  form 
a  rough  cross.  It  has  been  invisible  from 
north  of  the  latitude  of  Alexandria,  Egypt, 
for  1 8  centuries.  The  Portuguese  explorers 
of  Africa  about  1450  were  the  first  modern 
Europeans  to  see  it. 

Crow,  a  bird  of  black  plumage,  belonging 
to  the  Corvidce  family,  which  includes  jack- 
daws, ravens,  rooks,  bluejays  and  magpies. 
It  is  very  extensive,  embracing  some  200 
species,  and  its  representatives  are  found  in 
all  parts  of  the  world,  except  New  Zealand, 
and  sparingly  in  the  Australian  region.  Six 
members  of  the  family  live  in  the  eastern 
United  States.  The  common  American 
crow  is  abundant,  is  distributed  generally 
in  this  country,  and  remains  with  us  the  en- 
tire year.  In  the  winter  crows  assemble  in 
great  numbers  in  rookeries  or  crow-roosts. 
There  are  a  number  of  these  roosting-places 
in  various  parts  of  the  country;  the  one  on 
the  Potomac  near  Washington  is  well-known. 
The  number  that  assemble  there  at  one  time 
has  been  estimated  at  40,000.  The  crows 
are  usually  considered  to  be  destructive 
birds,  but  they  do  more  good  than  harm. 
They  injure  cornfields  to  a  considerable 
degree,  but  they  also  destroy  many  cut- 
worms, beetles,  grasshoppers,  tent-cater- 
pillars and  other  injunous  insects,  and 
thereby  compensate  for  their  own  misdeeds. 
They  also  kill  field-mice,  rabbits  and  other 
rodents,  follow  the  plow  in  the  early  spring, 
and  eat  the  larva?,  field-mice  and  worms  in 
the  furrows.  These  wily  birds  soon  lose  all 
fear  of  the  farmer's  scarecrow,  but  remain 
suspicious  of  bits  of  bright  tin  swinging 
from  cords  stretched  across  a  field,  and  they 
will  not  go  near  corn  that  has  been  dipped 
in  tar.  The  birds  are  models  of  family  af- 
fection; the  male  feeds  his  mate  while  she 
is  on  the  nest,  broods  the  eggs  when  she  is 
absent,  and  stands  guard  with  untiring  zeal; 
and  both  parents  long  keep  watch  over 
their  young. 

Crozier,  John  B.,  born  in  Ontario  and 
educated  at  Gait  and  the  University  of 
Toronto,  graduating  in  1872.  Soon  after, 
he  went  to  London,  England,  and  com- 
menced the  practice  of  medicine.  In  1880 
appeared  his  Religion  of  the  Future,  a  work 
of  merit.  In  1885  his  History  of  Intellectual 
Development  followed,  and  in  1887  he  pub- 
lished Lord  Randolph  Churchill.  His  Civili- 
zation and  Progress  has  reached  a  third  edi- 
tion. 

Cruikshank  ( kro&k' shank) ,  George,  an 
English  cartoon-etcher,  was  born  at  London, 
Sept.  27,1 792.  His  father  and  elder  brother 
were  caricaturists.  He  thought  of  becom- 
ing an  actor ;  but  a  publisher  who  saw  some 
of  his  sketches  talked  him  into  illustrating 
children's  books  and  songs.  But  he  soon 
found  that  his  genius  lay  in  cartoons.  His 


CRUSADES 


483 


CRUSTACEA 


finest  etchings,  perhaps,  were  those  in  Peter 
Schlemihl,  Grimm's  German  Popular  Stories 
and  Dickens'  Oliver  Twist.  His  powerful 
series  of  The  Bottle  showed  the  evils  of  drunk- 
enness in  a  strong  light.  He  died  on  Feb.  i, 
1878. 

Crusades,  The  ( from  Portuguese  cru- 
zado,  "  marked  with  the  cross  ") ,  is  the  name 
given  to  the  religious  wars  carried  on  during 
the  middle  ages  between  the  Christian  na- 
tions of  western  Europe  and  the  Mohammed- 
ans. The  first  of  the  crusades  was  under- 
taken (1096-9)  to  uphold  the  right  of  pil- 
grims to  visit  the  Holy  Sepulcher  at  Jerusa- 
lem. The  Arabs  had  generously  allowed 
the  pilgrims,  who  came  in  thousands,  not 
only  to  visit  the  sepulcher  but  to  build  a 
church  and  hospital  in  the  city.  In  1065 
the  Seljuk  Turks  conquered  the  country. 
At  once  the  pilgrims  were  molested  and 
treated  with  cruelty.  Peter  the  Hermit,  a 
Frenchman,  who  had  himself  made  a  pilgrim- 
age and  had  witnessed  the  cruelties  of  the 
Turks,  with  the  pope's  sanction  (1095)  wan- 
dered over  Europe,  preaching  everywhere 
to  crowds  in  the  open  air,  telling  how  Chris- 
tians were  beaten,  robbed  and  murdered. 
Europe  was  roused  from  end  to  end.  At  a 
council,  held  at  Clermont,  France,  to  con- 
sider the  matter,  the  pope's  speech  was  in- 
terrupted by  cries  of  " God  wills  it! "  This 
became  the  war-cry  of  the  enterprise;  the 
badge  worn  was  the  cross,  from  which  came 
the  name  crusade. 

The  following,  in  brief,  comprises  the 
annals  of  the  various  crusades:  First,  four 
rabble  hordes  went  forth,  viz.,  20,000  under 
Walter  the  Penniless,  followed  by  40,000  un- 
der Peter  the  Hermit,  who  were  badly  cut 
to  pieces  in  Bulgaria  and  the  survivors  ut- 
terly overthrown  by  the  Turks  at  Nicsea ;  then 
issued  15,000  Germans  who  were  scattered 
and  slaughtered  in  Hungary,  which  also 
proved  the  grave  of  200,000  poor  wretches 
from  England,  France,  Flanders  and  Lor- 
raine. But  soon  came  six  armies  of  real 
crusaders  under  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  Robert, 
Duke  of  Normandy  and  others,  accompanied 
by  Tancred,  the  hero  of  the  crusade;  in  all 
some  600,000.  The  sultan's  capital,  Nicaea, 
fell  in  1097.  Next  Edessa,  and  then  An- 
tioch  after  a  fearful  siege  of  seven  months, 
the  Christian  army  melting  away  from  fam- 
ine, sickness  and  desertion.  Two  hundred 
thousand  Seljuks  now  besieged  the  western- 
ers. When  they  were  routed,  only  400,000 
men  were  left  to  march  on  Jerusalem.  The 
city  fell;  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  was  chosen 
king ;  soon  all  Palestine  came  into  his  hands ; 
and  for  50  years  the  crusaders  held  the  prin- 
cipalities of  Edessa,  Antioch  and  Jerusalem. 
At  Jerusalem  were  founded  the  two  famous 
orders  of  the  Knights  Hospitalers  of  St. 
John  and  the  Knights  Templars. 

In  1144  Edessa  was  conquered  and  the 
Christians  slaughtered.  A  second  crusade, 
preached  by  the  famous  St.  Bernard,  was 


led  in  1147  by  Conrad  III  of  Germany  and 
Louis  VII  of  France.  About  1,200,000  sol- 
diers marched  under  them,  only  to  be  de- 
feated, Conrad's  army,  by  the  treachery  of 
the  Greek  emperor,  near  Iconium,  and  Louis' 
army  in  the  Pisidian  Mountains. 

The  deathblow  to  the  kingdom  of  Jerusa- 
lem came  from  a  young  Kurdish  chief,  who 
had  made  himself  sultan  of  Egypt  and 
sought  to  become  sovereign  of  all  the  Mos- 
lems— the  famous  Saladin.  His  conquest 
of  Jerusalem  (1187)  gave  rise  to  the  third 
crusade,  led  by  Philippe  Auguste,  king  of 
France  and  Richard  the  Lion-heart,  king 
of  England.  Acre  was  attacked  (1190), 
and  23  months  later  it  surrendered.  But 
the  leaders  quarreled,  Philippe  went  back 
to  France,  and  Richard,  after  performing 
prodigies  of  valor,  which  excited  the  ad- 
miration of  the  Saracens,  made  a  treaty 
with  Saladin  (1192),  by  which  the  people 
of  the  west  were  to  be  at  liberty  to  make 
pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem  without  being 
taxed.  The  fourth  crusade  (1203)  never 
went  near  Palestine,  but  founded  the  Latin 
Empire  of  Constantinople,  which  lasted 
56  years. 

One  of  the  strangest  happenings  in  history 
is  the  children's  crusade,  which  took  place 
in  1 2 1 2.  An  army  of  French  children,  30,000 
strong,  headed  by  a  peasant-boy  named 
Stephen,  set  out  for  the  Holy  Land  by  way 
of  Marseilles.  A  like  army  of  German  chil- 
dren, 20,000  strong,  led  by  a  boy  named 
Nicholas,  crossed  the  Alps  at  Mont  Cenis. 
A  second  army  of  German  children,  num- 
bering nearly  20,000,  crossed  the  Alps  by  a 
more  easterly  route,  touching  the  sea  at 
Brindisi.  Their  idea  was  that  the  Mediter- 
ranean would  open  a  path  for  them  to  Pales- 
tine and  that  Jerusalem  would  be  recovered 
and  the  Moslems  made  Christians  by 
miracles.  Some  of  the  children  became 
discouraged  and  returned  to  their  homes, 
many  stopped  by  the  way,  but  most  of 
them  either  perished  on  the  march,  or  were 
lost  at  sea  or  sold  into  slavery. 

The  fifth  crusade  (1228)  made  Frederick  II 
of  Germany  and  Sicily,  king  of  Jerusalem. 
In  1244  a  new  horde  of  Turks  made  them- 
selves masters  of  Jerusalem.  A  sixth  cru- 
sade (1249)  followed,  led  by  Louis  IX  of 
France,  against  Egypt,  now  held  to  be  the 
key  to  Palestine.  Louis  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  had  to  pay  a  heavy  ransom.  The  sev- 
enth crusade  (1270)  was  led  by  him  and 
by  Prince  Edward,  afterward  Edward  I  of 
England.  Nothing  was  accomplished  by 
this  adventure,  however.  Acre,  Antioch, 
and  Tripoli  were  held  by  the  Templars  and 
other  knights  for  some  time;  but  Acre,  fol- 
lowed by  the  others,  surrendered  in  1291. 

Crustacea  (krUs-ta'she-d),  the  name  of 
a  class  of  animals  embracing  the  shrimps, 
prawns,  crayfish,  lobsters  and  a  number  of 
minute  forms  called  water-fleas.  They  be- 
long to  a  larger  group  or  subkingdom  (Ar- 


CRYPTOGAMS 


484 


CUBA 


thropodd)  which,  besides  the  Crustacea,  in- 
eludes  the  insects,  myriapods  and  spiders. 
These  four  are  all  classes  of  the  great  sub- 
kingdom  Arthropoda,,  and  therefore  are 
equivalent  groups.  The  Crustacea  pass 
through  a  metamorphosis,  hatching  from 
the  egg  in  a  different  condition  from  the 
adult.  Most  of  them  live  in  the  water  and 
breathe  by  gills,  but  there  are  some  terrestrial 
forms,  like  the  pill-bug,  which  is  to  be  found 
in  dark  places,  under  boards,  under  bark,  in 
cellars.  Some  of  the  minute  forms,  called 
water-fleas,  carry  their  eggs  in  cases  attached 
to  the  body. 

Cryp'togams.  A  name  applied  to  all 
those  plants  which  do  not  produce  seeds,  in- 
cluding therefore  Pteridopnytes  (ferns,  etc.), 
Bryophytes  (mosses,  etc.)  and  Thallophytes 
(Algce  and  Fungi).  The  name  was  given 
under  the  impression  that  the  sexual  repro- 
duction was  hidden  or  obscure, when  in  fact 
it  is  more  evident  than  in  the  seed-plants 
(Spermatophytes),  which  were  called  phane- 
rogams, meaning  "  evident  sexual  reproduc- 
tion." The  mistake  arose  from  the  false 
idea  that  the  stamens  and  pistils  of  flowering 
plants  are  sex-organs.  The  name  Crypto- 
gam, however,  is  convenient,  although  mean- 
ingless. Since  the  Pteridophytes  have  woody 
vessels,  they  are  often  called  vascular  Cryp- 
togams, to  distinguish  them  from  Bryophytes 
and  Thallophytes,  which  are  Cryptogams  with- 
out woody  vessels. 

Cuba,  formerly  a  Spanish  colony  and 
called  the  Queen  of  the  Antilles,  is  the 
largest  island  of  the  West  Indies.  It  lies 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
between  the  Straits  of  Florida  and  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  with  Haiti  and  Santo 
Domingo  immediately  east  of  it  and  the 
British  island  of  Jamaica  to  the  south.  It 
is  730  miles  long,  and  on  the  average  80 
miles  wide,  with  an  area  of  44,164  square 
miles.  There  are  many  good  harbors, 
that  of  Havana  being  one  of  the  largest 
and  finest  in  the  world.  On  the  southeast 
are  mountains,  the  tallest  peak,  Pico  de 
Tarquino,  rising  7,670  feet.  Only  in  the 
province  of  Oriente  are  the  mountains 
formidable  or  unavailable  for  cultivation. 
Mineral  water  and  caverns  in  which  are 
beautiful  stalactites  abound.  No  month 
is  free  from  rain,  but  the  temperature  does 
not  materially  differ  from  that  of  Florida, 
though  frosts  are  unknown.  Earthquakes 
in  the  east  are  frequent,  and  the  island  is 
sometimes  swept  by  hurricanes,  one  of 
which  in  1846  destroyed  216  vessels  and 
1,872  houses.  In  natural  resources  Cuba 
is  far  the  richest  of  the  Antilles,  and  could 
support  over  15,000,000  people.  The  soil 
is  exceptionally  rich,  easily  worked  and 
capable  of  the  greatest  degree  of  tillage. 
Some  localities  are  rich  in  minerals,  as 
asphalt,  copper,  iron  and  lead.  Native 
plants  number  over  3,350.  Virgin  forests 
contain  immense  quantities  of  many  va- 


rieties of  valuable  timber.  There  are  no 
venomous  snakes  nor  dangerous  wild  beasts. 
Tobacco,  coffee,  cotton  and  fruits  are 
raised;  but  the  great  crop  and  export  is 
sugar.  Cuba  depends  wholly  upon  agri- 
culture for  its  prosperity,  the  sole  manu- 
factures being  cigars  and  sugar.  The  main 
trade  is  with  the  United  States,  and  the 
reciprocity -treaty  made  in  1891  has  in- 
creased the  trade  between  the  two  coun- 
tries. The  cultivation  of  oranges  and  pota- 
toes for  export  is  growing,  the  Cuban 
potato  equalling  that  of  Bermuda.  The 
capital  is  Havana,  which  has  a  university. 
(Population  over  300,000.)  The  other  cities 
are  Santiago  de  Cuba,  Matanzas,  Cienfuegos, 
Puerto  Principe  and  Cardenas.  The  larger 
cities  are  mostly  on  the  coast,  a  fact  that 
indicates  their  commercial  character.  Five 
or  six  railways  are  in  operation,  and  nearly 
as  many  more  are  being  built.  The  island 
is  divided  into  six  provinces  or  political 
divisions,  which  since  1898  have  been  in 
considerable  social,  commercial  and  political 
disorganization.  This  was  restored  to  some 
semblance  of  order  under  the  excellent 
administration  of  the  United  States  gover- 
nor-general, Leonard  Wood.  Cuba  was  the 
most  important  colony  of  Spain,  and  was 
ruled  by  a  captain-general.  Columbus  dis- 
covered the  island  in  149 2, and  said  it  "was 
the  most  beautiful  land  that  eyes  ever 
beheld."  From  1868  to  1878  Cuba  was  in 
a  state  of  revolution,  which  greatly  retarded 
its  growth.  Its  many  slaves  were  freed 
in  1878.  Population,  2,150,112.  As  native 
whites  form  59%  of  the  population,  colored 
people  32%  and  foreign  whites  9%,  their 
numbers  would  seem  to  be  1,166,402  Span- 
iards and  Creoles,  649,050  negroes  and 
mulattoes,  15,000  Chinese  coolies  and  182,- 
545  foreign  whites.  Immigration  has  in- 
creased rapidly.  In  1902  the  immigrants 
numbered  11,000,  but  in  1905  they  were 
over  54,000  in  number,  excluding  6,000 
colonists  or  settlers  from  the  United  States. 

The  later  history  of  the  island  may  be 
briefly  told.  In  1895  the  Cubans  again 
revolted,  claiming  that  the  treaty  of  1878 
had  never  been  kept  in  good  faith;  that, 
while  names  and  forms  had  been  changed, 
the  tyrannical  and  oppressive  policy  of 
Spain  had  been  continued.  Alter  desultory 
outbreaks  in  different  provinces,  a  Cuban 
force  of  10,000  men  was  organized  under 
Maximo  Gomez  and  Antonio  Maceo,  both 
of  whom  had  been  leaders  in  the  former 
revolt  (1868-78).  For  three  years  the  war 
raged,  marked  by  desperate  bravery  as  well 
as  by  most  cruel  atrocities  and  the  devasta- 
tion of  the  island  by  fire  and  sword,  without 
decisive  results. 

The  cruelties  practiced  by  the  Spaniards 
upon  the  Cubans,  including  innocent  women 
and  children,  excited  universal  horror,  and 
led  to  repeated  protests  on  the  part  of  the 
United  States  government.  Spanish  hatred 


CUCKOO 


485 


CULLOM 


of  the  United  States  was  thus  engendered, 
which  reached  a  climax  when  the  United 
States  battleship  Maine,  on  a  friendly 
visit  in  the  harbor  of  Havana,  was  de- 
stroyed by  a  submarine  mine  on  Feb.  15, 
1898.  Hostile  action  quickly  followed,  and 
war  between  Spain  and  the  United  States 
was  declared  on  April  24.  On  July  3  the 
American  fleet  under  Admiral  Sampson 
destroyed  Spain's  strongest  fleet  off  Santiago. 
Meanwhile  Santiago  was  besieged  by  the 
United  States  forces  under  General  Shafter. 
A  fierce  battle  was  fought  on  July  i,  and  on 
July  17  the  Spanish  general  surrendered 
with  his  army  of  25,000  men.  Peace 
negotiations  followed,  and  by  treaty  signed 
on  Dec.  10,  1898,  Spain  surrendered  all 
sovereignty  over  Cuba,  and  ceded  Porto 
Rico  to  the  United  States.  On  Dec.  28th 
the  United  States  formally  took  the  island 
over  for  military  occupation  temporarily. 
It  was  the  declared  policy  of  the  United 
States  to  promote  the  independence  of 
Cuba  and  surrender  all  jurisdiction  in  the 
island  so  soon  as  a  firm  and  stable  govern- 
ment should  be  established.  To  this  end, 
under  military  occupation  of  the  island, 
the  United  States  proceeded  to  establish 
order,  organized  civil  and  municipal  govern- 
ments, established  schools  throughout  the 
island  and  provided  for  a  convention  of 
the  people,  under  which  a  constitution 
was  formed  and  the  Republic  of  Cuba 
established.  On  May  20,  1902,  the  author- 
ity of  the  United  States  was .  withdrawn, 
and  on  the  same  day  Tomas  Estrada  Palma, 
who  had  been  elected  president  of  the 
republic,  was  inaugurated.  Four  years 
later  he  was  re-elected,  but  gross  frauds 
were  charged,  disaffection  spread  and  in 
September  of  1906  the  island  was  swept 
with  a  whirlwind  of  revolution.  The  gov- 
ernment was  helpless.  President  Palma 
called  upon  the  United  States  to  intervene 
as  provided  by  treaty,  and  resigned  his 
office,  the  insurgents  acquiesced  and  laid 
down  their  arms,  and  for  a  second  time 
the  United  States  assumed  temporary  juris- 
diction of  the  island  and  established  a 
provisional  government.  After  administer- 
ing the  island  for  two  years,  during  which 
many  reforms  were  inaugurated  and  public 
tranquillity  was  restored,  the  provisional 
government  caused  a  popular  election  to  be 
held  in  December,  1908.  This  resulted  in  the 
election  of  a  new  government  with  Jose" 
Miguel  Gomez  as  President.  This  new 
government  was  duly  inaugurated  and  in 
February,  1909,  the  authority  of  the  United 
States  was  finally  withdrawn  and  the 
Republic  of  Cuba  was  again  established. 

Cuckoo,  a  bird  named  from  its  coo  coo  cry, 
found  both  in  the  Old  and  the  New  World. 
The  European  cuckoos  have  the  habit  of 
laying  their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  birds — 
usually  smaller  birds  than  themselves.  But 
this  habit  is  not  common  to  all  members  of  the 


BLACK-BILLED 
CUCKOO 


group, fora  numberof  the  cuckoosmakenests. 
The  two  forms  common  in  the  northeastern 
United  States  are  the 
yellow-billed  and  the 
black-billed  cuckoos, 
birds  with  noticeably 
long  tails,  of  an  olive- 
brown  color  above 
and  white  below. 
They  make  a  loose 
nest  of  twigs,  and  lay 
four  or  five  eggs  of  a 
pale,  greenish  color. 
They  destroy  many 
injurious  caterpillars, 
tand  one  writer  sug- 
'gests  they  might  well 
be  called  the  caterpil- 
lar-bird. They  are  shy  birds,  and  the  call 
of  the  rain-crow, as  they  are  commonly  called, 
is  better  known  than  the  bird  itself.  It  is 
a  series  of  tut-tuts,  followed  by  cl-uck-chucks, 
and  then  a  loud  cow-cow-cow. 
Cu'cumber.  See  CUCUMIS. 
Cu'cumis.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  gourd 
family,  to  which  belong  the  various  forms 
of  muskmelons  and  cucumbers.  It  belongs 
to  the  tropics  and  contains  about  30  species, 
mostly  in  Africa  and  the  East  Indies.  The 
numerous  forms  of  muskmelon,  cantaloupe, 
etc.  are  forms  of  the  C.  Melo  from  southern 
Asia.  The  cucumbers  are  forms  of  C. 
Sativus,  also  from  southern  Asia. 

Cul'berson,  Charles  A.  (1855-),  gover- 
nor of  Texas  and  U.  S.  senator,  born  in 
Alabama,  and  moved  with  his  parents 
in  1858  to  Gilmer,  Texas,  and  later  to 
Jefferson  and  to  Dallas.  After  studying 
law  he  practiced  that  profession,  and  in 
1890  became  attorney-general  of  the  state, 
and  subsequently  governor.  In  1899  he 
was  elected  U.  S.  senator,  and  was  re-elected 
in  1905. 

Culloden  (kul-lod'en),  a  tract  of  moor- 
land, about  five  miles  from  Inverness, 
Scotland.  Here,  April  16,  1746,  was  fought 
a  battle  which  put  an  end  forever  to  the 
hope  of  the  Stuarts  of  regaining  the  English 
throne.  The  Duke  of  Cumberland,  with 
his  artillery  and  disciplined  troops,  was 
more  than  a  match  for  Charles  Edward, 
the  young  Pretender,  whose  little  army 
of  Highlanders  were  worn  out  by  a  night 
march,  and  were  half-starving  and  broken 
by  desertion.  After  a  desperate  and  bloody 
attack,  the  English  stood  firm  and  the  High- 
landers broke  and  fled. 

Cullom,  Shelby  Moore,  United  States 
senator  and  Republican  governor  of  Illinois 
(1876-83),  was  born  in  Wayne  County,  Ky., 
Nov.  22,  1829.  In  1830  he  removed  with 
his  parents  to  Illinois,  and  studied  law  and 
practiced  at  Springfield,  where  he  had  his 
home.  In  1856  he  was  elected  to  the  Illinois 
legislature,  and  in  1860  was  speaker  of  the 
chamber.  From  1865  to  1871  he  repre- 
sented his  district  in  Congress,  when  he 


CULPEPER 


486 


CUNEIFORM 


SHELBY    M.  CULLOM 


re-entered  the  Illinois  legislature  and  once 
more  became  speaker.  In  1876  and  again 
in  1880  he  was 
governor  of  his 
state,  but  resigned 
in  1883  to  become 
United  States  sen- 
ator. He  remain- 
ed in  the  senate 
continuously  after 
that  date,  being  re- 
elected  successive- 
ly in  1889,  1895, 
1901  and  1907. 
Senator  Cullom 
nominated  Grant 
for  the  presidency 
in  1872  and  always 
took  an  active 
part  in  railroad 
legislation.  In  1886  he  was  chairman  of 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  later 
chairman  of  the  committee  on  foreign 
relations;  and  in  1898  was  appointed  one 
of  the  commissioners  to  establish  United 
States  government  in  Hawaii.  He  died 
January  28,  1914. 

Culpeper  or  Colepeper,  Thomas,  Lord, 
colonial  governor  of  Virginia  (1680-83),  was 
born  in  England  in  1664  and  died  there  in 
1719.  In  1669  he  purchased  lands  in  Vir- 
ginia lying  between  the  Potomac  and  the 
Rappahannock,  and  in  1673,  with  Lord 
Arlington,  received  from  King  Charles  II 
a  grant  of  the  whole  territory  of  Virginia. 
Later  on  he  was  appointed  governor  of 
the  province,  and  personally  ruled  there 
between  the  years  1680-83,  and  acted  des- 
potically, annulling  the  privilege  of  appeal 
of  the  colonists  to  the  local  assembly.  In 
1683  he  withdrew  from  his  governorship, 
and  in  violation  of  orders  returned  to 
England,  where  he  was  deprived  of  his 
patent  as  governor  and  prosecuted.  At  his 
death  his  large  estate  in  Virginia  passed  to 
Lady  Fairfax,  his  daughter. 

Cumberland,  Md.,  the  county-seat  of 
Allegany  County,  on  the  north  bank  of 
the  Potomac  at  the  mouth  of  Wills  Creek 
and  the  western  terminus  of  the  Chesapeake 
and  Ohio  Canal.  It  lies  about  equidistant 
from  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  and  Baltimore,  Md., 
and  is  the  seat  of  an  extensive  coal-trade 
from  the  semi-bituminous  coal-seams  of 
the  region.  It  also  has  many  industries, 
including  those  for  the  manufacture  of 
steel,  iron,  glassware,  besides  foundries, 
machine  and  repair  shops,  flour,  cement, 
silk-mills,  etc.  It  has  a  number  of  good 
public  grammar-schools,  a  public  high- 
ochool  and  an  academy.  Population, 
27,000. 

Cumberland  Mountains  are  a  part  of  the 
great  Appalachian  group,  running  along  the 
southwest  border  of  Virginia  and  the  south- 
east border  of  Kentucky,  crossing  Tennessee 
into  the  northeastern  part  of  Alabama.  The 


ridges  rarely  are  over  2,000  feet  high, 
while  the  range  is  about  50  miles  broad. 
It  is  the  southwestern  extension  of  the 
Alleghanies,  and  sometimes  is  called  the 
Cumberland  Mountain-plain. 

Cumberland  River  rises  in  Kentucky, 
flows  into  Tennessee  and,  coming  back  to 
Kentucky,  enters  the  Ohio  after  a  course  of 
about  650  miles.  Nearly  600  miles  to 
Burnside  are  navigable  for  steamboats. 
Near  Williamsburg,  Ky.,  there  is  a  fall  of 
60  feet. 

Cumberland,  R.  I.,  a  town  in  Providence 
County,  six  miles  from  the  city  of  Provi- 
dence. It  manufactures  cotton-goods  and 
iron-wares,  and  has  the  service  of  the  New 
York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad. 
Population,  10,107. 

Cumberland  Road,  an  early  highway, 
constructed  by  the  national  government  to 
connect  Cumberland,  Md.,  on  the  Potomac, 
with  the  Ohio  River,  an  undertaking  of 
much  importance  in  opening  up  the  west 
and  southwest  to  the  east  before  the  era 
of  railways.  The  project  was  begun  about 
1806,  and  was  completed  as  far  as  Illinois 
about  1838,  at  a  total  cost  to  the  federal 
government  of  close  upon  $7,000,000.  Un- 
der the  name  of  the  Great  National  Pike 
the  road  was  held  under  national  control; 
but  in  1856  it  was  turned  over  to  the 
several  states  through  which  it  passed.  In 
his  day  Henry  Clay  was  influential  in  ob- 
taining the  necessary  sums  from  the  nation 
to  construct  the  road. 

Cuneiform  (ku-ne'i-jorwi) ,  a  form  of  writ- 
ing in  which  the  parts  comprising  it  are  like  a 
wedge  or  arrow-head.  It  was  used  by  the 
ancient  peoples  of  Akkad,  Babylonia,  As- 
syria, Armenia,  Elam  and  Persia,  and  was 
cut  upon  stone,  bronze,  iron,  glass  and  clay 
in  the  shape  usually  of  columns,  bricks 
or  cylinders.  It  was  used  from  about  3800 
B.  C.  until  after  the  era  of  the  birth  of 
Christ.  The  cuneiform  signs  were  first 
pictures  of  objects,  a  circle,  for  example, 
standing  for  the  sun;  but  little  by  little 
these  signs  became  so  changed  that  there 
was  no  resemblance  to  the  object  it  stood 
for.  For  1,600  years  after  the  writing 
ceased  to  be  used,  its  meaning  was  wholly 
lost  sight  of,  nor  for  a  long  time  was  it 
known  that  it  was  writing  at  all.  One 
so-called  authority  deemed  the  writings 
only  the  idle  fancies  of  the  architect,  who 
had  tried  to  see  how  many  arrowheads  and 
other  strokes  could  be  cut  on  a  brick. 
Another  supposed  them  the  work  of  worms. 
A  third  thought  them  charms,  which,  if 
they  could  be  read,  would  open  huge  vaults 
of  gold  and  pearls.  A  fourth  great  scholar 
held  that  they  were  in  the  unknown  lan- 
guage by  which  the  Almighty  had  talked 
to  Adam.  The  translating  of  these  wedges 
is  a  triumph,  by  the  side  of  which  the  reading 
of  a  modern  cipher  is  child-pky.  Many 
scholars  have  gained  name  and  fame  by 


CUPID 


487 


CURRAN 


merely  spelling  out  a  few  letters.  These 
inscriptions  are  found  to  be  mostly  histories 
of  reigns.  For  example,  the  great  Behistun 
inscription  gives  an  account  of  the  reign 
of  Darius  Hystaspes,  king  of  Persia,  enumer- 
ating lists  of  his  ancestors,  a  description 
of  the  extent  of  his  power,  the  main  events 
of  his  reign,  the  palaces  he  built  and  his 
prayers.  Cuneiform  inscriptions  are  of  the 
first  importance  in  the  light  they  throw  on 
those  great  early  eastern  empires  and  on 
facts  mentioned  and  referred  to  in  the  Bible. 

Cu'pid,  called  also  Amor,  the  Latin  name 
for  the  Greek  god  Eros,  is  the  god  of  love 
and  the  son  of  Venus.  He  appears  as  a  boy, 
playful  and  mischievous,  with  bow  and 
arrow,  and  sometimes  with  torch,  quiver  and 
wings.  His  eyes  are  often  covered  so  that  he 
shoots  blindly.  His  darts  were  said  to 
pierce  the  fish  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea, 
the  birds  in  the  air  and  even  the  gods  in 
Olympus.  Praxiteles'  statue  of  Cupid  is 
famous  as  a  representation  of  the  god. 

Cu'pule  (in  plants) ,  the  peculiar  involucre 
which  invests  the  nuts  of  the  oak,  beech, 
chestnut,  etc.  The  bracts  of  the  involucre 
coalesce,  and  in  the  acorn  form  a  cup-like 
structure.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  cup- 
hke  structures  which  appear  on  the  bodies 
of  certain  liverworts,  as  Marchantia,  and 
which  contain  the  peculiar  reproductive 
bodies  called  gemmas. 

Curacao  (kffd-ra-so')  is  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  Dutch  West  Indies.  It  is 
situated  about  40  miles  from  Venezuela,  and 
is  about  40  miles  long  by  10  broad,  covering 
an  area  of  210  square  miles.  The  chief 
product  is  salt.  From  the  peel  of  the  Cura- 
cao orange  is  made,  in  Holland,  the  Curacao 
liqueur.  The  capital,  Willemstad,  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  government  of  the 
Dutch  West  Indies,  including  besides  Cu- 
racao, Aruba,  Bonaire,  St.  Eustache,  Saba 
and  the  Dutch  part  of  St.  Martin,  with  a 
population  of  53,486.  The  trade  is  mainly 
with  the  United  States,  and  consists  of 
maize,  beans,  pulse,  salt  and  phosphate 
of  lime,  besides  cattle.  Curacao  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Spaniards  in  1527,  was 
taken  by  the  Dutch  in  1634,  conquered  by 
the  English  in  1798  and  again  in  1806, 
and  restored  to  Holland  in  1814.  Popu- 
lation, 31,587. 

Curculio.     See  AVERIL, 

Curfew.     See  BELL. 

Curie  (ku-re)  Pierre  (1859-1906),  joint  dis- 
coverer with  his  wife,  Madame  Sklodowska 
Curie  (1867),  of  radium.  Mons.  Curie,  son 
of  a  noted  metallurgist  near  Paris,  was 
himself  professor  of  physics  and  chemistry 
at  the  Sorbonne,  and  for  many  years  pur- 
sued laborious  investigations  as  to  the 
tadial  activity  of  metallic  uranium.  In  this 
he  was  substantially  assisted  by  his  talented 
wife,  a  Pole,  who  had  herself  discovered 
a  new  metal,  which  she  named  polonium. 
Jointly,  while  continuing  their  investiga- 


tions, they  succeeded  in  separating  radium 
from  the  barium  extracted  from  several 
tons  of  pitchblende,  and  for  this  they  were 
rewarded  by  the  Royal  Society  of  London, 
which  body  conferred  upon  the  Curies 
(husband  and  wife)  the  Sir  Humphrey 
Davy  gold  medal.  In  April,  1906,  M. 
Curie  was  accidentally  run  over  by  a  wagon 
and  killed  in  the  streets  of  Paris.  The 
discovery  of  the  Curies  is  admittedly  a 
momentous  one,  since  it  is  possible  by  it 
to  explain  some  of  the  grave  riddles  of  the 
universe,  especially  such  as  have  to  do 
with  heat-radiation,  without  combustion 
or  chemical  change  and  without  any  ap- 
preciable increase  in  its  energy. 

Curling,  a  winter  outdoor  game  played 
with  round,  flattened  stones  furnished  with 
a  handle  (the  stones  being  about  36  inches 
in  circumference)  on  an  ice-rink.  It  is  a 
familiar  game  in  Scotland,  and  is  now 
played  more  or  less  extensively  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  The  game  con- 
sists in  playing  four  on  a  side  in  matches 
(each  player  having  two  stones)  from  a  tee 
at  one  end  of  the  rink,  marked  by  a  circle, 
to  a  tee  at  the  far  end,  40  yards  apart — the 
object  being  to  plant  the  stone  near  to  the 
far  tee  and  to  guard  it  there,  as  well  as  to 
drive  out  the  stone  of  an  opponent.  The 
weight  of  stone  and  handle  is  usually  about 
50  pounds;  and  each  player  makes  use  of 
a  broom  to  clean  the  ice  of  any  snow  or 
impeding  obstacles  that  may  prevent  the 
stone  of  a  player,  on  one's  own  side,  reach- 
ing the  tee  or  striking  aside  an  adversary's 
stone.  Around  each  tee  is  a  circle  of  seven 
feet  radius,  called  the  home  or  ring,  while 
behind  the  near  tee  and  beyond  the  far 
one  are  12  feet  spaces,  divided  into  "back- 
scores."  Between  the  two  tees  (114  feet 
apart)  is  a  middle  score  line;  while  at 
either  end  (21  feet  from  each  tee)  is  an 
intervening  line  called  the  hog-score.  Two 
leaders  called  skips  command  the  opposing 
teams  and  have  the  management  of  the 
game,  each  for  his  own  side.  The  highest 
possible  score  in  the  game  is  72.  Curling 
is  a  most  healthful,  manly  game,  and  has 
the  positive  advantage  of  having  little  or 
no  betting  attached  to  it. 

Cur'ran,  John  Philpot,  a  famous  Irish 
orator,  was  born  on  July  24,  1750,  at  New- 
market, Ireland.  He  was  idle  and  reckless, 
both  while  at  school  and  at  Trinity  College. 
Dublin.  While  studying  law  in  London j 
he  had  his  earliest  practice  in  speaking  at 
the  students'  debating  societies.  On  his 
first  rising  in  court,  he  was  so  nervous 
that  he  could  hardly  read  the  few  words  of 
a  legal  form,  and,  when  told  by  the  judge 
to  read  more  clearly,  he  could  not  go  on 
at  all.  But  he  soon  conquered^  this,  and 
his  wit  and  eloquence  made  him  famous 
throughout  Ireland.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  Irish  house  of  commons,  was  sup- 
porter of  Grattan,  and,  though  a  Protestant 


CURRANT 


488 


CURRENCY  LAW 


himself,  had  a  warm  sympathy  with  his 
suffering  Catholic  countrymen,  and  spoke 
eloquently  in  favor  of  the  government's 
changing  the  policy  of  oppression  which 
was  driving  them  into  rebellion.  Curran's 
chief  fame  came  from  his  speeches  in  court 
in  behalf  of  the  leaders  of  the  rebellion  of 
1798,  which  made  him  beloved  by  the 
whole  country.  The  union  of  Ireland  with 
Great  Britain  that  followed,  Curran  opposed 
as  the  destruction  of  his  country.  His 
health  broken,  deserted  by  his  wife,  his 
daughter  dead  of  a  broken  heart  soon  after 
the  execution  of  her  lover,  Robert  Emmet, 
Curran  drudged  through  eight  years  as 
master  of  the  rolls.  His  last  three  years 
were  spent  in  London,  where  his  life  was 
brightened  somewhat  by  the  brilliant  society 
of  Sheridan,  Erskine  and  Thomas  Moore. 
Curran's  little  figure,  ugly  face,  bright, 
black  eyes  and  great  vivacity  easily  marked 
him  out  from  all  others,  and  his  wit,  sharp- 
ness and  brilliant  flow  of  language  have 
hardly  ever  been  equaled.  He  died  Oct. 
14,  1817. 

Cur'rant.  Species  of  the  genus  Ribes, 
which  belongs  to  the  saxifrage  family. 
Associated  with  the  currants  in  the  genus 
are  the  gooseberries.  The  genus  contains 
numerous  species  which  are  widely  scattered, 
many  of  them  being  native  to  North 
America.  Four  species  are  cultivated  in 
American  gardens.  R.  rubrum  includes  the 
red  and  white  varieties,  and  is  found  wild 
in  both  Europe  and  North  America.  R. 
nigrum  is  the  European  black  currant. 
R.  Americanum  (R.  floridum)  is  the  American 
black  currant,  very  similar  to  the  European 
form.  R.  aureum,  the  Missouri  or  Buffalo 
currant  with  spicy,  yellow  flowers,  is  usually 
grown  as  an  ornamental  shrub,  being  native 
to  western  North  America. 

Currency  Law.  President  Wilson,  in  signing 
the  measure  known  as  the  Glass- Owen  Currency 
Bill,  Dec.  23,  1913,  defined  its  purpose:  "To 
furnish  the  machinery  for  free,  elastic  and 
uncontrolled  credits." 

A  "  United  States"  of  Banks.  This  law  brings 
the  banks  of  the  United  States  into  co-operation 
with  the  Government  and  with  one  another  in 
a  system  corresponding  to  that  of  the  Uni~n 
itself — with  its  central  and  state  governments 
and  the  sub-divisions  of  the  latter. 

Need  for  "A  More  Perfect  Union"  Business 
transactions  are  mainly  based,  not  upon  money, 
but  upon  credit.  Credit  is  based  not  alone 
upon  money  and  other  assets  but  upon  con- 
fidence in  "the  business  situation;"  so  that  the 
mere  existence  of  a  banking  federation  to  pro- 
vide for  financial  needs  and  emergencies  not 
only  supplies  those  needs  but  has  a  strong 
tendency  to  prevent  panics  and  depressions. 

The  law  provides  for  broadening  the  basis  of  credits: 
(a)  By  permitting  banks  to  re-discount  at  Federal  Re- 
serve Banks  under  Government  control,  the  paper 
which  they,  themselves,  have  received  as  security  for 


loans ;  (b)  by  including  as  lawful  security  paper  issued 
forindustrial  and  commercial  purposes,  and  paper  mat- 
uring in  six  months,  secured  by  agricultural  product*. 
National  banks,  except  those  in  the  Central  Reserve 
cities  ot  New  York,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis,  may  also 
make  direct  loans  on  five  year  farm  mortgages ;  (c) 
by  allowing  member  banks  to  accept  bills  of  exchange 
at  not  more  than  six  months  sight  drawn  against  im- 
ported or  exported  goods;  (d)  by  permitting  or  com- 
pelling one  Federal  Bank  to  loan  to  another  on  dis- 
counted paper;  (e)  by  providing  for  printing,  by  the 
Government  when  needed,  of  Treasury  Notes  to  be 
issued  by  these  Reserve  Banks  and  secured  by  the 
re-discounted  paper  referred  to  under  (b).  The 
Reserve  Bank  is  also  required  to  hold  in  gold  40%  of 
the  value  of  these  notes  and  they  are  guaranteed  by 
the  Government  and  redeemable  in  gold.  In  times 
of  unusual  demand  for  money,  the  Government  may 
temporarily  suspend  the  gold  reserve  provision. 

The  leading  features  of  the  law,  as  effecting  the 
borrower  and  business  conditions,  may  be  summar- 
ized as  follows: 

The  country  is  divided  into  districts  in  each  of 
which  the  Government  locates  a  Federal  Reserve 
Bank.  All  national  banks  in  each  district  must,  and 
any  state  bank  in  the  district  may,  under  certain 
requirements,  take  stock  in  this  bank  equal  to  6%  of 
capital  and  surplus.  Federal  banks  can  loan  only  to 
their  stockholders  or  "member  banks."  Their  sources 
of  profit  are  interest  on  these  loans  and  profits  on 
dealings  in  designated  securities.  Dividends  are  re- 
stricted to  6%.  earnings  above  6%  (and  surplus  fund 
requirements)  going  into  the  United  States  Treasury. 

A  very  close  control  of  this  banking  federation  is 
vested  in  a  Federal  Reserve  Board  at  Washington, 
consisting  of  seven  members  (one  ot  whom  must  b» 
Secretary,  and  another  Comptroller  of  the  Treasury) 
appointed  by  the  President  with  consent  of  the  Senate. 

Powers :  Of  the  nine  directors  of  each  Federal 
Bank,  the  Board  appoints  three,  one  of  whom  acts 
also  as  the  "Federal  Reserve  Agent"  through  whom 
the  Board  and  the  Federal  Banks  communicate  with 
each  other;  can  remove  directors  of  Federal  Banks; 
in  emergency,  in  its  judgement,  can  suspend  restric- 
tions as  to  Federal  Bank  reserve; decides  as  to  renew- 
al of  loans  by  Federal  Banks  and  rate  of  interest  to 
be  charged  from  time  to  time  on  the  Treasury  notes 
and  on  loans. 

To  prevent  the  over-loaning  of  money  for  undue 
expansion  and  other  dangerous  and  speculative  ven- 
tures there  are,  in  addition  to  the  control  provided 
by  the  close  articulation  ot  the  Government  and  the 
banks,  these  checks  upon  inflation:  (a)  The  fact  that 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  can  withdraw  Govern- 
ment funds  from  a  Federal  Bank,  thus  reducing  the 
basis  of  loans;  (b)  the  fact  that  Member  Banks  must 
pay  interest  on  borrowed  money;  (c)  the  fact  that 
one  Federal  Bank  cannot,  under  penalty  of  a  heavy 
tax,  re-issue  the  Treasury  notes  of  another  Federal 
Bank;  (dj  although  the  Board  may  suspend  the  gold 
reserve  provisions  in  times  of  unusual  demand  for 
money,  a  heavy  tax,  the  amount  of  which  is  in  the 
discretion  of  the  Board,  maybe  imposed  on  the  Treas- 
ury notes  when  the  Reserve  falls  below  the  40%  re- 
quired under  the  law.  (See  BANKS,  MONEY,  MINT.) 


CURTIS 


489 


GUSHING 


Curry,  Jabez  Lamar  Monroe  (1825- 
1903),  American  educator,  lawyer  and  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Lincoln  County,  Georgia. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Confederate  Congress. 
After  the  war  he  became  a  minister,  and  later 
professor  of  law  at  Richmond  College.  For 
four  years  (1881-85),  he  acted  as  general  agent 
of  the  Peabody  Educational  Fund  and  later  was 
chairman  of  the  Educational  Committee  of  the 
Slater  Fund.  From  1 885  to  1 888  he  represented 
the  U.  S.  as  minister  at  Madrid.  His 
published  writings  embrace  a  treatise  on 
Constitutional  Government  -in  Spain,  a 
memoir  of  William  Ewart  Gladstone  and  a 
work,  issued  in  1894,  on  The  Southern 
States  of  the  American  Union.  Besides  a 
History  of  the  Peabody  Educational  Fund, 
he  wrote  a  work  on  Establishment  and 
Disestablishment  in  the  United  States. 

Curtis,  George  Ticknor,  American 
•writer  on  legal  topics,  was  born  at  Water- 
town,  Mass.,  Nov.  28,  1812;  and  died  at 
New  York,  March  28,  1894.  Graduating 
at  Harvard  in  1832,  he  studied  law  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  practicing  first 
at  Boston  and  later  at  New  York.  He 
served  for  some  years  in  the  Massachusetts 
legislature,  but  at  length  devoted  himself 
to  the  writing  of  legal  text-books  and  the 
compilation  of  decisions  in  the  courts  of 
common  law  and  admiralty  in  the  United 
States.  One  of  his  most  notable  works 
is  his  History  of  the  Origin,  Formation  and 
A doption  of  the  Constitution.  Another  useful 
work  is  his  Constitutional  History  of  the 
United  States  from  1792-1864.  He  also 
wrote  lives  of  Daniel  Webster  and  James 
Buchanan. 

Cur 'tis,  George  William,  American 
author,  was  born  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  Feb. 
24,  1824.  As  a  boy  he  spent  a  year  in  New 
York  as  a  clerk,  and  worked  for  some  time 
as  a  farm-hand  in  Massachusetts.  His 
first  book,  Nile  Notes  of  a  Howadji,  was 
written  after  traveling  in  Egypt  and  Syria. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  editors  of  Putnam's 
Monthly,  founded  in  1852.  He  also  was 
a  partner  in  the  undertaking,  though  having 
nothing  to  do  with  the  business  manage- 
ment. When,  in  1859,  the  enterprise  failed, 
Mr.  Curtis  sank  all  his  fortune  in  the  en- 
deavor to  save  the  creditors  from  loss, 
which  he  accomplished  after  six  years' 
struggle.  He  wrote  many  essays,  sketches 
and  novels,  and  was  successful  as  a  lecturer. 
He  is  best  known  as  the  editor  of  Harper's 
Weekly  and  editor  of  the  Easy  Chair  in 
Harper's  Magazine.  Mr.  Curtis  was  promi- 
nent in  politics,  acting  with  the  Republican 
partv  till  1884,  but  afterward  supporting 
the  Democrats.  He  died  on  Staten  Island, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  31,  '802. 

Curtius  (kaor'ie-ob^ >,  Ernst,  was  born 
Sept.  2,  1814,  at  Liibeck,  Germany.  He 
studied  at  Bonn,  Gottingen  and  Berlin 
Universities.  He  made  careful  journeys 


in  Greece,  held  several  university  professor- 
ships, and  soon  became  noted  as  a  writer 
on  Greek  history  and  geography.  His 
great  work,  The  History  of  Greece,  is  in  the 
front  rank  of  histories.  Dr.  Curtius  was, 
late  in  life,  professor  at  the  University  of 
Berlin.  He  died  on  July  12,  1896. 

Curwen,  John  (1816-1880).  Originator 
of  the  Tonic  Sol-fa  method  of  teaching 
singing.  He  was  educated  for  the  min- 
istry at  University  College,  London,  but 
became  author  of  Grammar  of  Vocal 
Music;  A  Tonic  Sol-fa  Primer;  Musical 
Theory;  Musical  Statics;  and  other  useful 
works. 

Cur'zon,  George  Nathaniel,  Lord,  ex- 
viceroy  and  governor-general  of  British  India, 
was  born  at  Kedleston  Hall,  Derbyshire, 
England,  on  Jan.  n,  1859,  and  educated  at 
Eton  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He 
entered  Parliament  in  the  Conservative 
interest  in  1886,  and  was  subsequently 
under-secretary  of  state  for  India  and 
under-secretary  for  foreign  affairs.  Lord 
Curzon  has  traveled  considerably  and  pub- 
lished a  number  of  thoughtful  books.  In 
1895  he  married  the  eldest  daughter  of  Mr. 
L.  Z.  Leiter,  a  Chicago  millionaire.  In  1898 
he  was  appointed  by  the  Marquis  of  Salis- 
bury, Viceroy  of  India,  a  post  which  he  has 
filled  with  high  ability.  His  writings  in- 
clude Russia  in  Central  Asia;  Persia  and 
the  Persian  Question;  and  Problems  of  the 
Far  East.  In  1898  he  was  created  Baron 
Curzon  of  Kedleston.  His  term  of  office 
as  Indian  Viceroy  was  extended.  In  June, 
1905,  difficulties  over  the  new  military 
scheme  in  India  led  to  his  resigning.  The 
resignation  was  withdrawn  upon  solicitation 
of  home-authorities,  but  in  August  con- 
troversy again  reached  an  acute  stage, 
and  Lord  Curzon  finally  relinquished  office. 
He  remained  in  India  to  receive  the  Prince 
and  Princess  of  Wales.  The  London  Times 
spoke  of  his  work  as  "among  the  most 
brilliant  and  strenuous  accomplished  for 
the  empire  in  our  times,"  and  of  his  having 
infused  into  Indian  civil  administration  a 
new  spirit  born  of  his  own  indomitable 
belief  in  reform  and  his  own  unshaken 
determination  to  carry  it  into  practice. 
His  speeches  as  Viceroy  have  been  re- 
printed. Since  his  return  to  England 
he  has  been  returned  from  an  Irish  con- 
stituency to  the  House  of  Lords,  of  which 
body,  as  a  peer,  he  is  already  officially  a 
member. 

Gushing,  Galeb,  American  diplomatist 
and  jurist,  was  born  at  Salisbury,  Mass., 
Jan.  17,  1800;  and  died  at  Newburyport, 
Mass.,  Jan.  2, 1879.  After  graduating  at  Har- 
vard, he  studied  law,  traveled  in  Europe, 
was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  legisla- 
ture, and  finally  became  a  member  of  Con- 
gress. He  served  for  eight  years  in  the  house, 
and  in  1 843-44  was  United  States  commis- 
sioner to  China.  From  1845  t°  l&47  DB 


GUSHING 


490 


CUTLER 


CALEB    GUSHING 


served  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  In  1852 
he  was  appoint- 
ed associate-jus- 
tice of  the  su- 
preme court  of 
Massachusetts, 
and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  be- 
came  United 
States  attorney- 
general.  In  1871- 
72  he  acted  as 
counsel  at  the 
tribunal  of  arbi- 
tration in  Gene- 
va ;  and  from 
1874  to  1877 
was  United 
States  minister  to  Spain.  Mr.  Gushing  pub- 
lished a  number  of  works;  but  his  chief 
publication  was  an  account  of  The  Treaty 
of  Washington  (1873). 

Gushing,  William  Barker,  American 
naval  officer,  whose  distinguished  service 
was  the  destruction  of  the  Confederate 
iron-clad  Albemarle,  was  born  in  Wisconsin 
in  1842;  and  died  at  Washington,  D.  C., 
Dec.  17,  1874.  He  entered  the  Naval 
Academy  in  18^7-,  and  in  1861,  before 
graduating,  he  joined  the  United  States 
navy  and  served  throughout  the  Civil  War. 
His  most  noted  act  occurred  Oct.  27,  1864, 
at  Plymouth,  N.  C.,  when,  with  a  volunteer 
crew  on  a  steam-launch  and  amid  the  hot 
fire  of  Confederate  guns,  he  approached 
the  Confederate  ram,  Albemarle,  and  fired 
a  torpedo  under  her,  which  destroyed  the 
iron-clad,  along  with  his  own  launch. 
Gushing  and  some  of  his  men  swam  ashore 
and  escaped.  For  his  gallantry  the  young 
hero  was  officially  thanked  by  Congress, 
and  in  1872  was  advanced  to  the  rank  of 
commander.  He  died  at  the  national  capi- 
tal two  years  later. 

Cush'man,  Charlotte  Saunders,  an 
American  actress,  was  born  at  Boston  in 
1816.  Her  father  became  bankrupt  and 
she  helped  to  sup- 
p  o  r  t  the  family 
when  only  12  years 
old.  She  sang  in 
concerts  and  made 
her  first  appearance 
in  opera  at  Boston, 
in  1835,  but  soon 
after  that  lost  her 
fine  contralto  voice. 
Not  discouraged,  by 
any  means,  she  at 
once  fitted  herself 
CHARLOTTE  cusHMAN  to  become  an 
actress.  Her  appearance  in  New  York 
as  Lady  Macbeth  was  a  success.  She  after- 
ward acted  with  Maeready,  and  also  gained 
fame  in  England.  Miss  Cushman  died  at 
Boston.  Feb.  8,  1876. 


GENERAL    CUSTER 


Cus'ter,  George  Armstrong,  an  Ameri- 
can general,  was  born  at  New  Rumley,  O., 
Dec.  5,  1839.  He 
graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1861,  and. 
as  second  lieu-\ 
tenant  of  United 
States  c  a  v  a  1  r  y  < 
made  his  first 
charge  at  Manas- 
sas,  driving  a  Con- 
federate force 
across  Muddy 
Creek.  As  assis- 
tant-engineer a ' 
Yorktown,  h 
planned  the  earth- 
works nearest  the 
enemy's  lines.  He 
was  the  first  to  cross  the  river  at  Chicka- 
hominy,  and  while  brigadier-general  of 
cavalry  routed  Hampton's  cavalry  at  Gettys- 
burg, where  he  had  two  horses  shot  under 
him.  In  1864  his  brigade  led  the  column 
in  Sheridan's  raid  toward  Richmond.  He 
was  brevetted  major-general  of  volunteers 
for  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  Cedar  Creek, 
and  was  in  command  of  a  division  at  the 
surrender  of  Appomattox.  His  rash  but 
memorable  campaign  against  the  Sioux 
was  undertaken  early  in  1876.  With  1,100 
men,  including  guides  and  scouts,  he  fol- 
lowed an  Indian  trail  to  Little  Big-Horn 
River.  Here  he  found  a  large  encampment. 
Dividing  his  command,  he  tried  to  ford 
the  stream  three  miles  farther  down.  This 
brought  on  a  battle  in  which  Custer  and 
his  detachment  of  277  troopers  were  sur- 
rounded by  3,000  warriors  and  slain  to  a 
man,  June  25,  1876. 

Cu'ticle  (in  plants).  In  many  plants, 
especially  in  leaves,  the  outer  part  of  the 
walls  of  the  epidermis  becomes  transformed 
into  an  impervious  structure  called  cuticle. 
As  new  wall-material  is  continuously  laid 
down,  the  cuticle  gradually  thickens  and 
may  become  a  very  thick  layer  outside  of 
the  epidermis.  It  is  a  structure  which 
protects  well  against  drought,  cold,  etc., 
and  is  especially  noticeable  in  plants  of 
dry  regions.  The  same  substance  is  also 
developed  on  the  surfaces  of  spores  as  a 
protection. 

Gut'ler,  Manasseh,  an  American  botan- 
ist and  Congregational  minister,  was  born 
at  Killingly,  Conn.,  May  3,  1742.  After 
graduating  at  Yale  in  1765,  he  took  degrees 
in  the  three  professions  of  theology,  law 
and  medicine.  He  then  became  regimental 
and  brigade  chaplain  in  the  Revolutionary 
War.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  botanist, 
and  his  description  of  the  native  flowers 
of  New  .England  was  the  first  botanical 
description  made  in  the  country.  In  wide 
scientific  and  other  learning  Dr.  Cutler 
was  the  foremost  man  in  America  after 
Franklin.  He  is  best  known  for  his  con- 


CUTTLEFISH 


4QI 


CYANOPHYCE^ 


nection  with  the  famous  Ordinance  of  1787. 
A  member  of  the  Ohio  Company,  formed 
by  the  Massachusetts  army-officers  to  settle 
on  Ohio  lands,  the  purchase  of  the  lands 
from  Congress  was  intrusted  to  him.  Some 
5,500,000  acres  were  bought  for  the  Ohio 
Company  and  others,  and  it  was  Dr.  Cutler's 
making  a  condition  of  the  purchase  that  the 
new  settlers  should  take  with  them  their  own 
laws,  that  brought  about  the  passage  of  the 
ordinance  in  its  present  form,  including  the 
anti-slavery  clause.  Dr.  Cutler  also  was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  1801  to  1805. 
He  died  at  Hamilton,  Mass.,  July  28,  1823. 

Cuttlefish,  one  of  the  mollusks,  with  a 
head  surrounded  by  eight  or  ten  arms, 
provided  with  cup-like  suckers.  Two  of 
these  arms  are  longer  than  the  others,  are 
enlarged  on  the  ends  and  are  called  antennae. 
They  are  related  to  the  chambered  nautilus, 
squid,  etc.  They  have  no  shell  externally, 
but  underneath  the  skin  of  the  back  is 
found  a  limy  structure  called  cuttlefish 
bone.  It  is  often  seen  in  bird-cages.  The 
eyes  are  large  and  prominent,  and  there 
is  a  pair  of  horny  jaws  in  the  midst  of  the 
cluster  of  arms.  The  body  is  elliptical  in 
outline,  and  has  fins  running  along  each 
side.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  mantle  that 
also  incloses  a  cavity  for  the  gills,  which 
are  two  in  number.  There  is  a  funnel-like 
tube  opening  into  the  mantle-cavity,  and 
the  animal  can,  by  contracting  muscles, 
cause  the  mantle-cavity  to  close  and  then 
throw  water  out  through  the  funnel  or 
siphon  in  jets.  It  can  swim  forward  by 
the  use  of  the  fins,  and  backward  by  throw- 
ing jets  of  water  through  the  siphon.  These 
animals  also  possess  a  bag  of  inky  fluid,  some 
of  which  can  be  thrown  into  the  water 
when  they  become  alarmed,  and  thus  con- 
ceal their  position  while  they  swim  away. 
Sepia  and  India  ink  were  manufactured 
from  this  ink  of  the  cuttlefish.  They  are 
carnivorous  and  seize  their  prey  by  means 
of  their  arms.  The  common  squid  of  the 
Atlantic  coast  is  closely  related.  It  is 
commonly  used  for  bait  by  the  fishermen. 
The  octopus  or  devilfish  also  is  a  near 
relative.  See  OCTOPUS. 

Cutworm,  caterpillar  of  various  species 
of  owlet  moths,  a  worm  very  destructive 
to  vegetation.  Both  moth  and  worm  are 
nocturnal.  In  the  latter  part  of  summer 
the  female  moth  lays  her  eggs  on  plants 
near  the  ground.  The  larvae  feed  on  tender 
roots  of  grasses  and  various  plants,  and 
by  spring  are  ready  to  attack  early  vegeta- 
tion. During  the  day  they  hide  under  the 
surface,  and  coming  forth  at  night  cut 
off  plants  close  to  or  just  under  the  surface. 
They  are  enemies  of  garden  vegetables, 
wheat,  Indian  corn,  oats  and  cereals  gen- 
erally. Lacking  other  vegetation,  almost 
all  the  numerous  species  adopt  the  climbing 
habit,  ascend  grape-vines,  rose  and  berry- 
bushes  and  trees,  devouring  leaf-buds  and 


eating  of  the  early  fruit.  Hodge  recom- 
mends, as  protection  against  cutworms, 
folding  a  piece  of  stiff  paper  around  a  plant- 
stem  in  such  a  manner  that  the  paper 
reaches  an  inch  into  the  ground  and  two 
or  three  inches  above  the  surface.  To 
save  their  corn-fields,  the  Indians  used  to 
pick  the  cutworms  off  by  hand,  a  method 
still  in  use.  Toads  and  robins  are  effective 
helpers  in  keeping  down  the  grievous  pest. 
Cuvier  (kii'vya'},  Georges,  Baron,  was 
born  Aug.  23,  1769,  at  Montbeliard,  France. 
At  1 8  he  became  tutor  in  a  family  at  Caen, 
Normandy,  and  while  all  France  was  in  the 
throes  of  the  reign  of  terror  he  peaceably 
spent  his  leisure  eagerly  studying  the  fossils 
and  fishes  of  the  neighboring  coast.  He  be- 
came professor  of  comparative  anatomy 
at  the  Jardin  des  Plants,  in  Paris.  Cuvier 
was  the  first  to  compare  the  structure  of 
fossils  with  that  of  animals,  which  we  now 
find.  He  also  founded  the  science  of 
comparative  anatomy.  In  this  field  his 
work  and  success  were  great,  and  he  was 
recognized  in  France  as  the  greatest  of 
living  naturalists.  He  also  held  office  under 
Napoleon  and  Louis  XVIII,  and  became 
a  peer  of  France.  He  died  at  Paris,  May 

i3>   l832- 

Cuyp  (koip),  Albert,  Dutch  painter,  was 
born  at  Dordrecht,  Holland,  in  1605.  His 
pictures  represent  grazing  cattle,  moonlight, 
winter-landscapes,  horse-markets,  hunts, 
camps  and  cavalry-fights;  in  his  paintings 
the  effect  of  golden  sunlight  has  never 
been  surpassed.  While  he  lived,  and  long 
after,  his  paintings  were  little  thought  of, 
but  now  they  rank  high.  He  died  in  1691. 
His  father,  known  as  Old  Cuyp,  and  his 
nephew,  Benjamin,  also  were  well-known 
painters. 

Cyanide-Process,  The.  The  cyanide- 
process  is  one  of  two  ways  in  which  gold 
is  extracted  from  low-grade  ores,  which 
contain  only  from  2  to  10  dollars  per  ton  of 
gold.  The  ore  is  first  crushed  in  stamp- 
mills,  until  it  is  quite  fine ;  it  is  then  treated 
with  a  solution  of  potassic  cyanide,  which 
dissolves  the  gold.  This  liquid  is  then 
treated  with  zinc,  by  which  the  gold  is 
released  and  precipitated.  This  method 
is  chiefly  employed  in  the  Transvaal  gold- 
mines and,  to  a  less 
extent,  in  the  low- 
grade  mines  of  Da- 
kota, Wyoming  and 
other  western 
states. 

Cyanophyceae 
(si'a-n6-fis'$-i) .  One 
of  the  four  plant- 
groups  which  make 
up  the  algas,  com- 
monly called  the 
blue  -  green  algae, 
GLOEOCAPSA,  ONE  OF  and  often  the  green 
THE  CYANOPHYCEAE  slimes.  They  are 


CYCAD 


492 


CYPRESS 


NOSTOC,  ONE  OF  THE 
CYANOPHYCE^E 


the  simplest  of  algae,  the  body  consisting  of 
single  cells  or  chains  and  filaments  of  cells, 
and  are  found  in  fresh  water  and  damp  places 
everywhere.  All  the  forms  show  a  tendency  to 
become  imbedded  in  a  jelly-like  substance 
which  is  merely  the  material  of  their  walls 
transformed  into  mucilage.  In  addition  to 
the  chlorophyll  they  contain  a  blue  pigment, 
which  gives  the  bluish  hue  to  their  bodies. 
Many  of  them  exhibit  the  power  of  motion, 
the  free  fila- 
ments of  oscil- 
laria  moving 
almost  contin- 
ually, while  the 
chains  of  nos- 
toc  at  times 
wriggle  out  of 
the  mass  of 
mucilage  in 
which  they  are  imbedded.  They  have  no 
sexual  reproduction,  multiplying  almost 
exclusively  by  ordinary  cell-division.  In 
many  of  their  characters,  they  closely 
resemble  the  bacteria,  and  by  many 
botanists  they  are  associated  with  them 
in  a  common  group. 

Cy'cads.  A  group  of  plants  which  next 
to  the  conifers  is  the  most  prominent  group 
of  living  gymnosperms.  They  are  con- 
fined to  the  tropics  and  subtropics,  and 
contain  about  80  species,  nearly  equally 
distributed  between  the  oriental  and  occi- 
dental tropics.  The  principal  genus  in 
the  orient  is  Cycas,  and  in  the  Occident 
Zamia,  the  latter  genus  being  represented 
in  southern  Florida.  The  stem  does  not 
branch,  and  in  many  cases  rises  in  a  straight 
column,  as  in  the  palm,  bearing  at  its  sum- 
mit a  rosette  of  very  large  fern-like  leaves. 
In  other  cases  the  stem  is  like  a  great  tuber 
ensheathed  by  the  thick  bases  of  fallen 
leaves,  and  crowned  with  the  rosette  of 
huge  fern-like  leaves.  The  seeds  are  born 
in  cones  or  strobiles,  often  of  great  size, 
but  instead  of  ripening  dry  with  a  hard 
coat,  as  in  the  conifers,  they  become  fleshy 
on  the  outside,  with  a  hard  stone  within, 
and  are  much  like  plums.  The  group  is 
very  fern-like,  and  probably  has  come  from 
the  ferns.  One  of  the  most  recent  and 
important  discoveries  in  connection  with 
the  group  is  that  their  sperms  are  ciliated 
and  can  swim,  as  in  the  ferns.  See  GYM- 
NOSPERMS. 

Cy'clone,  a  phenomenon  of  the  earth's 
atmosphere,  which  is  practically  always 
exhibited  in  any  region  of  low  barometer, 
that  is,  in  any  region  where  the  pressure 
of  the  air  has  fallen  considerably  below 
its  average.  To  understand  the  nature 
of  a  cyclone  the  student  must  bear  in  mind 
the  fact  that  wind  consists  simply  in  the 
transport  of  air  from  regions  of  high  pressure 
to  regions  of  low  pressure.  In  the  northern 
hemisphere  the  air  does  not  rush  directly 
in  toward  the  center  of  a  region  of  low 


pressure,  but  sweeps  around  toward  the 
center  in  more  or  less  of  a  spiral,  so  that 
an  observer,  looking  down  upon  a  center  of 
low  pressure,  would  find  the  wind  traveling 
in  a  direction  opposite  that  of  the  hands  of 
a  watch.  This  vorticose  motion  of  the 
wind  is  called  a  cyclone.  These  cyclones 
are  generally  many  hundreds  of  miles  in 
diameter.  Now  and  then  they  become 
very  small  in  diameter,  and  in  these  cir- 
cumstances they  are  apt  to  be  exceedingly  V 
destructive,  and  are  called  tornadoes.  In 
America  these  cyclones  travel  with  a  speed  ™i 
ranging  from  20  to  40  miles  per  hour.  If 
now  we  consider  a  region  of  high  pressure, 
it  is  evident  that  the  wind  must  in  general 
blow  away  from  the  center  of  this  region. 
These  winds  also  assume  somewhat  of  a 
spiral  form,  as  they  do  in  the  case  of  low- 
pressure  areas:  only  here  the  direction  of 
rotation  is  clockwise.  This  phenomenon  is 
known  as  an  anticyclone.  In  general  the 
anticyclone  is  not  marked  with  the  same 
regularity  of  structure  as  the  cyclone.  In 
the  southern  hemisphere  the  direction  of 
rotation  of  these  two  kinds  of  vortices  is 
exactly  the  opposite  of  that  found  in  the 
northern  hemisphere. 

Cym'bals  are  a  pair  of  thin,  round,  metal 
plates,  with  a  hollow  part  in  the  center,  in 
which  a  leather  strap  is  fastened  for  holding 
the  hand.  When  struck  one  against  the 
other,  a  loud,  harsh  sound  is  made.  They 
were  used  in  ancient  times,  by  the  Greeks, 
in  the  worship  of  the  goddess  Cybele. 
The  best  cymbals  are  made  in  Turkey  and 
China.  Attempts  to  discover  the  com- 
position of  the  metal  have  failed.  The 
cymbals  generally  play  the  same  part  as 
the  bass-drum,  and  in  orchestras  they  are 
played  by  the  same  performer,  one  cymbal 
being  fixed  on  the  drum,  the  other  held  in 
one  hand,  while  the  other  hand  wields  the 
drumstick.  Cymbals  are  mostly  used  in 
military  music. 

Cyme  (sim).  A  flat-topped  cluster  of 
flowers  in  which  the  inner  flowers  bloom 
first.  See  INFLORESCENCE. 

Cy'press.  Species  of  several  genera  of 
conifers.  Chamcecyparis  contains  five  spe- 
cies native  to  North  America  and  Japan. 
They  are  all  handsome  trees,  with  the 
opposite  scale-like  leaves  densely  clothing 
the  branches.  The  best-known  species  are 
the  white  cedar  of  the  eastern  United  States, 
a  tree  70  to  80  feet  high;  the  yellow  cedar 
of  the  northwest  coast,  a  tree  which  reaches 
120  feet  in  height;  and  Lawson's  spruce 
of  the  Pacific  coast,  a  magnificent  tree 
which  sometimes  becomes  over  200  feet 
high.  Cupressus  is  a  genus  containing  about 
ten  species,  found  both  in  North  America 
and  the  orient.  They  resemble  the  species 
of  Chamcecyparis  and  are  very  ornamental 
evergreen  trees,  but  are  hardy  only  in 
California  and  the  gulf-states.  Taxodium 
contains  three  species,  one  in  China,  one 


CYPRUS 


493 


CZAR 


in  Mexico,  the  third  (7*.  distichum),  the 
bald  cypress,  in  southeastern  United  States. 
This  last  species  grows  in  swamps  and 
along  rivers,  is  a  large  tree,  often  reaching 
150  feet  in  height,  and  gives  the  name  to 
the  so-called  cypress-swamps. 

Cy'prus,  an  island  of  the  Mediterranean, 
south  of  Asia  Minor  and  west  of  Syria.  It 
is  about  140  miles  long  and  60  miles  wide, 
and  covers  3,584  square  miles.  There  are 
two  main  ranges  of  mountains;  the  highest 
peak  is  Mt.  Troodes,  6,352  feet  above  the 
sea.  There  are  no  harbors,  rivers  or  lakes 
worthy  of  the  name.  It  is  governed  by 
Great  Britain  by  treaty  (1878)  with  Turkey. 
The  capital  and  seat  of  government  is 
Nicosia  (population,  16,052);  the  two  chief 
ports  are  Larnaca  and  Limasol. 

Cyprus  was  colonized  very  early  by  the 
Phoenicians  and  afterward  by  the  Greeks. 
It  came  under  the  sway  successively  of  the 
Egyptians,  Persians,  Macedonians  and 
Romans.  The  Cypriotes  were  one  of  the 
first  Gentile  people  to  become  Christians, 
and  were  visited  by  St.  Paul.  The  island 
was  afterward  taken  by  the  Saracens;  by 
Richard  I  on  his  way  to  Syria  during  the 
third  crusade;  by  Venice;  and  lastly 
by  the  Turks  in  1570.  In  1878  Cyprus 
was  occupied  by  the  British,  with  the  under- 
standing that  it  is  to  keep  it  until  Batum, 
Kars  and  Erzerum  are  restored  by  Russia 
to  Turkey. 

Cyprus  produces  wheat,  barley,  cotton, 
silk,  flax,  tobacco,  wool,  oranges,  olives, 
grapes,  etc.  and  great  quantities  of  wine. 
Cyprus  was  once  noted  for  its  copper-mines, 
and  copper  got  its  name  from  that  of  the 
island,  but  it  is  only  mined  now  at  one  place. 
The  forests  have  mostly  disappeared.  The 
great  scourges  of  the  country  are  locusts 
and  goats.  The  Cypriotes  are  peaceable, 
orderly  and  easily  ruled.  They  are  healthy 
and  well-grown;  the  men,  as  a  rule,  are 
handsome,  but  the  women  are  rarely  so. 
Modern  Greek  and  Turkish  are  spoken 
on  the  island.  Population,  274,108. 

Cy'rus  the  Great,  founder  of  the  Persian 
empire,  is  first  known  to  us  from  the  record 
on  the  cuneiform,  clay  tablet-and-cylinder, 
which  recounts  his  reign,  his  conquest  and 
capture  of  Astyages,  king  of  Media,  in  549 
B.  C.  At  this  time  Cyrus  was  called  king 
of  Elam.  Year  after  year  was  idly  spent 
by  Nabonidas,  king  of  Babylonia,  at  Terma, 
a  suburb  of  the  capital,  Babylon,  while 
his  son — doubtless  Belshazzar — was  with 
his  army  in  Akkad  (northern  Babylonia). 
In  538  Cyrus,  favored  by  a  revolt  of  the 
tribes  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  advanced  on 
Babylon  from  the  southeast,  and,  after 
giving  battle  to  the  army  of  Akkad,  took 
Sippona  and  lastly  Babylon  "without  fight- 
ing." Cyrus  at  once  originated  a  friendly 
policy  in  religion.  The  nations  who  had 
been  carried  captive  to  Babylon,  along 
with  the  Jews,  were  restored  to  their 


countries  and  allowed  to  take  their  gods 
with  them.  The  empire  of  Croesus  in  Lydia 
had  been  taken  two  years  before  ;  and  Cyrus 
was  now  master  of  all  Asia  from  the  Med- 
iterranean to  the  Hindu-Kush.  The  con- 
queror's hold  over  Asia  Minor  and  Syria 
was  much  strengthened  by  his  friendly 
relations  with  the  Phoenicians  and  the  Jews, 
who  received  the  news  of  his  triumphs 
with  joy.  After  the  great  king  had  widened 
his  dominions  from  the  Arabian  Desert 
and  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  Black  Sea, 
Caucusus  and  Caspian,  he  died  in  529  B.C. 
Cyrus  ranks  high  among  Asiatic  conquerors. 
He  was  a  wise  ruler,  whose  aim  was  to 
soften  by  kindness  the  harsh  rule  which 
his  sword  was  constantly  extending. 

Cy'rus  the  Younger,  the  second  son  of 
the  Persian  king,  Darius  Nothus,  was  born 
in  424  B.  C.  He  headed  a  conspiracy 
against  his  brother  Artaxerxes  Mnemon, 
who  had  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  404 
B.  C.  The  plot  was  discovered,  and  he 
was  sentenced  to  death,  but  afterward 
pardoned  and  even  restored  to  his  office 
as  satrap  of  Asia  Minor.  Here  he  planned 
a  war  against  his  brother,  but  hid  his  pur- 
pose till  the  last.  In  the  spring  of  401  B.  C. 
he  left  Sardis  at  the  head  of  100,000  Asiatic 
and  13,000  Greek  hired  troops,  under  pre- 
tense of  punishing  the  robbers  of  Pisidia. 
Artaxerxes,  warned  of  his  treachery,  was 
ready  to  meet  him.  The  battle  was  fought 
on  the  plains  of  Cunaxa.  Cyrus  was  de- 
feated and  slain,  although  the  Greeks 
fought  with  the  greatest  courage  and  even 
drove  back  that  part  of  the  enemy  in  front 
of  them.  Xenophon's  Anabasis  gives  an 
account  of  the  expedition.  It  showed  that 
the  Persian  empire  was  a  shell,  and  inspired 
Agesilaus  and  Alexander  to  assail  it. 

Cy'toplasm  (in  plants)  ,  the  name  applied 
to  the  general  protoplasm  of  a  cell  as  dis- 
tinct from  the  nucleus.  See  CELL. 

Czar  (zdr)  or  Tsar,  a  title  of  the  ruler, 
the  autocrat  of  all  the  Russias.  The  word 
comes  from  an  old  Slav  word  cesar,  which 
the  Poles  spelled  as  czar,  meaning  king  or 
emperor.  The  Russians  use  the  Latin  word 
imperator  to  express  the  idea  of  emperor. 
The  first  independent  Russian  monarch 
to  use  the  title  was  Ivan  IV,  "the  Terrible," 
who  was  crowned  at  Moscow  in  1547- 
The  Empress  of  Russia  is  styled  the  Czar- 
ina. The  following  have  been  the  czars 
and  emperors  of  Russia,  from  the  era  of 
the  election  of  Michael  Romanoff.  Czar 
Peter  I  was  the  first  ruler  who  adopted, 
in  1721,  the  title  of  emperor. 

HOUSE  OF  ROMANOFF  —  MALB  LINE. 


Michael 1613 

Alexis 1645 

Feodor 1676 


Ivan  and  Peter  I.  ...  i68a 
Peter  1  ............  1689 


.  Catherine  I. 
Peter   II 172? 

HOUSE  OF  ROMANOFF — FEMALE  LIMB. 

Anne 1730  I  Elizabeth 174* 

Ivan  VI 174°  I 


CZECHS 


CZERNY 


HOUSE   OF  ROMANOFF-HOLSTEIN. 


Peter  III 1763 

Catherine  II 1762 


Paul. 


1706 
Alexander  1 1801 


Nicholas  1 1825 

Alexander  II 1855 

Alexander  III 1881 

Nicholas  II 1894 


Czechs,  (cheks)  are  the  most  westerly 
branch  of  the  great  Slavic  family  of  nations. 
In  the  latter  half  of  the  5th  century  A.  D. 
the  Czechs  migrated  from  their  lands  in 
Carpathia,  on  the  upper  Vistula,  to  the 
country  now  known  as  Bohemia.  Here, 
in  Moravia  and  in  other  parts  of  Austria 
the  Czechs  now  number  in  all  some  7,000,000. 

Czernowitz  (cher'no-vits),  a  provincial 
capital  of  Austria,  stands  720  feet  above 
the  sea,  near  the  Pruth  River.  Among 
its  buildings  are  the  palace  of  a  Greek 
archbishop,  his  cathedral,  the  Armenian 
church,  the  synagogue  and  the  Austria 
Monument.  The  university,  founded  in 
1875,  has  41  professors  and  lecturers  and 
about  400  students.  Population,  87,128, 
of  whom  20,000  are  Jews. 

Czerny  (cher'nS),  George,  meaning  Black 
George,  leader  of  the  Servians  in  their 
struggles  for  independence,  was  born  of 
poor  parents,  Dec.  21,  1766,  near  Kragu- 
jevatch,  Servia.  He  was  concerned  in  a 
rebellion  against  the  Turks  in  1787,  and 
afterward  became  a  cattle-dealer.  In  1801 


a  detachment  of  janizaries  broke  into  his 
house  and  plundered  it.  Black  George 
fled,  vowing  vengeance.  He  managed  soon 
to  gather  a  band  of  discontented  fellow- 
countrymen,  and  began  a  sort  of  guerrilla 
warfare  against  the  Turks.  In  course  of 
time  his  little  band  increased  in  numbers, 
and  in  1804  he  was  able  to  capture  the  for- 
tress of  Schabaz.  Later  on  he  besieged 
Belgrade,  and  early  in  1806  routed  the 
Turks  at  the  Rivers  Drina  and  Morava. 
Secretly  aided  by  Russia,  he  captured 
Belgrade  in  December  of  that  year  (1806). 
The  treaty  of  Slobosje  was  extorted  from 
the  Ottomans  two  years  later,  after  which 
Black  George  was  elected  governor  by  the 
people  and  recognized  as  prince  of  Servia 
by  the  sultan.  The  Russians  sustained  the 
prince  in  his  position  till  Napoleon's  in- 
vasion of  Russia  in  1812,  when  he  was 
perforce  left  to  shift  for  himself.  The 
Turks  at  once  recommenced  hostilities. 
They  were  successful,  and  Czerny  was 
cornpelled  to  flee  to  Austria,  where  he 
lived  for  some  time.  Meanwhile  the  free- 
dom of  Servia  had  been  again  secured 
through  the  leadership  of  Milosch  Obreno- 
witch.  When  Czerny  returned,  in  July, 
1817,  he  was  murdered  at  the  instigation 
of  the  new  leader,  Prince  Milosch. 


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